SPE/IADC 67698
The Effects of Formation Hardness, Abrasiveness, Heterogeneity and Hole Size on
PDC Bit Performance
Graham Mensa-Wilmot*, GeoDiamond; Martyn J. Fear*, BP
* SPE/IADC Member
Copyright 2001, SPE/IADC Drilling Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference held in
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 27 February–1 March 2001.
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Abstract
Improvements in drilling efficiency and economics are
continuously being achieved with PDC bits, specifically in
medium-hard and non-abrasive formations – normal drilling.
These gains have been aided by advancements in PDC bit
technology, their selection practices and BHA design.
However, PDC bit performance in harsh environments –
hard, abrasive and heterogeneous formations – still lacks
consistency and predictability. The problems associated with
these applications are amplified when large hole sizes
(diameters greater than 12”) are drilled. Performance
qualifiers such as footage, and especially rate of penetration
(ROP), tend to be considerably lower in such instances.
Considering the depths at which small hole sizes (diameters
less than 9”) are usually drilled, the likelihood of such hole
sizes being drilled in harsh environments tends to be very
high. It is evident that huge operational savings will be
achieved if the performances of PDC bits are improved.
This paper will discuss the effects formation hardness,
abrasiveness and heterogeneity have on PDC bit performance.
In addition, it will establish the influences different hole sizes
have on PDC bits, especially in harsh environments. Drilling
efficiency will be discussed in terms of operational
parameters, vibrational behavior, durability equivalency
(DEQ) and lithology differences. An engineered approach to
PDC bit development and selection, that enhances
performance in harsh environments and in large hole sizes,
will be discussed.
Background
Researchers have identified stabilization1,2,3,4, durability5,
directional efficiency6,7,8 and rate of penetration (ROP) as
critical performance qualifiers (PQ) for PDC bits. Although
the contributions of these qualifiers to operational success
have normally been discussed in isolation, it is known that
they exhibit strong dependencies.
The importance of the different PQ’s to PDC bit efficiency
depends on the mechanical properties of the formations being
drilled. Formation drillability9,10 (FD), characterized through
drilling difficulty establishes the effects rock mechanical
properties such as bulk compressibility, abrasivity,
compressive strength and lithological composition have on the
drilling process. Environments become harsh as their drilling
difficulties increase. In some instances, high pore pressures,
and associated higher mud weights, depositional depths and
hole size compound the problems normally associated with
harsh environments.
These different PQs assume diverse roles when it comes to
normal and harsh environment drilling. Most importantly,
ROP’s influence on operational efficiency in normal and harsh
environments can be classified as direct and indirect
respectively. This distinction establishes the groundwork
needed to improve PDC bit performance in the challenging
environments that will be described in this paper.
Introduction
Inaccurate evaluations of PDC bit dull grades have contributed
to the known inefficiencies of these bits in harsh
environments. In addition, inefficient interpretations of
drilling parameters11,12, such as weight on bit (WOB), rotary
speed (RPM), flow rate (Q) and HSI have also contributed to
the performance inconsistencies of these bits.
Failure modes need to be analyzed as functions of formation
hardness, abrasiveness and heterogeneity. Hole size effects
have to be defined and quantified to reflect lithology
influences, bottom hole assembly (BHA) design, drilling
parameters, durability requirements and vibrational behavior.
In addition, the influences of the different PQ’s have to be
quantified as functions of FD. Such an approach will establish
2 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR
the consistency and predictability requirements that are needed
to improve PDC bit performance in harsh environments.
Drilling Efficiency (DE)
In their drilling action, PDC bits are intended to shear the
rock. This rock dislocation mode is more efficient than the
other mechanisms, in terms of the energy required for unit
rock volume removal. However, this benefit is sometimes lost
in the development and application of PDC bits.
For a given rock type, and under similar hydraulic regimes,
different PDC bits display varying ROP responses to
increasing WOB, when RPM is kept constant13. Bit design
features such as cutter size, cutter count, back rake and blade
count influence these responses. In addition, technologies
such as bit profile and cutting structure (cutter layouts) also
have important roles.
At low WOB’s, and depending upon rock hardness, PDC bits
exhibit inefficient scraping rock removal mechanisms. As
WOB increases, these bits transition from scraping to the
highly efficient shearing mode. This situation arises because
unit load per cutter increases and subsequently exceeds the
shear strength threshold of the specific rock.
Cul > σs ---- (1)
Where Cul and σs represent unit load per PDC cutter and shear
strength of rock being drilled respectively.
The behaviors of three 8-½” PDC bits (A, B and C) that were
tested in the laboratory in Carthage limestone, under identical
test conditions, are shown in Figure 1. The tests were
designed to identify the scraping and shearing modes of
drilling. The design characteristics of the bits used are listed
in Table 1. Although WOB was increased linearly from 6 –
18klbs, the ROP responses ware characterized by two distinct
regimes.
Between 6 and approximately 12klbs, Bit A exhibited a
scraping drilling action, which is characterized by a weak
ROP response to increasing WOB. Beyond 12 klbs, the rock
removal action of Bit A transitioned into a shearing process,
which improved its ROP gains with increasing WOB.
Bit B transitioned into a shearing drilling mode at
