Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Full length article

Predicting user response to sponsored advertising on social media via

the technology acceptance model
Carolyn A. Lin*, Tonghoon Kim
Department of Communication, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269-1295, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Sponsored advertising has generated strong advertising revenues for Facebook in recent years. As
Received 8 November 2015 sponsored ads are built on an interactive platform that could be seen as invasive to user privacy, the
Received in revised form growth of this advertising platform has important implications for consumers, and advertisers alike. As
26 June 2016
little research is available on consumer response to sponsored advertising as an interactive technology
Accepted 22 July 2016
Available online 3 August 2016
innovation, the current study assesses the effects of user perceptions of privacy risk, intrusiveness
concerns and utilities of sponsored advertising on consumer attitudes and purchase intent. Testing a
model derived form the technology acceptance model (TAM), the study found that privacy and intru-
Keywords:
Consumer attitude
siveness concerns are both valid antecedent variables to perceived usefulness but not perceived ease of
Facebook sponsor advertising use of sponsored advertising. While both antecedent variables also influence consumer attitudes toward
Intrusiveness concerns sponsored advertising, only privacy concerns have an impact product purchase intentions. The hy-
Privacy concerns pothesized relations between perceived usefulness, ease of use, attitudes and purchase intentions were
Purchase intent also validated.
Technology acceptance model © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Online social networks are one of the most promising tools in
the digital advertising environment (Brettel et al., 2015; Carlson &
Christopher Lee, 2015). Preliminary research indicates that Face-
book is an effective advertising venue capable of competing with
traditional advertising channels such as television and radio
(Nelson-Field, Riebe, & Sharp, 2013). According to the most recent
Pew data, 65% of American adults are users of social network sites
(Perrin, 2015). As Facebook claimed to have over one billion users in
a single day, this translates to one in seven people in the world
using Facebook for connecting with others daily. It is thus not
surprising that Facebook advertising revenue has been steadily
rising, surpassing an estimated 9 billion dollars in 2015 (Duffett,
2015).
In particular, the sponsored advertising section on Facebook has
provided an important pathway for marketing message dissemi-
nation through setting up direct connections among advertising
consumers, producers and brands (Dehghani & Tumer, 2015).
Sponsored advertising that appears on such social network sites as
Facebook can be customized based on a user's web search history
and hence are more reliable at consumer targeting, relative to
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: carolyn.lin@uconn.edu (C.A. Lin), tonghoon.kim@uconn.edu
(T. Kim).
banner advertisements (Barreto, 2013). Specifically, Facebook fea-
tures tailored advertisements via a dedicated sponsored adver-
tising section or sponsored stories that are integrated into a user's
story line (Cox, 2011; Villiard, & Moreno, 2012). A sponsor could
frame an advertisement as a friend's story in a newsfeed by
uploading the person's real time experience with a product, which
could then enable social network service (SNS) followers to be
involved in more intensive brand experiences, including repeat
story-telling and additional information sharing and exchanges
about the product (Dyrud, 2011).
Early research suggests that Facebook users’ concerns about
privacy have a negative effect on user attitudes toward Facebook
advertising (Taylor et al., 2011); the same is true with perceived
intrusiveness of Facebook advertising. As sponsored advertise-
ments on Facebook are growing in both volume and frequency on
Facebook, potential consumer privacy or intrusiveness concerns
could also increase. However, existing research on consumer pri-
vacy and intrusiveness concerns and how such concerns may in-
fluence their beliefs and attitudes toward Facebook advertising e
and product purchase intentions e is limited. Likewise, theory-
based research on consumer response to Facebook advertising is
still needed.
The current study explores consumer evaluations of Facebook
sponsor advertising, both as a new technology innovation and an

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.027
0747-5632/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
interactive advertising venue. Specifically, this study applies the
technology acceptance model to examine consumer belief, attitude
and intention toward adopting Facebook advertising as an inter-
active technology innovation, with perceived privacy and intru-
siveness of Facebook advertising as the external factor that may
influence consumer acceptance of this interactive advertising
venue. The objective of this research is to help advance a better
understanding of 1) digital advertising innovation adoption, 2)
consumer acceptance of customized advertising, and 3) the influ-
ence of customized advertising on product purchase intent via an
online social network.
1. TAM and innovation adoption
Based on the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Technology
Acceptance Model or TAM was developed to include critical
technology-related factors to explain an individuals' decision-
making process to accept new information system technologies in
an organizational setting (Davis 1989). The model's thesis states
that: 1) external variables will influence perceived ease of use and
usefulness of a technology; 2) perceived ease of use of a technology
will have a direct effect on its perceived usefulness; 3) perceived
usefulness and ease of use will impact attitude toward the tech-
nology; 4) perceived usefulness and attitude toward the technology
is expected to influence its use intention; and 5) technology use
intention, along with perceived technology usefulness, can lead to
its use.
