Welcome to Linear Controls

Quarterly Training
Introduction to Power Generation
Objectives

 Supply attendees with basic knowledge

of power generators and voltage
regulators and provide the fundamentals
of generator and voltage regulator field
diagnostics.
A Few Words About Safety
 PLEASE REMEMBER SAFETY FIRST. If you
are not sure of the instructions or procedures,
seek qualified help before continuing.
 Before any service work is done, disconnect
all power sources and, where appropriate, lock
out all controls to prevent an unexpected start-
up of the generator set. Proper grounding in
compliance with local and national electrical
codes must be provided. These safety
precautions are necessary to prevent potential
serious personal injury, or even death.
A Few Words About Safety
A Few Words About Safety
 Whenever the generator is running, always assume and proceed
as if voltage is present. Residual voltage is present at the
generator leads and at the regulator panel connections, even with
the regulator fuse removed. Caution must be observed.
Otherwise, serious personal injury or death can result.
 Whenever solvents, cleaners, or flammable liquids are present,
adequate ventilation must be available to avoid fire, explosion,
and health hazards. Always avoid breathing vapors and use
suitable personal protective equipment to prevent personal
injuries (such as eyes, face, and hand protection).
 Repairs should only be attempted by qualified, trained people.
Each installation will create its own set of circumstances. No
manual can cover every possible situation.
Generator Basics
 In 1831 a scientific discovery was made which is
considered one of the most important findings in
scientific history. Mr. Michael Faraday discovered that
if a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an
electrical voltage is generated. The magnitude of the
induced voltage is directly proportional to the rate of
change and the strength of the magnetic field. This
natural phenomenon is identified as generator action
and the law by which it is governed, is called
Faraday’s Law of Electro Magnetic Induction. We
make use of Faraday’s law of generator action by
building a rotating electrical mass whose purpose is to
change mechanical energy into an electrical
alternating current.
Generator Basics
 There are many different
types of generators: DC,
Induction, Synchronous,
etc. Each type has its
own unique application,
but all utilize the same
basic principles of
generator action. In this
discussion we are most
concerned with
synchronous machines,
their properties,
characteristics, and
performance.
Components
Components
 A synchronous machine
consists of a stationary
armature winding with many
coils connected together to
obtain a desired generator
terminal voltage. The
armature winding is placed
into a slotted laminated steel
core, with good magnetic
properties. The number of
slots is generally based upon
a symmetrical polyphase
winding where the coils of the
windings are displaced by
120° electrical degrees.
Components
 A synchronous machine also consists of a rotor, which
is a revolving field. Its function is to produce magnetic
lines of force whose flux lines cut and induce an EMF
(electromagnetic field) into the coils of the stator. The
revolving field is essentially an even set of laminated
pole cores with coils of wires embedded around the
poles to create an exciting field. A DC current is fed
into the revolving field by means of slip rings from a
brush type rotary or static exciter, or more commonly
today, a directly coupled rotating brushless exciter.
The revolving field is designed for standard DC
voltages of 63, 125, 250, and on very large machines
375 volts.
Electrical Flow with PMG
Electrical Flow with PMG
 The flow begins with PMG.
1. When rotating, the magnetic fields from the PMG rotor induces
an A/C voltage into the PMG stator which flows to the voltage
regulator.
2. The voltage regulator converts the A/C voltage to a D/C voltage
which flows to the exciter stator.
3. The magnetic fields of the exciter stator induces an A/C voltage
into the exciter armature with flows to the rectifier.
4. The rectifier converts the A/C to a D/C voltage that flows to the
main rotor.
5. The magnetic fields of the main rotor induces an A/C voltage
into the main stator that flows out through the output leads.
6. The voltage regulator samples the generator output A/C
voltage and adjusts the D/C voltage output to the exciter stator
to control the generator output voltage.
Electrical Flow without PMG
Electrical Flow without PMG
 Without a PMG the generator relies on the residual magnetism
of the exciter stator to start the flow.
1. The residual magnetism of the exciter stator induces an A/C
voltage into the exciter armature that flows to rectifier.
2. The rectifier converts the A/C voltage to a D/C voltage that
flows to the main rotor.
3. The magnetic fields of the main rotor induces an A/C voltage
into the main stator that flows out through the output leads.
4. The voltage regulator uses the generator output A/C voltage for
its power supply and samples it to adjust the D/C voltage
output to the exciter stator to control the generator output
voltage.
PMG
 PMG stands for
permanent magnet
generator.
 The basic components
of the PMG are the:
1. Rotor which contains
the permanent
magnets.
2. Stator which contains
the field windings and
the output leads.
PMG