approximately 9 klbs. However, Bit B’s ROP flattened out
between 9 and 12klbs because of partial balling. As the
testing progressed, Bit B was able to “self-clean” itself,
because of the test formation used (Carthage limestone).
Beyond 15 klbs, and while in the scraping mode, Bit B
showed a stronger ROP response to increasing WOB.
Bit C drilled faster at all WOB values, and transitioned into a
shearing drilling mode at approximately 15 klbs. The three
bits used in the laboratory tests are shown in Figure 2.
SPE/IADC 67698
In addition to causing lower ROP’s, scraping also intensifies
the PDC cutter wear mechanism, especially in hard and/or
abrasive formations. This is due to the unusually high
temperatures that are generated as a result of “cumulative
drilling time” and/or “friction” at the cutter-rock interface.
Figure 3 shows the wear rate curve of a PDC cutter plotted
against depth of cut (DOC) or ROP. Wear rates are more
intense at lower DOC’s (scraping), because of the higher
temperatures that are usually generated. The problems
associated with the scraping process are amplified when large
hole sizes have to be drilled in harsh environments.
Rate of Penetration (ROP)
As a performance qualifier, ROP has a unique effect on
operational efficiency. Although all the PQs exhibit some
form of inter-dependency, ROP’s relationships with the other
PQs - stabilization, durability and directional efficiency - is
peculiar, and merits special analysis.
In normal drilling environments, ROP has a direct influence
on operational efficiency. This is because the relational
dependencies between ROP and the other PQ’s are
intentionally skewed towards ROP, in the development and
operation of a PDC bit. Although durability is always
important for efficient PDC bit performance, the lack of
abrasiveness in such applications places a strong emphasis on
ROP at the expense of durability. While stabilization is also
critical, its importance is usually sacrificed for ROP. The
magnitudes of the impact loads associated with the different
vibration modes are lower in these environments because of
the reduced rock strengths
ROP assumes an indirect influence on operational efficiency
in harsh drilling environments. In such situations, ROP’s
relationship with the other PQ’s must be optimized without
compromise. Stability and durability become critical PQ’s
due to formation hardness, abrasiveness and heterogeneity.
ROP must now be defined and quantified as a function of
stabilization and durability, a requirement that increases in
importance when larger hole sizes have to be drilled.
Harsh Drilling Environments
To understand the effects harsh environments have on PDC bit
performance, the different components of the environment –
hardness, abrasiveness and heterogeneity – will be interpreted
in isolation.
This is necessitated by the drastic differences in dull
characteristics, when PDC bits are used in such environments.
It must be noted that this approach does not assert
exclusiveness of the noted characteristics (hardness,
abrasiveness and heterogeneity) especially in field operations.
Rather, this condition will enable detail analysis and
interpretation of such environments, as well as the evaluation
of hole size effects.
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE
Hard Formations: This group is predominantly made up of,
but not limited to, carbonate bearing (limestone and dolomite)
formations. Evaluation of drilling processes and mechanics
show that PDC bits used in such environments should exhibit
characteristics where the inner region of the bits are more
worn than the outer region. The inner and outer regions of a
bit, as used here, represent the central two-thirds and outer
one-third areas of a bit respectively – as defined by the IADC
dull grading system.
Inner-h > Outer-h --- (2)
The subscript “h” has been used to denote hard formations.
Figure 4 shows a picture of a dull PDC bit that has been used
in a hard limestone bearing formation.
Abrasive Formations: Sandstone and siltstone bearing
formations, which normally have different cementation agents,
make up this group. Grain size distribution, geometry,
depositional conditions and cementation agents establish
varying degrees of abrasiveness. Outer region wear of PDC
bits used in such environments should be higher than that of
the inner region.
Outer-a > Inner-a --- (3)
The subscript “a” has been used to denote abrasive formations.
The dull picture of a PDC bit that has been used in an abrasive
formation is shown in Figure 5.
Heterogeneous Formations: This group is much more
complex, because of the lithological compositions of its
member formations. Although heterogeneity does not
necessarily imply the presence of hard and abrasive
constituents, such will be the assumption for this paper. This
is due to the fact that PDC bit inefficiencies in heterogeneous
formations further deteriorate when the constituents of such
formations are hard and abrasive. In such environments, outer
and inner region wears should be approximately equal.
Outer-t ≈ Inner-t --- (4)
The subscript “t” has been used to denote heterogeneous
formations. Figure 6 shows a dull picture of a PDC bit that
has been used in a heterogeneous formation.
Dull Grades – Expected and Actual
The described dull grades (equations 2, 3 and 4) represent
what PDC bits are expected to look like, in the different harsh
environments. In most instances, the actual dulls look
different from what has been described and shown (Figure 7).
Correct dull grade analysis and interpretation is of primary
importance if PDC bit development and performance is to be
improved in harsh environments. Actual dulls (AD) need to
3
be analyzed in terms of their closeness to, or differences from,
the expected dulls (ED).
The developmental philosophy or concept of a PDC bit is said
to be effective when the bit performs as expected in terms of
ROP and footage and has AD characteristics that are close to
the ED of the specific environment.
A PDC bit’s developmental concept is said to be ineffective
when the bit is deficient in ROP and/or footage, and has AD
characteristics that are different from the ED of the particular