TAM has been utilized to study a wide variety of consumer
technology adoption research. For instance, studies have found that
the audience is more likely to adopt mobile phone technology
(Schejter, 2006; Shin, 2011), Wi-Fi networks (Wei, 2006) or a sat-
ellite radio system (Lin, 2010), when those technologies and the
services they provide are perceived as useful, easy to use and fluid
in their functions. Additional research has indicated that a greater
perception of usefulness and ease of use associated with web ser-
vices, such as online travel sites (Munoz-Leiva, Hernandez-Mendez,
& Sanchez-Fernandez, 2012) and online radio service (Lin, 2009), is
also related to web-service adoption levels.
2. SNS and online advertising
Early research examined the effectiveness of Facebook adver-
tising by considering the interaction between SNS users who
shared information about brands/products or ‘word of mouth’
advertising (e.g., Yang, 2012). Other work has also investigated the
effects of fan-based advertising methods such as the number of
‘Like’ of Facebook ads and the size of the ‘followership’ on Twitter e
on brand image (e.g., Rohm, Kaltcheva, & Milne, 2013; Vukasovic &
Strasek, 2014; Xie & Lee, 2015). Research on consumer response to
sponsored advertising on social media, an emerging interactive
advertising platform, remains scarce.
Scholars have begun to apply the TAM to explain the factors
influencing SNS adoption and uses. For instance, past research in-
dicates that SNS user's perceived usefulness of SNS is influenced by
their perceived ease of SNS use, as perceived ease of SNS use has a
direct impact on attitudes toward SNS use (Shipps & Phillips, 2013).
One of the most popular functions on SNSs is the posting and
sharing of photos with others on one's social media networks. A
study testing the TAM via photo-messaging adoption and use re-
ported that social network activity is a positive predictor of
perceived ease of use, usefulness and use intention of photo-
sharing services; as perceived ease of use and usefulness signifi-
cantly influenced photo-messaging intention, the latter is also a
positive predictor of photo-messaging use frequency (Hunt, Lin, &
Atkin, 2014).
711
Related research on online advertising reveals that intention to
purchase products through an online shopping mall is determined
by attitude toward online shopping malls, which is predicted by
perceived ease of use and usefulness of these virtual venues (Ahn,
Ryu, & Han, 2004). Similarly, the online customer review system
e which can play a critical role in influencing consumer referrals for
online shopping malls e is also valued more highly by users who
have perceived the review system to be more useful and easier to
use (Rese, Schreiber, & Baier, 2014). Likewise, bank customers who
perceive greater utility from an online banking system e and
greater ease of use via the online transaction system e are also
more willing to utilize online baking for financial transactions
(Vatnani & Verma, 2014).
Based on the ability of TAM to explain adoption and uses of
various digital technology innovations, including a wide variety of
online media services and SNS, we propose that the TAM will be a
valid typology to explain the decision-making process of adopting a
social media advertising innovation. In particular, TAM's key com-
ponents e perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use e should
be positively related to Facebook-ads related attitudes and pur-
chase intentions. The following hypotheses are posited to test this
proposition.
H1a. Perceived ease of use will be positively related to perceived
usefulness of Facebook ads.
H1b. Perceived ease of use will be positively related to attitudes
toward Facebook advertising.
H2a. Perceived usefulness of Facebook ads will be positively
related to attitudes toward Facebook advertising.
H2b. Perceived usefulness of Facebook ads will be positively
related to product purchase intentions.
H3. Attitudes toward Facebook advertising will be positively
related to product purchase intentions.
A majority of the studies that applied the TAM literature failed to
include the “external variables” component of the model, which is
the antecedent variable to the variables of perceived ease and use
and usefulness. A recent meta-analysis reported that only 60% of
the 22 articles in the sample (selected from six major journals)
investigated external variables and no clear set of external variables
were tested (Legris, Ingham, & Collerette, 2003). External variables
could include a variety of factors e such as demographic and
system-use experience (e.g., Burton-Jones & Hubona, 2006) as well
as perceived risk and necessary trust associated with system use
(e.g., Gefen, Karahanna, & Straub, 2003a) e that could influence
individual beliefs about adopting a technology system. Another
meta-analysis of 88 TAM studies (King & He, 2006) summarized
and affirmed the empirical evolution of the TAM and its integration
with other theories, including theoretical constructs such as risk
and trust factors.
