Damage Description

General/ Localized Corr.

CS  S  &H2 Sulfidation

1 Sulfidation Corr.

2 High Temp H2S/H2 Corr. Hydrogen, Hot Units


CS  O 2   Oxidation
3 Oxidation Corr.

Caused by Living Organisms Bacteria,

Algae, Fungi
4 Micro-Biological Induced Corr.

Tubercles

Naphthenic acid corrosion behaviour

5 Naphthenic Acid Corr. can be time variant, localized and
difficult to predict
 Erosion is the accelerated mechanical
removal.
6 Erosion Corr. corrosion contributes to erosion
by removing protective films or scales,
or by exposing the metal surface.

7 Galvanic Corr.
8 Atmospheric Corr.
9 CUI
10 Cooling Water Corr.
11 Boiler Water Condensate Corr.
12 soil Corr.
13 Ammonium Bisulfate Corr.
14 Chloride Corr.
15 CO2

Surface Connected Cracking

1 Hydrogen Induced Cracking
2 Wet Hydrogen Sulphide Cracking

High-Temp micro-fissuring/Micro-void
1 High-Temp hydrogen Attack
2 Creep/Stress Rupture

Metallurgical Changes
1 Graphitization
2 Temper Embrittlement
3 Hydrogen Embrittlement

Blistering
1 Hydrogen Blistering
AKA Affected Materials Critical Factor

Temp↑Corr.↑
Cr↑ Corr.↓
H2↑ Corr.↑
Sulfidic Corr. CS, SS (300, 400), Ni, Cr,Cu.

Presence of H2

High temp
CS, Low alloy, SS(300,400)
Conc. Of H2S
Cr↑ Corr.↓

Corr. Rate ↑ Temp↑

Cr↑ Corr.↓
CS, Low alloy, SS(300,400)
H2O vapour ↑ Corr. Rate↑

water stagnant, Low flow,

Lack of O2, high Salinity

Needs Carbon, Nitrogen &

MIC CS, Low alloy, SS (300, 400), Ni,Al,Cu. Phosphorus

Based on neutralization
number(TAN), temp,
sulphur, content, velocity &
alloy composition

Determined by TAN of actual

stream not the crude charge

NAC CS, Low alloy, SS (300, 400), Ni

Effective in 2 phases liquid &
vapor

High Velocity, Turbulence or

change in direction

Molybdenum suppressed
NAC
 abrasive wear, Metal loss
rates depend on the
velocity and concentration
of impacting medium

Softer alloys such as copper

All Metal, alloys & Refractories and aluminum alloys that
are easily worn

Increasing hardness of the

metal(not a good idea bcos
corrosion plays a role)

donot increase velocity of

the product
Temp Limits Affecting Units

FCC
Coker
vacuum
>500⁰F
Visbreaker
Hydro processing units
Boiler & high temp Units

Piping & Equipment in High temp H 2/H2S

Hydro processing units

>500⁰F
Desulfurizers
Hydro cracking Units
H2 injection Points
Boiler & high temp Units
>1000⁰F
Burner Tip

300 SS Series resist up

to 1500⁰F

all water processing & in contact with soil

units

0⁰F to 235⁰F Fire water System

Crude, Vacuum Heater tubes & Transfer

lines, bottom piping, AGO circuits;
350⁰F to 750⁰F HVGO, LVGO circuits, LCGO and HCGO
delayed coking units processing high TAN
feed.
equipment exposed to moving fluids are
subject to erosion. Elbows Tees &
reducers Valves. All fittings &
Components in contact with the fluid
Appearance Mitigation

Uniform Thinning Higher Cr alloy

Localised Corr. Al diffusion treatment
High Velocity erosion-Corr.
Forms Sulphide Protection Scales

Uniform Thinning Higher Cr alloy

Multiple Layer Iron Sulphide Scales Using 300 series SS

Gray colour

Uniform Thinning Using More Resistant Alloy

Oxide Scales Cr, Si, Al

300 SS series thin dark scales

treat with Cl, Br, O3, UV light,

Localised Corr. Continuous treatment

tubercles, cup shaped pits with pits in CS or Subsurface Flow velocity above Min. Velocity
cavities in SS
Keep Clean & blow Dry
Wrap & Cathodically Protect
Coat inside of storage tanks

Localised Corr., Pitting Corr., flow induced in high Blend crude , upgrade metallurgy,
velocity utilize chemical inhibitors

increase sulphur content

Use alloy with higher Molybdenum

content to improve resistance
 better shape, geometry & material
selection.