environment. Can ineffective bits be improved, and if yes,
what conditions have to be met in order to make this
possible?.
Formation characteristics (hardness, abrasivity and
heterogeneity) and vibrational behavior (axial, torsional,
lateral and whirl) have enormous effects on a PDC bit’s AD.
For effective bits, the closeness of AD to ED is primarily due
to the fact that such bits are developed with technologies that
make them exhibit good stabilization characteristics. When
differences exist between AD and ED, as is the case with
ineffective bits, it is usually caused by the combined effects of
bit vibrations and formation characteristics. In most cases,
vibrational behavior dictates the dull characteristics of
ineffective bits, because they overshadow the formation
effects. For ineffective bits, this condition results in gross
differences between AD and ED for the different
environments previously discussed.
Normally, the required differences between the inner and
outer regions (as specified by ED for the different
environments) are not carefully interpreted and compared to
AD. Not using this vital information causes erroneous
assumptions to be made about a PDC bit’s dull characteristics.
This usually results in the implementation of unnecessary
modifications to the bit, making it more ineffective.
Effective PDC Bits – Explanation for ED
Regardless of bit profile, cutter size and blade count, the
physical appearance of a PDC bit can be broken down into
three main sections – central portion, nose area and
shoulder/gage region (Figure 8).
The central portion (CP) starts from the bit’s geometric axis
and ends at the cone-nose transition. Geometric constraints,
and the need to have nozzles in the bit, reduce the relative
blade count, which subsequently causes the cutters to be
sparsely spaced in this section of the bit. Blades extending to
the central portion of the bit are referred to as primary blades.
The nose area (NA) starts from the cone-nose position and
ends at the nose-shoulder transition. Secondary blades, which
do not extend to the central portion of the bit, increase relative
blade count in this area of the bit. Cutter placement tends to
be denser in this area of the bit.
4 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR
The shoulder/gage (SG) region starts from the nose-shoulder
transition and ends at the bit’s gage point. For most bits,
tertiary or additional blades are normally picked up in this
section, which further increases relative blade count and
maximizes cutter placement and diamond volume.
The different sections of a bit, as well as the relative blade
counts, are shown in Figure 9. The ED classifications
established for the different environments (equations 2, 3 and
4) are heavily influenced by a bit’s relative blade counts in the
different zones of the profile.
Hard formations require high WOB to overcome shear
strength thresholds. This condition drastically increases the
loading per cutter. Even for highly stable bits, there are bound
to be instances where BHA elasticity and formation strength
variabilities alter a bit’s dynamic behavior. Although stable
bits handle such situations far more effectively, the higher
loading per cutter, coupled with the lower relative blade
counts in a bit’s CP and NA, induces micro chipping of a
cutter’s diamond table in these locations (Figure 10). As
drilling progresses, the chipped cutters experience accelerated
wear when compared to the cutters in the shoulder/gage area
of the bit (equation 2).
Although tertiary blades increase relative blade counts in a
bit’s SG region, formation abrasivity and heat generation
accelerates cutter wear in this region even for the most stable
bits. In this region, compromised nozzle placement and
orientation (due to relative blade count and other drilling
considerations) makes fluid distribution for cutter cooling
inefficient, which further complicates the cutter wear situation.
As wear flats increase on PDC cutters, abrasive formations
tend to respond positively to increasing RPM, when compared
to hard and carbonate bearing formations. As such, this
parameter is subsequently used to either maintain or improve
ROP in abrasive formations. However, increasing RPM in
abrasive environments tends to escalate the rate of wear flat
generation (equation 3).
In heterogeneous formations, the conditions described
independently above, for hard as well as abrasive formations,
are both experienced even by effective bits. Although the
inner and outer wears are expected to be close in value
(equation 4), variations are sometimes observed based on
geological influences. To establish the absence of vibrational
influences in such cases, AD should be compared immediately
to the lithological make up of the formations drilled. Presently,
there are several rock strength analytical tools and processes
that can be easily used for this purpose.
When inner wear is higher than the outer (equation 2), the
formation is expected to be much harder than it is abrasive.
The reverse should be true when the outer wear is higher than
the inner wear (equation 3). The above statements, if
confirmed, will prove that bit vibrations had no influence on
SPE/IADC 67698
the dull condition of a bit that has been used in a
heterogeneous formation. The observed differences between
AD and ED should then be accounted for in the next products
to be developed or selected for the drilling program.
Ineffective PDC Bits – Current Problems and Limitations
Current processes that are used to “supposedly” improve
ineffective PDC bits, differ in their specificity. However, their
objectives are the same, regardless of the differences in the
drilling environments – more is better. In addition to these
methods being ineffective, and not yielding any real benefits,
they also establish a never-ending “trial and error” cycle.
In hard formations, the current solution has been based on the
addition of more blades and cutters to a PDC bit. This
approach has a primary effect of increasing WOB
requirements, and possibly reversing a bit’s rock dislocation
action from shearing to scraping. In some instances back
rakes are also increased, again to no avail, and with results