Even though research integrating privacy risk with the TAM is
limited, available empirical findings generally support the influence
of privacy risk on perceptions about a technology's attributes and
an individual's adoption intention (e.g., Gefen, Karahanna, & Straub,
2003b). For instance, privacy risk was found to be strongly related
to ease of use, perceived usefulness and adoption intention of an e-
commerce transaction system; next to financial risk, privacy was
also the most important risk factor relative to other risk factors
including performance, psychological and social risk (Featherman
& Pavlou, 2003). Moreover, intrusiveness is considered an aspect
of privacy in e-commerce, including email advertising, which is
often considered as “spam” and an irritant by consumers
(Morimoto & Macias, 2009).
The current study intends to test the TAM by integrating
712 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
perceived privacy and intrusiveness concerns associated with
Facebook advertising as external variables to further validate their
role in social media advertising adoption and uses. The following
discussion will review the influence of consumer privacy and
intrusiveness concerns on social media marketing.
3. Privacy risk
Due to the prevalence of consumer concern over online privacy,
scholars have regarded privacy concerns as a negative aspect of
new media development (e.g., Lee, Im, & Taylor, 2008). For instance,
although consumers could hold positive attitudes toward online
banking technology, their concerns regarding the security of online
commerce could deter them from adopting online banking systems
(Dash, Mohanty, Pattnaik, Mohapatra, & Sahoo, 2011). Research has
shown that acceptance of online financial transaction systems,
which enable users to pay for their online purchases, is positively
predicted by perceived privacy protection and perceived security
(Chang & Chang, 2013). Even so, the growth in online purchase
transactions is expected to increase consumer trust in the security
of online payment systems (Vantani & Verma, 2014).
Consumers tend to express privacy concerns when they are
searching for information through online sources in order to review
product advertising or make a purchase of products through online
commerce outlets (Okazaki, Li, & Hirose, 2012). The tailored ad-
vertisements embedded in social media pages e which could
mirror users' online behaviors such as product information
searches or brand information sharing e are seen as impinging on
consumers’ right to privacy (Young & Quan-Haase, 2013). Social
media users are often concerned about exposing the information
that they considered private to online advertising sponsors; these
concerns include their perceived transaction risks in online pur-
chase activities (Okazaki et al., 2012).
As social media sites such as Facebook increase their display of
tailored sponsored ads, consumer concerns about privacy risks and
making online purchases may also rise (Young & Quan-Haase,
2013). Empirical research has yet to fully establish whether con-
sumer privacy concerns are indeed a deterrent for marketers who
utilize social media as their advertising platform. Based on the
preliminary empirical findings, it is reasonable to assume that
privacy concerns could negatively impact Facebook user attitudes
toward sponsored advertisements and their intention to purchase
products featured in those ads as well as their perception of use-
fulness and ease of use associated with these ads. The following
hypotheses are proposed to validate these theoretical assumptions
based on the TAM.
H4a. Privacy concerns will be negatively related to perceived
usefulness of sponsored advertising.
H4b. Privacy concerns will be negatively related to perceived ease
of use of sponsored advertising.
H4c. Privacy concerns will be negatively related to attitudes to-
ward sponsored advertising.
H4d. Privacy concerns will be negatively related to product pur-
chase intentions.
4. Intrusiveness concerns
Intrusiveness is considered an aspect of privacy in e-commerce
(Morimoto & Macias, 2009). When online advertising is tailored for
individual online users, it increases perceptions of intrusiveness
(McCoy, Everard, Polak, & Galletta, 2008; van Doorn & Hoekstra,
2013). Previous studies addressing online marketing venues have
found that customized information on online advertising decreases
the effect of advertising (Saxena & Khanna, 2013), particularly
when users perceive the advertising practice as intrusive to their
online-use activity. Consumer perceptions of ad intrusiveness can
also cause irritation, as triggered by awareness and recognition of
advertising presence. For instance, McCoy et al. (2008) found that
perceived intrusiveness negatively influences consumer attitudes
toward websites visited; negative attitudes then produce negative
outcomes for the marketers that host these websites, including
decreased repeat visits to the websites and referral of the websites
to others.
Other research reveals that consumers have less negative atti-
tudes toward targeted online advertising e even though privacy is a
concern e when websites are perceived to have high utility
(Schumann, von Wangenheim, & Groene, 2014). Moreover, mode of
advertising tends to influence purchase intention, as consumers
showed a more positive attitude toward video ads, relative to still-
image ads (Spalding, Cole, & Fayer, 2009). Additional research
shows that tailored advertising in an SNS environment can
contribute to negative consumer feelings regarding the intrusive-
ness of such advertising, which in turn can decrease purchase in-
tentions (van Doorn & Hoekstra, 2013).