Localised loss in the form of pits, grooves, gullies, waves,

rounded holes & valleys, Has the fluid direction pattern

using Corr. Resistant material alloy.

inspection/Monitoring Remarks

check for increasing temp

UTG/ Profile RT
Proactive PMI

UT,VT,RT

check for increasing temp

Check for H2S level

check for increasing temp

UTG/ Profile RT

VT

Note for Foul smell

UT, RT TAN- Total Acid No.

Crude has a family of

monitor TAN & Sulphur content acid which has range of
TAN.

Check for FE & Ni content to At fittings &

assess corrosion in the system components

Hydrogen probe can be used to

detect NAC
 VT, UT, RT

Using Corr. Coupons, Monitoring

electrical resistance probes
Sl.No Name of Mechanism

1 Erosion Corr.

2 Mechanical Fatigue

3 Galvanic Corr.

4 Atmospheric corrosion

5 Corrosion Under Insulation

6 Boiler Water Condensate Corr.

7 Microbologically Induced Corr. (MIC)

7 Microbologically Induced Corr. (MIC)

8 soil Corr.

9 Caustic Corr.

10 sulfidation Corr.

11 Chloride Stress Corr. Cracking

12 Caustic SCC
12 Caustic SCC

13 HCL corr. Cracking

14 Sour Water Corr.

15 amine Stress Corr. Cracking

 Damage Description AKA

Erosion is the accelerated mechanical removal. corrosion contributes to erosion

by removing protective films or scales, or by exposing the metal surface.

Fatigue cracking is a mechanical form of degradation that occurs when a

component is exposed to cyclical stresses for an extended period, often resulting
in sudden, unexpected failure.
These stresses can arise from either mechanical loading or thermal cycling & are
typically well below the yield strength of the material.

at the Junction of dissimilar Metal contact thru suitable electrolyte (Moisture, Aq

solution)

A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric

conditions

Dry rural environments cause very little corrosion

Corr. Of piping pressure vessels & structure by water trapped insulation or fire
proofing

General Corr. & Pitting

caused by bacteria, Algae & fungi.

 caused by bacteria, Algae & fungi.

results from Soil Interface

Due to Caustic or Alkaline salts that occurs under evaporative or high heat Caustic gouging
transfer condition.

General or Localized Corr. Is possible Ductile Gouning

CS + Sulfur + Heat --> Sulfidation

Presence of H2 Accelarates corr.

Surface initiated Cracks

300 series ss & some Ni under stress, temp & aqueous chloride environment.

O2 increase the tendency to crack

caustic
Surface initiated Cracks primarily near to Non-PWHT'd weld Embrittlement
 caustic
Surface initiated Cracks primarily near to Non-PWHT'd weld Embrittlement

HCl (Aq) can cause both generalised & localised & aggressive

Dew point corrosion (vapors containing water and hydrogen chloride condense)

H2S at a pH between 4.5 and 7.0

Sour waters containing significant amounts of ammonia, chlorides or cyanides

may significantly affect pH.

tensile stress & Corr. In aq alkanolamine system.

used to remove H2S & CO2

a Form of Alkaline stress Corr. Cracking

found near to PWht'd CS or in cold worked parts

 Affected Materials Critical Factor

abrasive wear, Metal loss rates depend on the

velocity & concentration of impacting medium

All Metal, alloys & Refractories
Softer alloys such as copper & aluminium alloys that
are easily worn
Increasing hardness of the metal(not a good idea
bcos corrosion plays a role)
do not increase velocity of the product

Geometry, stress level, No. of cycles, Strength,

Hardness, Microstructure
All Metal, alloys & Refractories
Fatigue cracks initiate on the surface of notches
(stress concentration)

* Electrolyte (To conduct Current),* 2 different

metals(anode & cathode), * an electrical connection

Cathode is protected by Anode

All Metals except Most of Noble Metals
*exposed area of anode & cathode is significant
*Corr. Rate of anode is high if anode/cathode ratio is
small
old(cathode)/ new pipe(anode)
Humidity, Temperature, Presence of salt, sulphur &
dirt
Marine location - 20mpy
acidic & sulphur location - 5~10 mpy
CS, Low Alloy steels & Copper alloyed Aluminium
Humid location - 1~3 mpy
Dry location - < 1 mpy
Chlorides, H2S & fly ash
coating or painting is poor

Corr. Rate↑ - Temp ↑

CS, Low Alloy steels, 300 series SS & Dup SS

Equipment working under dewpoint Temp. tend to
condense water on the metal surface

