Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Prepared By:
Er. Pramesh Hada
M.E Urban Planning
B.E Civil Engg (Asst. Professor),
Civil Engineering Dept.
Nepal Engineering College
TIMBER
Sources of Timber
Types of Timber
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Physical & Mechanical Properties of Timber
Strength Along & Perpendicular to the grain
Seasoning of Timber
Defects in Wood
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
•Wood Which is useful for engineering or Other
structural Purpose is called “Timber”
•Mostly uses timber – plywood,Posts et. in Formwork in
RCC,RBC etc.
•Both hard as well as soft woods are in use.
TIMBER
• When tree has been cut down and its stem and branches are
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, then it is
known as Rough Timber.
• When roughly converted timber is further sawn and
converted into commercialized the planks,battens, posts etc is
called converted Timber.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
(Planks – board,plyboard,woodboards),
(battens-Partition, Roofing, something to hold)
Mostly Timber used in load bearing
structure is called structural timber
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER/WOOD
Physical Properties :
1. Density
- light — very light: density less than 550 kg/m3, eg.
bamboo
- moderately heavy: density 550 kg/m3 — 750 kg/m3, eg.
deodar
- heavy-very heavy: density greater than 750 kg/m3, eg. Sal
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
2. Bulk Density - Defined as the mass of many particles of the material
divided by the total volume they occupy.
- Depends on air voids present in wood.
3. Moisture Movement
- Wood is liable to shrink or swell with the movement of
moisture. (increase or decrease)
4. Shrinkage :
- Is a Reduction in linear and volumetric dimension due to
drying of moisture.
PROPERTIES OF TIMBER/WOOD
5. Swelling (Increase in size)
- It is increase in linear and volumetric dimension on
absorbing moisture.
6. Sound conductivity
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
- Has high Sound Conductivity
- Sound velocity in wood is greater than others.
7. Thermal Conductivity
- Has very low thermal conductivity.
- so uses for maintain heat temperature in rooms.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
MECHANICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF
TIMBER/WOOD:
As wood is natural material there is different
mechanical properties for different wood
Mechanical properties are governed by soil type,
climate and other factors.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Properties affected by specific gravity, moisture
content, knots and other defects.
Wood can’t resist fire and burnt easily.
Relatively heavier
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Free from all types of defects and disease of timber like
knots.
Planning surface: bright appearance with silky.
Well seasoned
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Engineering Department,nec
Defects of Timber
Sawing
Fibers in timber
ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER: (PU 2011)
availability: source and transportation
strength: light weight and higher strength
easy to handle and planed easily
joining: simple
Repair and Modification: Easy
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
(iii) Used for door and window frames.
iv) Uses for Formwork, scaffolding etc,
iv) It is also used for heavy packing cases such as
machinery and similar stores.
(v) It is used for manufacturing agricultural implements
and tool handles.
(vii) It is used for manufacturing veneers, plywoods,
boards etc.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
SCAFFOLDING
HOUSEPOSTS
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER: (PU2011)
Defects in timber can reduce the life of wood.
Affected by relative humidity, fungi, insects.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Transportation and carriage access
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
2. Rough timber - if a tree is fallen then the timber is
termed as Rough timber.
3. Converted timber - If a tree is modified into desired
size and shape then the timber is termed as Converted
timber.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
construction material.
2. EXOGENOUS TREE
Trees increase in bulk by growing outwards and distinct
consecutive rings are formed in the horizontal section of such
trees.
These rings are called annual rings, because one such ring added
every year, such trees grow bigger in diameter as well.
Life of trees can be find by counting the annual rings.
e.g – Sisham, Sal, Pine etc.
Timber from these suitable for construction purpose
These are further classified as
1. Deciduous tree 2. Coniferous tree
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
EXOGENOUS TREE
Deciduous tree
Are characterized by flat and broad
leaves which fall in autumn season and
new one appear in spring season
HARD WOOD is obtained by such tree
which can be used for superior structural
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
and engineering work.
e.g – Sal, Sisham, Teak etc.
Coniferous tree
Trees are characterized by needle
shaped thin leaves which are evergreen
Trees bear conical shaped fruits and
yield resins ( viscous substance )
SOFT VARIETY OF WOODS are obtained
Used is general constructional purpose
- e. g Pine, deodar etc.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Coniferous Tress
Deciduous Tress
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARD WOOD AND SOFT
WOOD (CHARACTERISTICS)
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Color Dark Light
Strength Strong: tens, comp, shear Strong: direct pull
Weak: shear
Structure Non resinous Resinous and split easily
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
• Pith/Medulla/Core
•Heart wood
•Sap wood
•Cambium Layer
•Inner Bark
•Outer Bark
•Medullary rays (Pit Rays)
STRUCTURE OF A EXOGENEOUS TREE
Pith/ medulla/core:
It is first formed portion of trees.