Social media advertising is still in its early phase of develop-
ment, hence the existing literature sheds little light on how
perceived intrusiveness may impact consumer response toward
these social-media driven purchase behaviors. Yet the theoretical
dynamics outlined above e addressing TAM applications to other
interactive digital technology platforms e should help inform our
conceptualization in the SNS environment. In particular, we assume
that intrusiveness concerns will negatively influence perceived
usefulness and perceived ease of use as well as attitudes toward
Facebook advertising and purchase intentions. The following hy-
potheses are postulated to test intrusiveness as an external variable
as well as to validate the empirical relations between intrusiveness
and 1) attitudes and 2) intention discussed above with the TAM
framework.
H5a. Intrusiveness concerns with Facebook advertising will be
negatively related to perceived usefulness of Facebook ads.
H5b. Intrusiveness concerns with Facebook advertising will be
negatively related to perceived ease of use of Facebook ads.
H5c. Intrusiveness concerns will be negatively related to attitudes
toward Facebook advertising.
H5d. Intrusiveness concerns will be negatively related to product
purchase intentions.
By integrating the two major privacy factors that may directly
impact the success of social media as an advertising venue and the
role that other theoretical components of the TAM can play in
influencing consumer acceptance of social media adverting, a
conceptual model is proposed below (see Fig. 1). The interrelations
between the conceptual components show the interrelationships
between model components as follows: 1) perceived intrusiveness
and privacy risk are antecedent variables to perceived ease of use
and usefulness of sponsored advertising; 2) perceived intrusive-
ness, perceived privacy risk, ease of use and usefulness directly
influences attitudes toward sponsored adverting; 3) perceived ease
of use is an antecedent variable to perceived usefulness; and 4)
perceived intrusiveness, perceived privacy risk, perceived useful-
ness and attitudes toward sponsored advertising have a direct ef-
fect on purchase intentions for products marketed through
sponsored advertising.
 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
Fig. 1. Proposed conceptual model.
5. Methods
Study participants were recruited from the undergraduate stu-
dent body of a large northeastern university. College-aged social
media users were said to be more heavily influenced by Facebook
advertising than other age groups, as they tended to be heavy users
of social media (e.g., Taylor et al., 2011). These “digital natives” also
display certain privacy orientations that can influence their use of
social media (e.g., Buzzi & Rossi, 2012; Kurkovsky & Syta, 2010). As
college students are also the user group that regularly shares
product information through online social networks (e.g., Okazaki,
2009), they are a well-suited purposive sample for this study.
Prior to initiating the study procedure, approval for the research
protocol was obtained from the IRB. Students enrolled in a large
general education course were offered extra course credit to
volunteer as participants of the study. After receiving a study
announcement, reviewing the consent form and providing
informed consent, students who wished to participate in the study
were asked to click on a hyperlink that linked them to respond to
the survey questionnaire online. Overall, 536 participants provided
valid responses.
The demographic profile of the sample indicates that roughly
half (50.4%) of the study participants were females and 64.4%
indicated their annual household income at $75,000 or above. With
regard to ethnicity, 74.8% of the sample were Caucasian, 6% African-
American, 17% Hispanic, 2.1% Asian/Pacific American and 0.2%
Native American.
5.1. Measurement
5.1.1. Perceived usefulness
The scale for perceived usefulness of online advertising, devel-
oped by Ducoffe (1996) and widely adopted by others (e.g., Cheng,
Blankson, Wang, & Chen, 2009) was adapted here; this scale con-
tains six items that are measured on a 4-point scale, ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree. These measurement items ask
participants how strongly they agree or disagree with whether
Facebook ads are a valuable source of information for 1) finding
different products and services, 2) learning which brands have the
features that they're looking for; 3) keeping up to date with new
products/services available in the marketplace; 4) staying informed
about products/services; 5) saving time in searching for products/
713
services; and 6) finding product prices. These items were combined
into a composite variable with a high reliability level (alpha ¼ 0.92).
5.1.2. Perceived ease of use
This concept was reflected by five original measurement items,
assessed on the same 4-point scale mentioned above. These items
were constructed to specifically capture the accessibility of the
display ad elements embedded in the Facebook system, instead of
adopting the common approach that evaluates the general use of
retail websites (e.g., Al-Gahtani, 2011) or the Facebook platform
(e.g., Rauniar, Rawski, Yang, & Johnson, 2014). Participants reported
their degree of agreement or disagreement with the level of ease
associated with accessing Facebook ads that contain the following
layout components: 1) headlines, 2) colors, 3) images, 4) copy
fonts; and 5) the ad content. By merging the five items together, a
single variable was formed with a Cronbach's reliability coefficient
at 0.92.