similar to that identified for the increased blade and cutter
counts.
In abrasive formations, blade counts are increased in
combination with reductions in cutter size. The increased
blade count sacrifices a PDC bit’s shearing action, and also
compromises hydraulics and cutter cooling efficiencies. The
reduced cutter size also compromises ROP, as well as the
necessary maximization of a bit’s radial and axial diamond
volumes.
Modifications based solely on the changes described in this
section have never improved PDC bit performance, especially
in harsh environments. Rather, they serve to introduce new
problems, which then have to be solved in addition to the one
originally identified – ineffective bit.
Hole Size Effects
When defined and evaluated as functions of depth (casing
program), hole sizes further complicate the problems
discussed in the previous sections.
In similar regions along a bit’s profile, PDC cutters on large
diameter bits see higher unit loads when compared to cutters
on smaller bits, due specifically to WOB differences. The
differences in the unit loads increase with drilling difficulty
(formation drillability and complexity). At the same RPM,
PDC cutters on large diameter bits are subject to higher linear
velocities, especially in the SG region. The heat generated as
a result of this condition accelerates cutter wear, which when
combined with the higher cutter loads, causes premature
failure thus reducing footage and ROP of large diameter PDC
bits.
When mechanical and hydraulic regimes are normalized to bit
size, detailed analysis of different hole sizes drilled in the
same formations reveal “ROP - bit size” dependencies of the
form shown in (Figure 11). These relationships, which the
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE
industry has come to accept as being normal, are characterized
by four distinct sections (A, B, C and D).
Section A: Points 3 and 2, which are associated with 8-½”
and 6-1/8” bit sizes respectively, define this section. This
section has a mild slope (level 1), that causes minimal ROP
loss, in the order of 15 % between the two bit sizes.
Section B: Points 3 and 4, associated with 8-½” and 12-¼”
bits respectively, define this section. The slope in this section
of the diagram is stronger (level 2), and ROP decays in excess
of 40% have normally been observed between the two
defining bit sizes (Table 2).
Section C: Points 4 and 5, which are associated with 12-¼”
and 17-½” bits respectively establish this section. This region
can primarily be seen as an extension of Section B, but with a
much stronger slope (level 3). ROP decays in the range of 40
to 60% are typically associated with the two bit sizes that
make up the extremities of this range.
Section D: This section is defined by points 2 and 1, which
are associated with 6-1/8” and 4-¾” bits respectively. The
region has the most intense slope (level 4), and ROP decays in
excess of 70% have been associated with the bit sizes that
define the section (Table 3).
The existing relationships between PDC bit size and ROP (as
discussed) need to be improved. While the effects of cutter
loading and linear velocities on bit performance are well
known, their influences on the ROP decays must be
diminished. Technologies and processes that reduce the
effects the different slopes have on ROP decay must be
developed. The discussed bit size ranges, ROP differences
and section slopes are charted in Table 4.
It must be stated that the identified bit sizes, that define the
extremities of the different sections, are approximate. As an
example, the ROP behavior of an 8-½” bit, as described in this
paper will be similar to that of a 7-7/8” or 8-¾” size bit.
Drilling Parameters - Ranges and Effects
PDC bit performance is heavily influenced by operational
parameters, such as WOB, RPM and hydraulics (Q and HSI).
However, the different harsh environments that have been
discussed respond differently to these parameters. In addition,
the limitations BHA design and drill string make-up have on
hydraulics planning, as well as vibrations initiation and
possible mitigation, affect bit efficiency.
PDC bits need WOB to transition into shearing drilling modes.
Depending on the formation being drilled, high WOB has
been identified as a source of bit and/or BHA induced axial
and torsional vibrations. In hard formations, it is critical that
bits function effectively at reduced unit cutter loads. This
5
situation will improve the dull conditions of the bits,
especially that of the inner region.
Increased RPM is normally used to dampen torsional or slip
stick behavior. This benefit, which is usually seen at high
RPMs has negative consequences in abrasive formations,
because of the heat that is generated, as a result of the high
linear velocities.
Increases in ROP that are usually observed at high RPMs are
not a result of a bit transitioning into a shearing action.
Rather, they are due to increases in the volume of rock
removed per revolution, independent of the dislocation
mechanism. RPM affects torque behavior and has no effect on
the magnitude of a bit’s reactive torque, when WOB is kept
constant. In abrasive formations, it is important for PDC bits
to function effectively at the lowest RPM needed to establish a
smooth torque response. Dull conditions, especially that of
the outer region, will be improved in such situations.
The requirements identified for hard formations must be
combined with those established for abrasive formations to
improve PDC bit performance in heterogeneous formations.
New Performance Guidelines
As a first step only effective bits must be used, especially in
harsh environments and in large hole size drilling. This
situation will minimize the influence vibrational effects have
on dull grades. Consequently, the characteristics of AD will
become similar to that of ED, because dull conditions will
only depend on formation drillability.
ROP must be evaluated as an indirect PQ. This classification
identifies the use of drilling parameter ranges that do not
excite the bit and/or BHA to vibrate as the most important
operational requirement.
It is not sufficient to just establish closeness in characteristics