It consist entirely cellular tissues and nourishes the
plant in young age.
It is found as dead part of the trees incase of
matured trees and decayed.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada,
Annual rings:
Grows extra layer around the circumference of the trees
per year
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
heart wood
Cambium layer:
Thin layer of sap between sap wood and inner bark
Inner bark:
Inner layer covering the cambium layer
Protect cambium layer from any injury
Outer bark:
A protective layer, outer skin covering the trees
Contains cracks and fissures sometimes
Medullary rays: (Pit rays )
Radial fibers extending from pith to cambium layer
Hold the annual rings of heart wood and sap wood together
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Resinous wood
DEFECTS IN TIMBER (PU 08,09,10,12,13)
Defects are either due to growing phases of tree or defect
occurring after cutting trees
Defects reduce the usefulness of wood as aesthetic
appearance as well as strength
1. Heart Shake
- This defect usually occurs in over matured trees due to
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
shrinkage of heart wood
- These cracks are mostly confined to heart wood portion
and diminishing towards outward.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
2. Star Shake
- It is confined in the outward portion
and diminishing towards center.
- It occurs due to frost action and strong
heat of sun.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
- It is the most serious defect because it
tends to separate single log into small
pieces.
3. Radial Shake
- These are radial cracks extending from
centre towards bark .
- These are similar to star shake but are
irregular and numerous.
- It occurs due to drying of sap or
moisture .
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
4. Cup or Ring Shake
- Is the separation of tissue along annual
rings
- If the shake is whole round the annual
ring then it is called ring shake and if it is
half way round the ring then it is called cup
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
shake.
- It is due to unequal seasoning and change
in humidity.
5. Rind Gall
- Is the curved irregular swelling on surface.
- Due to development of new sap layer on
wound left after branches have been
irregularly cut.
- New layer fails to unite with old one and
decay starts from that point
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
6. Knots
- This defect occurs due to formation of annual rings at right
angles to surface and also due to twisting of fibers.
- The roots of the branches yet embedded(Enclosed firmly) by the
tissue and knots are formed
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
- Knots reduce the aesthetic value and effects tensile strength
- Knots may be round or oval shaped
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
7. Twisted fibers
- This defect occurs due to wind velocity constantly turning trees in
one direction only.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
8. End Splits
- Occurs only at the ends of log due to exposed conditions during
seasoning.
- May be prevented by painting the ends of log or covering with
metallic cap.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
9. Druxiness and Foxiness
(Druxiness is a term that is defined as a disease that is
found in timber or wood. It is caused or brought about by
a wound located in the layer known as the cambium
which is attacked by fungus.)
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
(Foxiness is caused due to poor ventilation during storage
or due to over maturity of the tree).
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Thus drying process of timber is known as seasoning of
timber
Moisture must be extracted during seasoning under controlled
conditions as nearly as possible at a uniform rate from all parts
of the timber
If the drying is irregular, the shrinkage of timber will also be
irregular and it will set up internal stresses between the fibers
Moisture content in wood may be:
Free moisture: present in cell cavities (major part)
Bound moisture: present in cell wall ( associated with the body of
timber)
o Free moisture/ water evaporated first and the point at which cell
cavities no longer contain free water is known as fiber saturation point.
DIFFERENT OBJECTIVES OF SEASONING ARE:
Timber to burn readily, if used as fuel
Decreased the weight of timber: easy handling and
low cost
Impart hardness, stiffness, strength, better electrical
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
resistance. (stiffness - hard to bend)
To increase resisting power of timber against the
cause of defects
To maintain the shape and size of the component of
the timber
To make it fit for painting and other treatment
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Air seasoning:
Method used with the timber stacked in the open air. It
requires the following:
Stacked stable and safely with horizontal or vertical spacing
of at least 25 mm.
Ends of boards sealed by using a suitable sealer or cover to
prevent too rapid drying out via the end grain.
The stack raised well clear of the ground, vegetation, etc to
provide good air circulation and free from rising damp, frost,
etc.
Over head cover from effects of direct sunlight and driving
weather.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
AIR SEASONING:
This method is economical one
Takes 2 to 4 years
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Timber can stack either horizontally or vertically
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
AIR SEASONING:
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
AIR SEASONING:
WATER SEASONING
Log of wood is kept completely
immerged in stream of water
Sap, sugar etc are leached out of
wood and replaced by water
Then log is kept out of water
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
after 2 to 4 weeks and placed in
air
Quick process and also remove
organic matters/ materials
Elasticity may reduced and
make timber brittle
Boiling of timber in water is
another rather quick process
Takes long time to be dried but
less than air seasoning
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Wood logs floating on water kept for
seasoning near echo point at lake
Munnar; Kerala ; India
ARTIFICIAL SEASONING:
This is quick process of seasoning and moisture content
can be controlled.
o Popular method of artificial seasoning is KILN
SEASONING.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Reason for carrying artificial seasoning are :
Shrinkage, cracking and warping are minimized
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
relative humidity and air circulation is provided to give
conditions at various stages (moisture contents or
times) of drying the timber to achieve effective drying.