5.1.3. Attitudes
This construct was described by seven items that were adapted
from past work (Taylor et al., 2011); these seven items were
measured with the same 4-point scale mentioned above. The seven
measurement items prompt the participants to indicate their de-
gree of agreement/disagreement with whether they like the
following Facebook advertising features: 1) the sponsored adver-
tisement section on one's Facebook page; 2) ads created by a
sponsoring company on one's Facebook storyline; 3) YouTube
videos uploaded by ad sponsors; 4) YouTube videos uploaded by ad
sponsors on one's Facebook storyline; 5) pictures uploaded by ad
sponsors on one's Facebook page; 6) ads uploaded by ad sponsors
on one's Facebook storyline; and 7) the style of Facebook ads. These
seven items were collapsed to create a composite variable with a
Cronbach's reliability coefficient of 0.94.
5.1.4. Product purchase intentions
This concept was assessed with four original measurement
items, gauged with the same 4-point scale items. These items were
developed to specifically describe consumer willingness to pur-
chase basic and premium products promoted via two types of
customized advertising on Facebook, instead of indicating general
use intentions commonly adopted in the relevant literature (e.g.,
Al-Gahtani, 2011; Rauniar et al., 2014). Participants responded to
714 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
these items by indicating their degree of agreement or disagree-
ment with whether they intend to purchase products advertised
through the following venues in the future: 1) miscellaneous
products shown on Facebook's sponsored advertising section; 2)
miscellaneous products shown on one's Facebook storyline; 3)
pricey products shown on Facebook's sponsored advertising sec-
tion; and 4) pricey products shown on one's Facebook's storyline.
These four items were grouped into a single variable, which ach-
ieved a Cronbach's reliability coefficient of 0.97.
5.1.5. Privacy concerns
This construct was measured by five items adapted from
Wolfinbarger and Gilly (2003), on a 4-point scale ranging from
‘hardly ever’ to ‘very often.’ These items inquire whether partici-
pants feel secure about 1) providing sensitive information to the
Facebook site; 2) keeping personal details private on one's Face-
book pages; 3) posting personal information on one's Facebook
pages; 4) posting personal information on friends' Facebook pages;
5) texting personal information via Facebook Message service. By
combining these five items, a composite variable was established
with a Cronbach's reliability coefficient of 0.88.
5.1.6. Intrusiveness concerns
The concept of intrusiveness was illustrated by five items
adapted from past research (Li, Edwards, & Lee, 2002) and
measured with a 4-point scale which ranges from “hardly ever” to
“very often.” participants responded to these items by indicating
whether they find advertisements on Facebook to be 1) distracting;
2) intrusive; 3) irritating; 4) invasive; and 5) interfering. These five
items were merged to form a composite variable (alpha ¼ 0.92).
6. Results
The descriptive statistics reported in Table 1 show that
perceived usefulness (M ¼ 2.06, SD ¼ 0.63) and perceived ease of
use (M ¼ 2.43, SD ¼ 0.65) each has a mid-level mean value,
reflecting an above-average perception of usefulness and ease of
use associated with Facebook ads. Consumer privacy concern or
feelings of security with Facebook advertising (M ¼ 3.24, SD ¼ 0.65)
achieves a mean that falls between “hardly ever” or “sometimes,”
indicating that consumers not feeling very secure with their privacy
as Facebook users.
By comparison, intrusiveness concern with Facebook adver-
tising (M ¼ 2.58, SD ¼ 0.82) reaches a mean value that falls between
“sometimes” and “often,” demonstrating that consumers “some-
time” or “often” feel that Facebook advertising is intrusive in their
“personal space” on Facebook. In terms of consumer attitudes to-
ward Facebook advertising, the mean value (M ¼ 1.78, SD ¼ 0.62) is
low and falls between “strongly disagree” and “disagree,” sug-
gesting that consumers dislike Facebook advertising. Similarly, the
mean value for future purchase intent (M ¼ 1.28, SD ¼ 0.55) is also
Table 1
Zero-order correlations, means and standard deviations for key variables.
Perceived usefulness Ease of use
r r
Ease of use 0.41**
Attitudes 0.50** 0.34**
Purchase intent 0.37** 0.20**
Privacy concern 0.19** 0.23**
Intrusiveness concern 0.18** 0.05
M 2.06 2.43
SD 0.63 0.65
** p < 0.01 (two-tailed).
low and falls within the range of “strongly disagree” and “disagree,”
illustrating that on average, consumers are unlikely to make
product purchase via interacting with the Facebook ads that appear
on their “personal” Facebook page.