between AD and ED. Technologies and processes that reduce
the inner and outer wear of bits without compromising their
required shearing actions must also be developed and
implemented appropriately. These conditions will further
improve PDC bit performance by increasing both ROP and
footage.
PDC bits must transition into shearing rock removal modes at
comparatively reduced WOB (does not imply low WOB), and
also exhibit behaviors devoid of vibrational excitations,
especially torsional and slip stick at low RPMs. These bits
must adequately handle the different vibrational modes that
are associated with this parametric regime, such as lateral
vibrations and bit whirl. Whereas RPM can be increased in
hard non-abrasive formations, without creating detrimental
effects, the same cannot be said of abrasive and heterogeneous
formations.
6 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR
Development Methodology
Product development must address the issues of PDC bit
ineffectiveness, especially in harsh environments.
Conventionally, bit features such as cutter count, blade count
and cutter size have merely been sized up or down through
linear relationships, in instances where different hole sizes
have had to be drilled in the same formations. Such an
approach does not address the effects the different slopes
(levels 1 through 4) that have been identified have on ROP
decay. Secondly, differences in formation drillability, and the
influence this has on dull grades are also not accounted for by
this process. Evidently, these methodologies have not worked,
because they have not improved PDC bit performance, as a
result of the scraping actions they usually induce. PDC bits,
regardless of their size, should always be developed to exhibit
shearing rock removal mechanisms.
Hard Formations: In such environments, the unit load
per cutter on large diameter bits will be higher than that of
small diameter bits. This condition is bound to have adverse
effects on the large diameter bit’s AD, especially in the CP
and NA regions. This anticipated problem must be solved
during the development of the large diameter bit.
Stabilization characteristics, which have been identified as a
direct, and important PQ must be enhanced in large diameter
bits. It should be noted that the limitations that usually hinder
the effective implementation of bit stabilization technologies
do not exist with large diameter bits, because of space
availability.
Once a good run is established, in a reference hole size, the
following factors must stay at the forefront of PDC bit
development if the negative effects of formation hardness and
hole size are to be minimized.
• Cutter size/geometry
• Stabilization characteristics
• Cutter type
Since cutter size would have been established from the
reference run on the basis of formation drillability, there will
be no reason to change it. At a constant WOB, the stress
regime along the periphery of a cutter is dependent on its size
and/or geometry. Formations of different hardness have
specific responses to the stress profiles generated along a PDC
cutter’s shear length (Figure 12).
Knowing the efficiency of a given cutter size, in terms of its
stress levels and interaction with a given rock type (reference
run) is important and should be initially adhered to. Changing
cutter size usually introduces new unknowns that may
adversely affect achievement of the ROP and footage needed
to make the operation successful.
The stabilization characteristics of the larger bit must be
enhanced with efficient and quantifiable technologies. This
SPE/IADC 67698
objective must be achieved with the absolute minimum blade
count that is needed to implement the stabilization concept.
This requirement is critical because of the need to establish a
shearing rock removal action, which is similar to that seen
with the smaller bit. Because loading per cutter will be
substantially higher in the larger bit, it will be more
susceptible to vibration damage. However, the enhanced
stabilization will minimize the vibration effects, which will
improve its inner region dull grade, thus enhancing ROP and
bit life.
PDC cutter types play a major role in this process. Cutter
development and selection has taken on a role, similar to that
of PDC bits, in terms of their application specificity.
Although the performance characteristics of PDC cutters, such
as impact and abrasion, are all vital, these properties are
presently being skewed for various purposes. Lithology and
application specific cutters14, with biased characteristics are
continuously being developed to enhance performance of PDC
bits in hard formation drilling environments.
Abrasive Formations: In addition to the enhanced
stabilization requirements needed for such environments,
durability also becomes a direct and critical PQ. For these
applications (usually encountered at deeper depths), space and
bit profile effects drastically compromise bit durability.
Recent advancements into the definition and quantification of
PDC bit durability (SPE # 63249) have established the
following facts:
• PDC bit durability does not merely depend on blade
and cutter count.
• Durability depends on the optimization of a bit’s total
diamond volume.
• Durability depends on the maximization of bit’s
radial and axial diamond volumes.
These findings have drastically changed the development and
selection processes of PDC bits. Products developed with the
guidelines listed above continue to set new standards in
abrasive formations. To further improve the performances of
different sized PDC bits in abrasive environments, a new
parameter, durability equivalency (DEQ), has now been
defined.
Once a benchmark performance is established for a given size
bit, DEQ establishes the radial and axial diamond volumes
needed to drill the same formations in a different hole size,
without compromising ROP.
Rv -b ≅ Rv-a --- (5)
Av-b ≅ 1.2*Av-a --- (6)
Rv and Av represent a bit’s axial and radial diamond volumes
respectively. The subscripts “a” and “b” denote the different
hole sizes. Regardless of the reference bit’s size, the subscript
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE 7