Usually due to dissolved gases to form Pitting &

CS, Low alloy steel & 300 series SS & Copper Carbonic acid Corr.
based alloys Corr. Protection in the boiler is done by maintaining
protective Fe3O4(Magnetite)
Aqueous environment located

Almost all metals, CS, Low alloy Steels, 300 & 400
SS
Almost all metals, CS, Low alloy Steels, 300 & 400 in-organic substances - Sulfur NH3
SS
CS, Cast Iron & ductile iron
CS, Low alloy Steel & 300 series SS
CS, low alloy steels, 300, 400 series SS, Ni, Cr,
CU(at low temp)
300 Series SS are less affected
all 300 Series SS
Dup SS are resistant
Ni are highly resistant, not immune
CS, LAS, 400 series SS are not suceptible to CLSCC
CS, Low alloy steel & 300 series SS
Ni are resistant
Organic Substances - HC, Organic acids
generally need Carbon, Ni & Phosforus
Soil resistivity, Operation temp moisture & O2
availability, cathodic protection, coating type, age &
condition
ASTM stp 741 & API 580
Soil having moisture, dissolved salt concentration,
acidity are the most corrosive
Corr. Rate↑ - Temp ↑
Galvanic Corr., Dissimilar soils, Stray Current, MIC
Contributing factors NaOH or KOH
used as neutralizer or reactant
Added to boiler feed water at low concentration
can enter process streams thru leaks in condensers or
process equipment
H2S causes decomposition of sulfur compounds @
high temp.
Conc. Of sulfur compounds.
Sulfide scale provides protection on vary levels of
protection
Chloride, pH, Temp, Stress, O2
Corr. Rate ↑ - Temp ↑
Chloride ↑ - Temp ↑
Heating lets Chloride to Concentrate
Fluctuating wet & Dry condition make it suceptible
SCC pH value above 2, @ lower pH value uniform
corr. Forms.
SCC decreases towards alkaline pH region
Stresses may be applied or residual. Highly stressed
cold worked components are suceptible to cracking.
Nickel cracks @ 8% to 12%. Aobve 35 % are resistant.
Above 45 % are immune.
Caustic Embrittlement happens because of temp,
Caustic strength & stress level
50 to 100 ppm are enough to cause cracking
Residual or applied stress caused from cold working
 Ni are resistant
PWHT is effective in preventing Caustic SCC
Temp fluctuation is effective
Caustic is used to control chloride in Crude
HCl acid concentration, temperature and alloy
All common material of construction composition
CS & low alloy steel excessively corr. Below 4.5 pH increasing HCl concentration and increasing
of HCL temperature
300 & 400 series are not resistant to HCl Conc. HCL aq is very corr.
HCL aq can form beneath deposits of NH3Cl or Amine
HCl salt
Ti & other Ni alloys have good resistance to dil HCl
O2, Fe & Cu will increase corr.
Ti perform well in aq but fails in Dry HCl
CS, SS CU alloys H2S, pH, Temp, Velocity & O2
H2S conc. Is based on H2S partial pressure
Temp ↑ - H2S Conc ↓
H2S Conc. ↑- pH ↓ to 4.5. pH less than 4.5 show
strong acid (Corr. ↑)
Ni are resistant
above 4.5 pH protective FeS layer limits corr.

FeS layer may sometimes be porous. This will

promote pitting under sulfide deposits

Tensile stress, amine conc. & temp

Cracking Occurs in ambient temperature

Temp↑ & Stress ↑ - Severity ↑

CS & low alloy Steels cracking occurs in lean Amine serivices

Pure alkanolamine does not cause cracking
Cracking in rich Amine are due to wet H 2S Problems

Non PWHT'd piping & equipments cracks due to

exposure to steam out & short ter amine carryover
 Temp Limits

all Temp

All Temp (Preferably ASS & Al)

This anode-to-cathode relationship

reverses at water temperatures over about 150°F (66°C)

about 250°F (121°C)

10°F (–12°C) & 350°F (175°C) for carbon & low alloy steels

140ºF (60°C) & 400ºF (205°C) for ASSs & Dup SSs

For Insulated, Corr. Is max @ 212°F (100°C) & 350°F (121°C)

0°F to 235°F
(–17°C to 113°C).
 0°F to 235°F
(–17°C to 113°C).