Zero-order correlations between all key variables are also
shown in Table 1 below. Specifically, all key variables e perceived
usefulness, perceived ease of use, privacy concerns, intrusiveness
concerns, attitudes and purchase intentions e are significantly
correlated with each other, except for the lack of correlation be-
tween intrusiveness concerns and perceived ease of use. This sug-
gests that Facebook users don't evaluate the technical and
mechanical aspects of Facebook ads e in conjunction with whether
they feel that these ads have created disruption or distraction e to
their normal interface with Facebook pages. Furthermore, none of
the significant correlations between any two variables are high
enough to cause a multicollinearity concern for any subsequent
analyses.
To confirm the intercorrelations and the factor structure be-
tween the key variables, a confirmatory factor analysis was con-
ducted. Results show a relatively good model fit for the analysis
associated with the sizable sample of the current study (CMIN/
DF ¼ 1.86, CFI ¼ 0.98, RMSEA ¼ 0.04, c2 ¼ 756.98, p < 0.001). A path
model was then constructed to test all the research hypotheses; the
modeling results did not show a good model fit (c2 ¼ 86.05,
p ¼ 0.001, CMIN/DF ¼ 28.84, CFI ¼ 0.86, NFI ¼ 0.86, RMSEA ¼ 0.23).
In particular, two hypothesized paths in the model e linking
intrusiveness concerns to perceived ease of use and purchase intent
e did not reach statistical significance. These two paths were
subsequently removed and a revised path model was tested. This
revised model generated an improved and good model fit, as
indicated by the model fit index (c2 ¼ 2.43, p ¼ 0.296, CMIN/
DF ¼ 1.22, CFI ¼ 0.99, NFI ¼ 0.99, RMSEA ¼ 0.02).
As each of the paths in the revised model attained a statistically
significant standardized beta weight, the research hypothesis
affiliated with each of these model paths was also confirmed. These
significant paths hence provide support for H1a-b, H2a-b, H3, H4a,
H4a-d, H5a and H5c (see Fig. 2).
According to Fig. 2, results show that perceived ease of use of
Facebook ads is a significant and positive predictor of perceive
usefulness of (b ¼ 0.38, p < 0.001) and attitudes towards those ads
(b ¼ 0.12, p ¼ 0.002); these findings supported H1a and H1b,
respectively. Similarly, perceived usefulness of Facebook ads was
found to positively predict attitude toward Facebook advertising
(b ¼ 0.37, p < 0.001) and product purchase intention (b ¼ 0.15,
p < 0.001); these results validated H2a and H2b, in that order. H3
was also confirmed by the finding that shows a more positive
attitude toward Facebook advertising is a significant predictor of
stronger product purchase intention (b ¼ 0.38, p < 0.001).
Greater consumer privacy concerns was found to be a significant
but negative predictor of perceived usefulness of Facebook ads
(b ¼ 0.10, p ¼ 0.017), perceived ease of use (b ¼ 0.23, p < 0.001),
Attitudes Purchase intent Privacy concern Intrusiveness concern
r r r r
0.53**
0.38** 0.38**
0.27** 0.13** 0.02
1.78 1.28 3.24 2.58
0.62 0.55 0.65 0.82
 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
Fig. 2. Revised integrated conceptual model.
attitudes towards Facebook advertising (b ¼ 0.28, p < 0.001), and
product purchase intentions (b ¼ 0.21, p < 0.001), lending support
to H4a, H4b, H4c and H4d, respectively. Results also show that
stronger intrusiveness concerns is a significant but negative pre-
dictor of perceived usefulness of (b ¼ 0.15, p < 0.001) and attitude
toward (b ¼ 0.19, p < 0.001) Facebook advertising; these findings
supported H5a and H5c, in that order. However, intrusiveness
concerns was not relevant to either perceived ease of use of Face-
book advertising or purchase intention, failing to validate H5b and
H5d.
In addition, privacy concerns with Facebook use explained 5.4%
of the variance in perceived ease of use of Facebook ads. Privacy
concerns with Facebook use, intrusiveness concerns with Facebook
ads and perceived ease of use of Facebook ads combined accounted
for 20% of the variance in perceived usefulness of Facebook ads. The
same three predictors, along with intrusiveness concerns with
Facebook ads, also explained 37% of the variance in attitudes to-
ward Facebook ads. Lastly, perceived usefulness of and attitudes
toward Facebook ads accounted for 33% of the variance in product
purchase intentions.