 Depending on make
and model of the
generator you are
servicing, the PMG
may look very
different from others.
Advantages of a permanent magnet generator:

 Provides an economical  Provides full exciter

and simple means of power, regardless of
reliable, responsive and alternator voltage, for
stable input power to the motor starting and is a
voltage regulator. separate voltage source
 Enhances manual for use external to the
voltage control generator set, such as a
regulation as the PMG tachometer and relay
provides a more stable options.
power source to the
manual control.
How the PMG Works
 The PMG exciter provides input power to the voltage
regulator on a brushless revolving field generator to
help maintain rated output voltage during sudden load
changes. The PMG is a separate power source for the
voltage regulator. In the event of a sudden load
change due to a motor starting application or even a
sudden short-circuit condition on the generator output,
the PMG will supply rated voltage to the regulator.
This will force the generator into saturation and supply
the necessary output current to start the motor or clear
the fault condition. The generator will produce up to
300% or more short-circuit current during a three-
phase fault condition. This is normally more than
enough current to trip a properly sized circuit breaker.
How the PMG Works
 A revolving field brushless generator obtains excitation
from a direct-connected brushless exciter. The voltage
regulator regulates the generator output voltage by
automatically regulating the DC current fed to the
exciter field. The constant output voltage from the
PMG pilot exciter is fed to the brushless exciter field.
When the generator rotor begins to turn, the PMG
rotating magnetic field produces voltage in the PMG
stationary armature winding. The output voltage from
this PMG armature winding is then used to power the
voltage regulator.
How the PMG Works
 The rotating permanent
magnet field assembly is
mounted on the generator
shaft. As shown in Figure 2,
the PMG armature is
mounted outboard for easy
removal. Typically both the
PMG and the exciter are
mounted in the same frame.
The PMG will provide
constant power to the voltage
regulator through a wide
range of transient conditions.
The only external input
required is rotational energy
from the prime mover.
Rectifiers

 There are many

styles of rectifiers.
 They are typically
made up of the same
components, with
the simple purpose
of converting A/C
voltage to D/C
voltage.
Rectifiers

 Below is an exploded view of a rectifier

How the Rectifier works

 As the induced voltage flows from the exciter armature

(rotor) to the main rotor it must pass through the
rectifier diodes (Normally three standard and three
reverse) causing the A/C voltage to be converted to
pulsating D/C voltage.
How the Rectifier works
 This type of rectifier is
referred to as a full-wave
bridge rectifier.
 Full-wave rectification
 Bottom half of the
wave is flipped and
not clipped
 Yet still is pulsating
DC
 Diode arrangement is
called a “bridge”
 Diodes mounted on a
heat sink
Diode Testing

 Some generators
maybe equipped
with an integrated
rectifier instead of
individual diodes and
plates. The function
and testing is
electrically the same.
Diode Testing
 To check an ordinary silicon diode using a digital
multimeter, put the multimeter selector switch in the
diode check mode. Connect the positive lead of
multimeter to the anode and negative lead to cathode
of the diode. If multimeter displays a voltage between
0.5 to 0.8, we can assume that the diode is healthy.
This is the test for checking the forward conduction
mode of diode. The displayed value is actually the
potential barrier of the silicon diode and its value
ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 volts depending on the
temperature.
 The voltage for a germanium diode test voltage is
slightly lower, between 0.3 – 0.5 volt.
Diode Testing

 Now connect the positive lead of

multimeter to the cathode and negative
lead to the anode. If the multimeter
shows an infinite reading (over range),
we can assume that the diode is healthy.
This is the test for checking the reverse
blocking mode of the diode.
Surge Suppressors

 The surge
suppressor is a type
of varistor, metal
oxide.
 There many shapes
and sizes of varistors
depending on
voltage and current
demands.
How the Surge Suppressor Works

 A surge suppressor is a voltage dependent

variable resistor.
 When disconnected or operating at a normal
voltage level the surge suppressor has a very
high resistance, near infinity.
How the Surge Suppressor Works

 When a surge or spike causes voltage rises above a

predetermined point. The resistance of the suppressor
begins to fall. This is know as clamping voltage.
 As long as the voltage on the line stays above
clamping voltage the suppressor allows current to flow
through it shunting the excess voltage.
Testing Surge Suppressors