Above 500°F (260°C)

Cr. ↓ - Corr.↑
H2 ↑ - Corr.↑

Cracking above 140°F (60°C)

 Affecting Units

equipment exposed to moving fluids are subject to erosion. Elbows Tees & reducers Valves. All
fittings & Components in contact with the fluid

Low temp equipment & piping

Piers & docks are prone to attack

Bimetallic connections such as copper to aluminium electrical connections

All Units found with damaged Insulation

Pipe hangers, Deadlegs, bolted on pipes

external treatment system, Steam generation system on fire and condensate return systems

Found In all water using Equipments mostly at the bottom.

Fire water system will also affect

Underground piping and equipment as well as buried tanks and the bottoms of above ground
storage tanks

boilers, Steam generating equipment or heat exchangers

use caustic to sulfur compounds in product stream

Occur in sulfur processing units, FCC coker visbreaker

High temp units with less sulfur can be affected.

All 300 series SS piping & pressure vessel components

Bellows

Cracking occurs during startup / shutdown if not purged

BFW with little traces can result in embrittlement;

 BFW with little traces can result in embrittlement;

All Non-PWHT CS steel piping & equipment in lean amine service.

 Appearance

Localised loss in the form of pits, grooves, gullies, waves,

rounded holes & valleys, Has the fluid direction pattern

Clam shell, beach mark, waves.

Loss in thkness, crevice, groove, pitting corrosion

welded or bolted connections

No paint/ coat - General corrosion

distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale forms

Localised pitting corr. In CS, 300 SS & Dup SS

300 SS & Dup SS with Cloride --> Stress Corr. Cracking

Carbuncle type

Corr. From O2 tend to pitting type damage when sudden rapid

rise in temp.
Corr. In condensate return system tend to CO2 with Smooth
Grooving of pipe wall.
Tubercles or slimy organic substances
Localised pitting
Cup shaped pits within pits in CS or Subsurface cavities

External Thining, localised lossed pitting

Poor condition of a protective coating is a tell tale sign of
potential corrosion damage

In vertical tubes, appearance will be as circumerential groove

In Horizontal or sloped tubes, the groove is found at the top or
as longitudinal on opposite side of the tube

Localized metal loss under insulating deposits

Deposits may fill corroded pits

uniform thinning, localised corr. High velocity erosion-corr.

Damage

Sulfide scales, deposits may b thick or thin

surface breaking creacks can occur from under the insulation

No sign of crack is visible

SCC have many branch shaped cracks

Fractue have brittle appearance

Parallel to weld; weld depositor HAZ

Spider crack of small cracks
 300 series SS transgranular crack

CS & low alloy steel suffer general uniform thinning, localised

corr. Or under deposit attack

300 & 400 series SS suffer pitting attack & 300 series SS may
suffer CLSCC

Surface breaking flaws initiating from the ID of pipe &

equipment most from weld HAZ & high stress areas adjacent
to the HAZ
Parallel to weld; weld depositor HAZ
on weld metal the cracks can either be transverse or
longitudinal with the weld.

on nozzle, the cracks are radial in the base metal. Cracks

parallel to the weld.

residual stress, cracks are often found on the process side

crack similar to wet H2S cracking

intergranullar , oxide filled with some branching
 Mitigation

better shape, geometry & material selection.

using Corr. Resistant material alloy.

Ti, CS & Low Alloy Steel

Below stress endurance limit
Heat treatment Quenching & tempering, Fine grain Structure
Good design, minimize grinding marks, nicks & gouges, burr, lips
good fit up, minimise weld defects

coating the Cathode (more noble)

Insulating Bolt sleeves, gaskets

Surface prep & Proper Coating

Low Chloride insulation should be used on SS

Non Metallic Coating, Aluminium foil wrapping on SS

Appropriate paints/ Coats & Maintain insulation sealing/ vapor barriers to prevent moisture ingress

O2 Scavenger is used

Amine inhibitor is used to suppress CO2

treat with Chlorine, bromine Ozone & UV

Maintain flow velocity above min
keep dry if stagnant,
wrapping cathodic protection underground
coating interior of Tanks

Use sand bacfill, Corr. Resistant coatings, cathodic protection

Proper Design, Reduced caustic, Minimise hot spot & by minimising the ingress of alkaline producing saltt