7. Discussion
This study is among the first to apply TAM in explaining con-
sumer response to social media as an advertising platform. Spe-
cifically, the proposed conceptual framework examined 1) whether
perceived attributes of social media advertising as a technology-
driven innovation would influence consumer attitudes and pur-
chase intentions; and 2) whether two external variables e privacy
and intrusiveness concerns e would impact perceived attributes of
social media advertising. Study results fully validated the TAM
model and the model was able to explain the adoption process
factors related to social media advertising. Specifically, intrusive-
ness concerns negatively impact perceived usefulness of as well as
attitude toward social media advertising, confirming past research
which explored other online marketing contexts such as banking
and online shopping (e.g., Dash et al., 2011; Khare & Sadachar,
2014). Privacy concerns have a negative influence on consumers’
perceived usefulness and ease of use of Facebook advertising
technology as well as attitude and purchase intentions toward
products advertised on their social media pages, consistent with
past work addressing e-commerce (e.g., Featherman & Pavlou,
715
2003).
Descriptive statistics show that consumers have a moderately
positive perception of the usefulness and ease of use associated
with Facebook advertising. While their attitudes toward Facebook
advertising are moderately negative, the same is true with their
privacy concerns associated with Facebook use and the intrusive
nature of Facebook advertising. Consumer intent to purchase
products advertised on a Facebook page is relatively low. This
suggests that consumers don't necessarily embrace Facebook
advertising with any enthusiasm. Even so, these findings don't
deviate significantly from how consumer attitudes towards other
forms of advertising (Cheng et al., 2009; Nelson-Field et al., 2013).
All of the hypothesized paths in the original conceptual model
were supported, except for the paths between intrusiveness con-
cerns and 1) perceived ease of Facebook-ad use and 2) purchase
intent. These findings show that privacy concerns are a valid
antecedent variable that prompt consumers to consider the Face-
book advertising platform “difficult” to use, as sharing of personal
information is often connected to additional clicks or a click-
through of sponsored ads. Intrusiveness concerns, which reflect a
“disruption or irritation” to one's Facebook use, did not trigger
consumer perceptions of “difficulty” in accessing Facebook ads.
Instead, they resulted in a “not useful” evaluation of those ads,
which is also a response from those with greater privacy concerns.
The paths between the rest of the TAM components, including
perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitudes and purchase
intentions, are all statistically significant as hypothesized and
proposed by the TAM. These findings thus confirm the results
associated with the limited existing research that has examined the
TAM framework in the context of photo-messaging adoption (Hunt
et al., 2014), general social network services (Braun, 2013) and
satisfaction with social network service use (Shipps & Phillips,
2013). Hence, the TAM appears to be a valid theoretical model for
explaining how consumers consider the Facebook ads e provided
via an innovative technology platform unique to social media e as
well as process and respond to the advertising stimuli displayed on
their social virtual space.
Significant paths that were tested for the first time in a modeling
analysis e and were statistically validated e include the following.
First, negative paths connect intrusiveness concerns to perceived
usefulness and attitudes. Second, negative paths also link privacy
concerns to perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, attitudes
716 C.A. Lin, T. Kim / Computers in Human Behavior 64 (2016) 710e718
and purchase intention. Hence, intrusiveness concerns only affect
perceived usefulness, but privacy concerns impact both perceived
usefulness and ease of use. While privacy and intrusiveness con-
cerns have a direct effect on creating less favorable feelings about
Facebook advertising, intrusiveness concerns have an indirect ef-
fect and privacy concerns have a direct effect on lower intention to
purchase products that appear in Facebook ads.
Our study findings thus confirm past work addressing online
advertising and commerce, suggesting that consumer online
information-use activities e such as browsing/interacting with
advertising information and ordering products e positively predict
increased privacy concern among Internet users (Lee et al., 2008;
Okazaki et al., 2012). Privacy concerns associated with Facebook
use are hence common across all online advertising/shopping
venues, including the social media outlets, and can have an impact
on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions.
Likewise, consumer concerns with privacy invasion and intru-
siveness of Facebook advertising was also found to have a negative
impact on their perception of usefulness e and their attitudes to-
ward Facebook advertising e which is typically tailored based on a
Facebook user's online product information search and purchase
history (Cox, 2011). This finding is consistent with past research
indicating that consumers' intrusiveness concern is usually pro-
voked by the customization of online advertising, which is a strong
predictor of negative attitudes toward online advertising (McCoy
et al., 2008).