“a” must always assigned to the smaller bit. The above The above objectives will be met without any sacrifices to
equations are used for bits lying within ranges that are durability and footage.
governed by distinct “ROP-bit size” slopes.
Conclusions
For any two different bit sizes, Rv comparisons as described
by equation 5, must be established with the minimum • Harsh environments present difficult performance
possible blade count. This requirement, which is dependent challenges for PDC bits
on the size of the reference bit, results in two scenarios: • Performance qualifiers – ROP, Stability and Durability –
exhibit unique dependencies.
First Scenario: When the reference bit is smaller than the • In normal drilling environments, ROP has a direct
new bit, which is to be used in the same environment, blade influence on operational efficiency.
count is usually increased. This modification, which is needed • In harsh environments, ROP must have an indirect
to achieve the conditions of equation 5, could cause the new influence on operational efficiency.
bit to exhibit a scraping behavior. This potential problem is • PDC bits must always be developed to exhibit shearing
addressed through the use of larger cutter sizes, which is made rock removal mechanisms.
possible because of the larger bit’s enhanced stabilization • Operational parameters must be optimized as functions of
characteristics. In addition to helping meet the conditions of formation hardness, abrasivity and heterogeneity.
equation 6, the larger cutters also re-establish a shearing rock • PDC bits must exhibit different dull grade characteristics
removal mechanism. when used in hard, abrasive or heterogeneous formations.
• For effective PDC bits, ED characterization is usually
Second Scenario: When the reference bit is larger than the similar to that of AD.
new bit, equations 5 and 6 tend to be influenced by space • For ineffective PDC bits, ED is normally different from
availability, bit profile and cutter clearances. To achieve the AD. This is due to vibrational effects overshadowing
conditions of DQ, while ensuring that the new bit stays in a formation and/or lithology characteristics.
shearing mode, cutter sizes and blade counts are usually • Hole sizes have different effects on the development and
reduced. performance of PDC bits, especially in harsh
environments.
Similar to the case of hard formation drilling, specialized • Durability equivalencies must always be established
lithology specific cutters continue to be developed, that are between different bit sizes, especially in abrasive and
improving PDC bit efficiency in abrasive environments. heterogeneous formations.
• New engineering processes have been developed that are
Heterogeneous Formations: All the arguments made improving PDC bit performance in harsh environments.
separately for hard and abrasive formations apply to these
environments. It is important to define and quantify the Nomenclature
degrees of hardness and/or abrasiveness, so that PDC bit ROP --- Rate of Penetration
technologies and processes can be skewed accordingly. PDC --- Polycrystalline Diamond Compact
Specialized cutters must also be used to enhance performance PQ --- Performance Qualifier
efficiencies in such environments. FD --- Formation Drillability
WOB --- Weight on Bit
Field Example of New Process RPM --- Revolutions Per Minute
Figure 13 shows two PDC bits, X and Y, of 12-¼” and 16” Q --- Flow Rate
diameters respectively, which were developed with guidelines DEQ --- Durability Equivalency
discussed in this paper and used in similar formations in Hassi HSI --- Hydraulic Horsepower per Sq. inch.
Messaoud, Algeria. Lithologic description showing the degree BHA --- Bottom Hole Assembly
of heterogeneity for the section drilled by both bits is shown in Cul --- Unit Load per Cutter
Figure 14. Bit X was the reference bit for the project. Design σs --- Shear Strength of Formation
criteria and DEQ values for the two bits are shown in Table 5. DOC --- Depth of Cut
Outer-a,h,t --- Outer dull grade of abrasive, hard and
Performance summary for the two bits is presented in Table 6. heterogeneous formations