 To test a varistor by the book requires

equipment that you will not likely find on
a production platform.
 However there are ways to determine
whether or not the surge suppressor is
the cause of problems in your generator.
Testing Surge Suppressors
 If you disconnect and check the resistance of a surge
suppressor with a digital volt meter and the meter
doesn’t read out off limits. The suppressor is likely
failed (internally shorted).
 If the generator has symptoms that are not spike or
surge related and you suspect a failed suppressor.
Remove the surge suppressor and retest the
generator. If the problem is resolved with the
suppressor removed, replace the suppressor with new
replacement. If the problem still exists with the
suppressor removed reinstall the suppressor continue
with your diagnostics.
Main Rotor Field AC Impedance
Test
 Theory: The main rotor resistance can be
measured with a very accurate meter that is
able to measure low (1 ohm) resistance, but it
is difficult to determine if there are turn-to-turn
shorts in the field pole windings. One shorted
turn would only change a resistance reading
on the order of one half of one percent.
 The AC impedance test measures the
impedance (inductance and resistance) of the
field pole coils. Shorted turns in the field pole
windings change the coil inductance to a much
greater degree than the resistance.
Main Rotor Field AC Impedance
Test
 Step 1: The rotor must be supported
on a nonmagnetic surface such as a
wooden skid. Do not use a steel
table that would create a magnetic
“short circuit” between the poles.
 Step 2: Apply 120 volts AC to
disconnected main rotor leads F1
and F2.
 Step 3: Measure and record voltages
across each pole. Between points
“A” and “B”, “B” and “C”, “C” and “D”,
and “D” and “E”
 Step 4: The voltage readings should
balance within one volt.
 Results: If the AC voltages are not
balanced (30V ± 1V AC with 120V
AC input) across each pole, the
winding has shorted turns and
should be rewound.
Megging Basics
 Insulation resistance is a measurement of the
integrity of the insulating materials that
separate the electrical windings from the
generator’s steel core. This resistance can
degrade over time or due to contaminants
(dust, dirt, oil, grease, and especially
moisture). Most winding failures are due to a
breakdown in the insulation system. In many
cases, low insulation resistance is caused by
moisture collected when the generator is shut
down. The problem can be corrected simply by
drying out the windings.
Megging Basics

 Normally the resistance of the insulation

system is on the order of millions of ohms. It is
measured with a device called a “megger”
which is a megaohm meter (meg is for million)
and a power supply. The power supply voltage
varies, but the most common is 500 volts. A
megger voltage over 500 is not recommended,
except for measuring medium voltage
(2400/4160) stators only.
Megging Basics

 The minimum acceptable value can be

calulated using the following formula.
 Minimum Insulation Resistance = Gen.
Voltage / 1000 + 1
 Example: For a 480 volt generator
480 / 1000 + 1 = 1.48 Megohms
 If the reading is below the recommended
value, the winding must be dried out or
repaired.
Megger Types
 The two commonly use
meggers used in the
production field are the
analog hand crank and
the digital battery
operated.
 This is an example of an
analog hand crank type.
 The hand crank must be
manually rotated to
produce the output
voltage for megging.
Megger Types
 This is an example of a
digital megger.
 They typically resemble
a digital multimeter and
often have some the
same basic functions.
 The output voltage for
megging is produced by
the internal batteries.
Megging – Exciter Stator
1. Disconnect the F1 and F2 leads form the
voltage regulator. Never subject the regulator
to a megger.
2. Connect the F1 and F2 leads together to the
positive megger lead.
3. Connect the negative megger lead to the
generator frame.
4. Take the meg reading and record it.
5. If the reading is below the minimum spec the
exciter stator must be dried or repaired.
Megging- Exciter Rotor