Privacy and intrusiveness concerns notwithstanding, consumers
seem relatively utilitarian in the way that they view Facebook
advertising. In essence, those who view Facebook ads as providing
them with easy access to useful product information that they need
e are also more welcoming of sponsored ads that appear on their
Facebook account e and are more willing to engage in making
product purchases via those Facebook ads. This group of “friendly”
Facebook ad consumers might have contributed to the staying
power of the “sponsored stories” platform on Facebook. In point of
fact, Facebook announced the discontinuation of this advertising
platform, due to user discontent (Sullivan, 2014). But these spon-
sored ads are still on display today and Facebook users don't seem
to have the option of “x” out of the ads anymore.
Current study findings also imply that the growth and success of
Facebook advertising could be improved if the platform could
enhance and align consumer trust with their perceived information
and data privacy (Aguirre, Mahr, Grewal, de Ruyter, & Wetzels,
2015). In a similar vein, consumers could also be primed or grad-
ually oriented to grow accustomed to the presence of Facebook ads
instead of treating them as an intrusive nuisance, so long as the
number of ads come under a “tolerance threshold” (Young & Quan-
Haase, 2013). This “low intrusion” strategy seems to have paid off
for Facebook, as it delivered 65% fewer ads by charging advertisers a
335% higher cost on average from the year before and saw its
revenue climb sharply to $3.85 billion in the last quarter of 2014
(Peterson, 2015).
As Facebook advertising or social media adverting by and large
is still in its early stage of development, borrowing lessons learned
from other online advertising venues could be essential. For
instance, instead of randomly “prodding” its users to “like” or
endorse a product, Facebook users could be incentivized to “like” or
endorse a product, by receiving discounts for ordering products or
services that they have endorsed. Alternatively, they could also earn
points for redeeming free gift cards or goods by endorsing products
or services.
The success story of mobile advertising on Facebook is another
example of how social media advertising could be a valuable venue
for advertisers (Peterson, 2015). This success story reversed the
early trend of consumer aversion toward mobile advertising and
shopping (Lee et al., 2008; McCoy et al., 2008). It is possible that
mobile phone users, especially among the younger generations,
have become highly accustomed to making purchases online e as
well as paying for retail purchases with the use of their mobile
phones e as facilitated by a variety of mobile apps (Okazaki et al.,
2012; Shankar, Venkatesh, Hofacker, & Naik, 2010). This type of
mobile shopping behavior via social media advertising highlights
how the technology modality with which social media users access
their Facebook accounts e i.e., via a mobile phone or a tablet (or
computer) e could have a strong influence on how they perceive
the presence of advertising in terms of privacy and intrusiveness.
These perceptions in turn could also help determine user purchase
intentions and their subsequent purchase actions. Research has yet
to explore the relations between technology-driven social media
use and social media advertising effectiveness.
There are several study limitations to note. First, this exploratory
survey study did not measure consumer response to specific
product categories or brands, hence the potential variances for
purchase intentions associated with different product categories/
brands were not tapped. Second, past web-enabled purchase ex-
periences through e-commerce, online shopping and social media
venues could have been assessed for testing their potential
moderating effect on consumer attitude and purchase intention.
Third, showing sponsored ads that represent examples of actual
miscellaneous or pricy products to participants e for a closer
evaluation of this advertising platform e could solicit a real-time
instead of a recall response to enhance measurement reliability.
8. Future research implications
The current conceptual model tested the complete technology
acceptance model e including two external variables e privacy and
intrusiveness concerns. It is worth noting that the current study is
among the first to examine the TAM in the context of consumer
acceptance of social media advertising e as an interactive tech-
nology innovation e and a new advertising venue. The findings
show that TAM is able to successfully explain the relations between
privacy concerns, intrusiveness concerns, perceived usefulness,
perceived ease of use, and attitude associated the interactive
advertising platforms utilized by Facebook as well as their influence
on consumer purchase intentions.
Later work could continue to explore whether alternative types
of interactive advertising techniques would be seen as less invasive
and intrusive on privacy and hence be seen as more useful and
easier to use by consumers. For instance, would a more understated
style or “quieter” interactive advertising platform be less intrusive
but also seen as more useful by social media users? Would a small
advertising banner/button that enables consumers to access a set of
category-specific ads be seen as less invasive by consumers? Recent
industry research indicates that interstitial ads on Facebook's mo-
bile platforms have been successful in growing numerous sales (Li,
Lin, & Chiu, 2014; Valdez et al., 2014). Would interstitial ads that
appear on a screen without obstructing Facebook page access be
viewed as too intrusive? In addition to examining these
technology-driven advertising platforms, future research could also
explore what might be the threshold for targeting users with
tailored ads on their social media accounts. This market knowledge
would be highly valuable in helping advertisers to formulate a
social media advertising strategy that will avoid causing significant
privacy concerns to diminish the perceived utility of social media
ads or negative attitudes toward the brands.
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