As can be seen, the new process established a shallower ROP Inner-a,h,t --- Inner dull grade of abrasive, hard and
decay between the two bit sizes (lower than that discussed for heterogeneous formations
the two sizes in Figure 11). Both bits have subsequently been AD --- Actual dull grade of PDC bit
modified to achieve the following improvements. ED --- Expected dull grade of PDC bit
CP --- Central Portion of bit
• Improve ROP of bit X
NA --- Nose Area of bit
• Improve ROP of bit Y
SG --- Shoulder-gage area of bit
• Reduce ROP decay between bits X and Y IADC --- International Association of Drilling Contractors
8 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Bill Calhoun of Chevron
Petroleum Technology Company and Charles Becton of
Schlumberger, Drilling and Measurements for the valuable
contributions they made to this project. To Richard Hill, Peter
Chan, John Simmons, Shane Snippa, Mark Burtonwood, Jeff
Anderson and Barry Struthers all of Smith Bits we say thank
you for your invaluable support, and also for implementing the
concepts described in this paper. A very big and special thank
you goes to Christy Martin of Smith Bits for helping to make
this possible.
References
1. Brett, J. F., Warren, T. M., and Behr, S. M.: “Bit Whirl –
A New Theory of PDC Bit Failure” SPEDE, September
1992.
2. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Alexander, W. L.: “New PDC Bit
Design Reduces Vibrational Problems” Oil and Gas
Journal, May 1995.
3. Weaver, G. E., Clayton, R. I.: “A new PDC Cutting
Structure Improves Stabilization and Extends Application
into Harder Rock Types” SPE/IADC 25734, February
1994.
4. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Krepp, T.: “Innovative Cutting
Structure Improves Stability and Penetration Rate of PDC
Bits Without Compromising Durability” SPE/IADC
39310, March 1998.
5. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Calhoun, B.: “PDC Bit Durability –
Defining the Requirements, Vibration Effects,
Optimization Medium, Drilling Efficiencies and
Influences of Formation Drillability” SPE 63249, October
2000.
Carthage Limestone
WOB vs. ROP
70
60
50
ROP (ft/hr)
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10
WOB (Klbs)
Figure 1 – ROP versus WOB responses of three 8-1/2” PDC bits used in laboratory tests to identify the scraping and
shearing modes of drilling.
SPE/IADC 67698
6. Norris, J. A., Dykstra, M. W., Beuershausen, C. C.,
Fincher, R. W., Ohanian, M. P.: “Development and
Successful Application of Unique Steerable PDC Bits”
SPE/IADC 39308, March 1998.
7. Roberts, T. S.: “Development of a New Concept of
Steerable Bit for Directional Drilling” SPE/IADC 39307,
March 1998
8. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Krepp, T., Stephen, I.: “Dual Torque
Concept Enhances PDC Bit Efficiency in Directional and
Horizontal Drilling Programs” SPE/IADC 52879, March
1999.
9. Pessier, R. C., Fear, M. J.: “Quantifying Common
Drilling Problems with Mechanical Specific Energy and a
Bit Specific Coefficient of Sliding Friction” SPE 24584,
October 1992.
10. Perrin, V. P., Mensa-Wilmot, G., Alexander, W. L.:
“Drilling Index – A New Approach to Bit Performance
Evaluation” SPE/IADC 37595, March 1997.
11. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Calhoun, W. Perrin, V. P.: “
Formation Drillability – Definition, Quantification and
Contributions to Bit Performance Evaluation” SPE/IADC
57558, November 1999.
12. Fear, M. J., Meany, N. C., Evans, J. M.: “An Expert
System for Drill Bit Selection” SPE/IADC 27470,
February 1994.
13. Sinor, L. A., Powers, J. R., Warren, T. M.: “The Effect of
PDC Cutter Density, Back Rake, Size and Speed on
Performance” SPE/IADC 39306, March 1998.
14. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Booth, M., Mottram, A.: “New PDC
Bit Technology and Improved Operational Practices
Saves $1M in Central North Sea Drilling Program”
SPE/IADC 59108, February 2000.
15. Glowka, D. A.: “The Use of Single Cutter Data in the
Analysis of PDC Bit Designs” SPE 15610, October 1986.
Bit C
Bit B
Bit A
15 20 25
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE 9