1. Disconnect the exciter rotor winding leads

from the rectifier assembly.
2. Connect all the leads together to the positive
megger lead.
3. Connect the negative megger lead to the
generator frame.
4. Take the meg reading and record it.
5. If the reading is below the minimum spec the
exciter stator must be dried or repaired.
Megging – Main Stator Phase to
Ground
1. Before megging, the ground T0 must be isolated.
Make sure that L1,L2 and L3 are isolated from the
bus and ground, also any external wiring must be
disconnected from the stator leads.
2. Connect the positive megger lead to L1.
3. Connect the negative megger lead to the generator
frame.
4. Take the meg reading and record it.
5. Repeat on L2 and L3.
6. If any of the meg reading are below the minimum
spec the main stator must be dried or repaired.
Megging – Main Stator Phase to
Phase
1. Before megging, each phase ground must be separated and
isolated. Make sure that L1,L2 and L3 are isolated from the bus
and ground, also any external wiring must be disconnected from
the stator leads.
2. Connect the positive megger lead to L1.
3. Connect the negative megger lead to L2.
4. Take the meg reading and record it.
5. Repeat for L1 to L3 and L2 to L3.
6. If any of the meg reading are below the minimum spec the main
stator must be dried or repaired.
 Note: phase to phase megging is not possible on generators that
the grounds are hard wired in generator windings. ie. 4 lead and
10 lead generators.
Megging – PMG Stator
1. Disconnect both PMG leads form the voltage
regulator. Never subject the regulator to a
megger.
2. Connect both leads together to the positive
megger lead.
3. Connect the negative megger lead to the
generator frame.
4. Take the meg reading and record it.
5. If the reading is below the minimum spec the
PMG stator must be dried or repaired.
Exciter Field Flashing
 Restoring residual magnetism/field flashing
 The direct current necessary to magnetize the
revolving field is obtained from the exciter. Upon
starting the generator, current and voltage is induced
into the exciter by the magnetic lines of force set up by
residual magnetism of the exciter field poles. Residual
magnetism of the exciter Field poles may be lost or
weakened by a momentary reversal of the field
connection, a strong neutralizing magnetic field from
any source, or nonoperational for a long time. If the
generator fails to generate voltage after it has come up
to rated speed, it may be necessary to restore residual
magnetism.
Exciter Field Flashing
1. Open the output circuit breaker, and stop the engine.
2. Disconnect the exciter field coil wires F1 at the
terminal F1 and F2 at the terminal F2, and connect the
battery positive lead to the field coil lead F1.
3. Flash the field by momentarily touching the battery
lead to the field coil circuit terminal F2.
4. Disconnect the battery leads.
5. Reconnect the field coil lead F1 to terminal F1, and
reconnect the field coil lead F2 to terminal F2.
6. Start the generator, and check for voltage build up.
Reflash if the generator output voltage does not build
up, or flash with the generator running, the field coil
wires connected to the regulator, and a 3-amp or
larger diode off the positive terminal of the battery.
Exciter Field Flashing
 Do not flash the exciter
with the generator
running with out a diode
between the battery
positive and F1. Voltage
back feed can cause the
battery to explode.
 Do not firmly connect
the negative battery lead
to F2, only momentarily
touch the negative lead
to F2.
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
WYE Connections
Center Tap Connections
 The diagram shows the taps
configured for high volt output.
Typically 480 volts.
 The voltage reading phase to
phase would read 480 vac.
 The voltage reading phase to
ground would read 277 vac.
 By tapping onto T4&T7 or T8&T5
or T9&T6 you would read:
 Phase to phase 240 vac.
 Phase to ground 120 vac.
 By using center taps you can
achieve 240 vac single phase,
120 vac single phase, and 120
vac three phase from a
generator with a 480 vac three
phase output.
Center Tap Connections
 The most common uses of
centers taps are:
 1. Voltage sensing for
regulators, meters and
end devices.
 2. Voltage regulator
supply power and panel
control voltage supply.
 Warning: Since the center
tap is connected before any
current measuring devices
only applications with very
small current loads should be
used with center tapping.
Voltage Regulators
 There are many voltage
regulators available
depending on the
generator requirements.
Most regulators offer the
same basic functions
and connections.
 For this discussion we
will be referencing the
Kato KCR 360 and
Basler SR4.
Voltage Regulators

 The typical voltage

regulator
connections consist
of :
1. Power supply
2. Sensing
3. Exciter output
4. Paralleling circuit
( if equipped)
Voltage Regulator Operation
 The voltage regulator uses an A/C voltage for
it’s power supply. The regulator converts this
A/C voltage to a D/C voltage for the output to
the generator exciter.
 The regulator automatically varies the D/C
voltage output based on A/C voltage inputs to
the sensing circuits from the generator and
amperage inputs to the paralleling circuits( if
equipped ).
 D/C voltage output can be manually varied by
the internal voltage adjust rheostat and/or
external voltage adjust rheostat ( if equipped ).
Voltage Regulator Bench Test