Timber is stacked in chambers, called wood drying
kilns, which are fitted with equipment for manipulation
and control of the temperature and the relative
humidity of the drying air and its circulation rate
through the timber stack.
Provides a means of overcoming the limitations imposed
by erratic(inconsistent) weather conditions.
Almost all commercial timbers of the world are dried in
industrial kilns.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
KILN SEASONING:
Advantages of conventional kiln drying include higher
throughput and better control of the final moisture content.
Conventional kiln and solar drying both enable wood to be
dried to any moisture content regardless of weather
conditions.
For most large-scale drying operations solar and
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
conventional kiln drying are more efficient than air drying.
Compartment-type kilns are most commonly used in timber
companies.
A compartment kiln is filled with a static batch of timber
through which air is circulated. In these types of kiln, the
timber remains stationary. Drying conditions are
successively varied from time to time in such a way that the
kilns provide control over the entire charge of timber being
dried.
Method is well suited to the needs of timber companies,
which have to dry timbers of varied species and thickness.
Engineering Department,nec
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Kilns are used because the process speeds up seasoning
and it can be used to accurately control the moisture
content of the wood.
Wood is carefully stacked inside the brick kiln.
Water is heated and the resulting steam allowed to enter
the kiln, circulating inside and around the wood boards.
Over time, the amount of steam (humidity) is reduced until
the wood has the desired moisture content.
Compartmental kiln
A compartment kiln is a single enclosed container or
building, etc.
Timber is stacked as described above and the whole
stack is seasoned using a program of settings until the
whole stack is reduced to the moisture content
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required.
Progressive:
A progressive kiln has the stack on trolleys that
‘progressively’ travel through chambers that change
the conditions as it travels through the varying
atmospheres. (trolleys - An wheeled vehicle that runs on rails and is
propelled by electricity)
The advantage of this system, although much larger,
has a continuous flow of seasoned timber coming off
line.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
Solar kiln
A solar kiln is a cross between kiln drying and air drying.
These kilns are generally a greenhouse with a high-
temperature fan and either vents or a condensing system.
Solar kilns are slower and variable due to the weather, but
are low cost.
OTHER SEASONING OF TIMBER ARE
Boiling or Steam seasoning
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Submersion in boiling water or the application of steam
speed the drying of wood. This method is said to cause less
shrinkage "...but it is expensive to use, and reduces the
strength and elasticity of the timber."
Chemical or salt seasoning
Salt seasoning is the submersion of wood in a solution of
urea, sodium nitrate or sodium chloride, all of which act as
dehydrating agents. Then the wood is air dried.
Electrical seasoning
Electrical seasoning involves running an electrical current
through the timber causing heat to build up drying the wood.
This method is expensive but is fast and uniform quality.
WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
1. Veneers
Veneering is the primary process of manufacturing
woods.
Prepared by slicing and sawing of wood in thin sheets of
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0.4mm to 6mm.
Are of superior Quality.
Used in manufacturing ply woods, battens, lamin
boards.
WOOD BASED PRODUCTS
2. Plywood
Is a manufactured wood panel from the family of
manufactured boards (such as medium-density
fibreboard (MDF), particle board (chipboard), etc.) made
from thin sheets of wood veneer.
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Prepared by gluing together odd number of veneers with
grain direction of core block at right angle to adjacent
veneer or ply.
Are used in making partition, furniture, ceiling, doors,
paneling wall, Formworks for concrete.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec
PLYWOOD
3. BATTEN BOARD
Is a solid block with core of sawn thin wood
The Thickness of core is about 20mm to 25mm
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Do not crack or split easily
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
IMPREG TIMBER /IMPREGNATED TIMBER
Timber which has been made flame-resistant, fungi-
resistant, or insect-proof by forcing into it under
vacuum or pressure a flame retardant or a fungal or
insect poison.
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Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
COMPREG TIMBER
Processed wood whose cells are impregnated with a resin and
compressed, to reduce shrinking and swelling and to
increase density and strength.
Compreg is a very special wood composite material with
exquisite mechanical properties.
Compreg indicates that it is both impregnated and
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compressed.
Used in applications where long durability, hardness, and
dimensional stability is required e.g. gears, rolls and wear
strips of industrial conveyors, woodworking machine tables.
Regardless of its hardness, it is comparatively easy to
machine, which makes it an excellent choice for
manufacturers of exclusive woodworking products.
Er. Pramesh Hada, Asst. Professor, civil
Engineering Department,nec