Bit A Bit B Bit C

Figure 2 – Pictures of 8-1/2” PDC bits (A, B and C) used in laboratory tests.

Scraping Shearing
Wear Rate

Depth of Cut (DOC), ROP

Figure 3 – Graph showing effect of depth of cut (DOC) Figure 4 – Expected dull condition (ED) of PDC bit used
or Penetration rate (ROP) on the wear rate of PDC bits. in hard carbonate bearing (limestone and dolomite)
At lower DOC’s, PDC bits wear faster because they formations. Inner region of bit is worn more than the
exhibit scraping rock removal mechanisms. outer region.
10 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR SPE/IADC 67698

Figure 5 – Expected dull condition (ED) of PDC bit used Figure 7 – Actual dull (AD) condition of PDC bit used in
in abrasive sandstone formation. Outer region wear is harsh environment. Dull characteristics are different
higher than that of the inner region. from that expected of bits used in hard, abrasive or
heterogeneous formations.

Figure 6 – Expected dull condition (ED) of PDC bit used Figure 8 – Generic profile of PDC bit showing locations
in hard and abrasive heterogeneous formations. Inner of central portion (CP), nose area (NA) and
and outer region wear are approximately equal. shoulder/gage regions (SG).
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE 11

3
2 8-1/2”
ROP 4
6-1/8” 12-1/4”

1 5
4-3/4” 17-1/2”

Bit

Figure 9 – Face view of PDC bit showing relative blade Figure 11 – Diagram showing current industry ROP vs.
counts in central portions (CP), nose area (NA) and bit size relationship of PDC bits run in same formations
shoulder/gage (SG) sections. under normalized mechanical and hydraulic conditions.

Ls

Figure 10 – Micro chipping and spalling of PDC cutters Figure 12 – Diagram showing shear length (Ls) of a
located in central portion (CP) and nose area (NA) cutter, when all cutters on a PDC bit are rotated onto a
sections of a bit that has been used in a hard carbonate single radial plane.
bearing formation.
12 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR SPE/IADC 67698

Bit X Bit Y
Figure 13 – Different sized PDC bits used in Hassi Messaoud, application in Algeria. Bit Y, which has a 16” diameter,
was developed to be used in the same formations (highly heterogeneous) that bit X, which has a 12-1/4” diameter, was
being used.

Figure 14 – Lithological section showing heterogeneity of interval drilled by bits X and Y in Hassi Messaoud, Algeria.
 THE EFFECTS OF FORMATION HARDNESS, ABRASIVENESS, HETEROGENEITY
SPE/IADC 67698 AND HOLE SIZE ON PDC BIT PERFORMANCE 13

Profile # Of Blades Cutter Size # of Nozzles # of Cutters

Bit A Short Parabolic 8 13mm 6 60

Bit B Short Parabolic 9 9mm 6 86
Bit C Short Parabolic 9 9mm and 13mm 6 72

Rock Type Carthage Limestone

Rotary Speed 120 rpm
WOB Range 6 - 18klbs
Flow Rate 400 gpm
Mud Weight 9.5 ppg
Mud Type Gel Water
TFA 0.508 sq. inches
Borehole Pressure 1100 psi

Table 1 – Design features and test conditions used to establish scraping and shearing removal mechanisms of bits A, B
and C.

# of Runs Average ROP (f/hr) % Loss in ROP Average Footage % Loss in Footage

8-1/2" PDC Bits 44 29 --- 2059 ---

12-1/4" PDC Bits 23 18 38 1898 8

Table 2 – Average ROP and footage of several 8-1/2” and 12-1/4” PDC bits used in the same field and formations in the
North Sea.

Bit Size Number of Runs Average ROP (ft/hr) Average Footage Average Flow Rate (gpm)

4-3/4" 13 99 3479 152

6-1/8" 39 162 4351 271

Table 3 – Average ROP and footage of 6-1/8” and 4-3/4” PDC bits used in the same formations in the Gulf of Thailand.

Size Range % ROP Loss Section Slopes

8-1/2" to 6-1/8" 15% Level 1

8-1/2" to 12-1/4" 40% Level 2
12-1/4" to 17-1/2" 60% Level 3
6-1/8" to 4-3/4" 70% Level 4

Table 4 – Bit size ranges, ROP differences and section slopes of PDC bits used in the same formations. The data shows
what the industry is presently achieving for different sized bits.
14 G. MENSA-WILMOT, M. FEAR SPE/IADC 67698

Size and Type Profile Classification # of Blades # of Nozzles Cutter Sizes Cutter Count Av Rv DEQ

12-1/4" (Bit X) Short Parabolic Reference 9 9 13 & 16 87 1 1 (-)

16" (Bit Y) Short Parabolic New Size 9 9 16 & 19 90 1.19 0.82 Yes

Table 5 – Design criteria of bits X (12-1/4” diameter) and Y (16” diameter). Characterization of durability equivalency is
also shown.

Size and Type Classification # of Runs Average ROP (ft/hr) % ROP Loss Average Footage Average Flow Rate (gpm)

12-1/4" (Bit X) Reference Size 2 44 5796 767

16" (Bit Y) New Size 2 33.2 24 5717 847

Table 6 – Performance summary of bits X (12-1/4” diameter) and Y (16” diameter). ROP decay is shallower than the
industry standard.