 The Voltage Regulator Bench Test can be

used to test the basic function of a voltage
regulator.
 Most voltage regulator operators manuals
provide bench test instructions.
 Most operators manuals can be down loaded
free of charge via the manufactures website.
 Bench testing can save time and money when
dealing with a suspected failed regulator.
Voltage Regulator Bench Test
(SR4A)
1. Move the wire on the sensing transformer (T1) to the terminal listed below:
 SR4A: Move to 120 V tap.
 SR8A: Move to 240 V tap.
2. Adjust the voltage stability potentiometer (R4) fully counter-clockwise (CCW).
3. Connect the voltage regulator as shown on the next page. The bulb should be 120
V and not more than 300 W. See Note 1 of the drawing for the SR8A.
4. Adjust the voltage adjust potentiometer for maximum resistance.
5. Connect the regulator to the power source. The bulb should flash on momentarily
and then extinguish.
6. Slowly adjust the voltage adjust rheostat toward minimum resistance. The light
bulb should reach full brilliance before minimum resistance is attained. (If the light
does not illuminate, adjust the centering adjustment (R3).
7. At the regulating point, a small change in the voltage adjust potentiometer should
turn the light bulb on or off. Note: If the light stays on, the regulator is
defective.
8. This test may not reveal a stability problem, however, rotating the stability
adjustment (R4) should affect the light's turn on/turn off time.
9. Before reinstalling the voltage regulator into the system, reconnect the sensing
transformer (T1) as it was before performing Step 1.
Voltage Regulator Bench Test
(SR4A)
Voltage Regulator Bench Test
(KCR 360)
 Voltage regulator operational test: Use the following test procedure to determine if
the regulator is basically operational:
1. Connect regulator as shown on the next page.
2. Connect internal wire from terminal E-3 to the 120 volt tap on sensing transformer
T1.
3. Connect jumper across terminals CT1 and CT2.
4. Adjust the external voltage adjust for maximum resistance (complete
counterclockwise position).
5. Connect light bulb across terminals F+ and F- and wires to terminal El, E3, P1 and
P2 as shown in Figure 9.
6. Connect to 120 Vac power source.
7. Turn the external voltage adjust clockwise. Before reaching the maximum
clockwise position the bulb should come on to near full brilliance.
8. At the regulating point a small change in adjustment of the external voltage adjust
rheostat should turn the light on or off. If the light does not come on or stays on at
full brilliance, the regulator is probably defective.
9. Before re-installing in generating system, connect regulator as it was before steps
2, 3, and 4.
Voltage Regulator Bench Test
(KCR 360)
Generator Drying
 Electrical components must be dried before
placing in operation if tests indicate that the
insulation resistance is below a safe value.
 Machines that have been idle for sometime in
unheated and damp locations may have
absorbed moisture. Sudden changes in
temperature can cause condensation or the
generator may have become wet by accident.
Windings should be dried out thoroughly
before being put into service.
Generator Drying

 Space Heaters
 Electric space heaters can be installed inside of the
generator. When energized (from a power source
other than the generator), they will heat and dry the
inside of the generator. If an alternate source of
electricity is not available, enclose the generator
with a covering and insert heating units to raise the
temperature 15–18°F (8–10°C) above the
temperature outside of the enclosure. Leave a hole
at the top of the enclosure to permit the escape of
moisture.
Generator Drying
 Oven
 Place the machine in an oven and bake it at a
temperature not to exceed 194°F (90°C). The
voltage regulator and any electronic component
accessories must be removed from the generator
when using this method.
 Forced Air
 A portable forced air heater can be used by
directing heat into the air intake (conduit box) and
running the generator with no load and without
excitation (this can be accomplished by removing
the regulator fuse). Heat at point of entry should not
exceed 150°F (66°C).
Generator Drying
 “Short Circuit” Method
1. The generator can be dried out quickly and thoroughly by using this method.
2. Disconnect exciter leads F1 and F2 from the regulator.
3. Connect a battery or other DC power source of approximately 20–35 volts to the exciter
leads F1 and F2. An adjustable voltage source is desirable, however a rheostat (rated
approximately 2 amps) in series with the DC power source will work.
4. Short circuit the generator output lead wires to each other (L1 to L2 to L3). If using
jumpers, be sure they are large enough to carry full load amperage.
5. Start the generator and measure the current through the output leads with a clip-on
ammeter.
6. Adjust the voltage source to produce approximately 80% of the rated AC nameplate
amps, but in no case exceed nameplate amps. If an adjustable source is not available
and current is excessive, use a lower DC source voltage or a larger resistor in series with
the source.
7. Running time will be determined by the amount of moisture present in the machine.
Insulation resistance checks should be taken every one to four hours until a fairly
constant value is obtained.
8. After the generator is dry and the insulation resistance is brought up to specifications,
remove the short circuit from the line leads, disconnect the DC source, and reconnect the
F1 and F2 leads at the regulator. Be sure all connections are tight and correct before
attempting to run the generator.
Formulas