Upgrading to higher Cr. Alloy

300, 400 series SS can provide resistance

aluminium diffusion to low alloy steel is used to reduce sulfidation & scales

Use low Chlorine water to do hydrotesting

Properly apply coating under insulation

300 Series SS offer little advantage in resistance to cracking over CS.

PWHT@ 1150°F (621°C) for CS
steam cleaning should be avoided
Nickel base alloys are more resistant

use < 20 ppm in crude units

300 series SS @ temp 140°F (60°C) CLSCC does not occur

CU, NI alloys are not susceptible to Acid sour water corr. But CU with NH 3

PWHT all CS welds in piping & equipments

use SS or alloy 400 In lieu of CS

water wash non- PWHT CS piping & equipment prior to welding, HT or Steam out.
 inspection/Monitoring Remarks

VT, UT, RT

Using Corr. Coupons, Monitoring electrical resistance probes

PT, MT, SWUT,VT

Vibration Monitoring

VT, UTG

VT, UT

prediction & Analysis than invasive method, Strip if necessary

IR Thermography for wet / damaged insulation, Guided wave UT

Profile RT for SBP, Neutron back scatter technique for

identifying wet insulation

Analysis of water for pH, Conductivity, Chlorine

WFMT for crack

measuring Biocide residual,Visual Apperance

Foul smelling water

Soil Potential using 4 point method, Cathodic protection should

be performed. Guided ultrasonic thickness tools

UTG for general Corr.

Localised Corr. Is hard to detect.
Check injection Point
UT scans & RT, Visual boroscope

keep eye for increasing temp/ sulfur level

UTG, PRT

PMI for alloy mix-ups

VT, PT, Phase analysis EC test

UT. RT

WFMT, EC, RT ACFM, PT, UT, AET

 WFMT, EC, RT ACFM, PT, UT, AET

General thinning but can be localised where water phase is

condensing

UT, PRT, pH monitoring every shift

Periodic sampling is checked

Mix point corr. Is due to dry cl mix with free water saturated
streams

UT , PRT for locally thinned areas

pH should be monitor using water draws offs.

Corr. Probes & Corr. Coupons should be used.

CS, general thinning. Localised at high velocity or turbulence.

WFMT, ACFM. Prepare surface with grit blasting, high pressure

water blasting for WFMT

PT Should not be done

SWUT for cracks with depth

AET can also be used monitor crack and locating growing cracks
Welding Process Current Method Process Misc
Slag blanket
stabilizes welding arc
SMAW / MMAW AC or DC CC Manual
enhance mechanical property
Provides gas shield from contamination
Gas shielding is provided from external
source

GTAW / TIG / Heli DCEN or CC Manual

Arc W. AC

DCEP / Semi
GMAW/ MIG MAG DCEN / CV Automatic /
AC Automatic

Fast Freezing

*GMAW-S
Thin Section welding
Out of Position Welding
Root Pass
Modified
waveform

*GMAW-MSC

CO2 - shielding gas

High deposition rate

*Globular Transfer

250 in./min (110 mm/sec)

Flat & horizontal positions

*Spray transfer

Drops at the tip of wire

The frequency and amplitude of the pulses

control the rate at which the wire melts
*pulsed transfer CC

Max depostion rate 200 in./min (85 mm/sec)

 *pulsed transfer CC

Argon & Low CO2

W or w/o shielding w/o application of

FCAW DC CV pressure

semiautomatic,
SAW CV, CC automatic, and
machine

automatic or
SW semiautomatic they are brought into contact by pressure

DCEN CC Shield gas/flux may or maynot be used

PAW
20,000 °F (11,093 °C)

* Transferred Arc
Process

* Non- transferred
Arc Process deposition of surface coatings
(Plasma Spray not used for making strength welds
Process)
Advantages Limitation

simple, inexpensive & portable Deposition rates are low

most type of commonly used metals & alloys slag to be removed

DCEN - Deep penetration, faster welding speed

deposition rates are lower
AC - cathodic Cleaning removes refractory oxides
(Al & Mg)

weld free from defects difficult to shield the weld

zone properly in drafty
environments
can be used with or without filler metal

Lack of SW Fusion,
Interpass fusion when
welding thick sections

reduced spatter & turbulent weld pool

Optimum Arc
Low heat Input(Less HAZ, less distortion, Less
Burn- Thru)
no lack of fusion

High heat

poor weld surface, weld

Low cost spatter & cold lap

residual stress & distortion

> 0.250 in. (6.4 mm)

Max deposition rate 150 in./min (60 mm/sec)

weld most commercial metals and alloys

deposition rates are significantly higher the welding equipment is

more complex, more costly,
and less portable than that
for SMAW
minimal postweld cleaning
 the welding equipment is
more complex, more costly,
and less portable than that
for SMAW

The metallurgical benefits that can be derived Complex, costly & less
from a flux portable
large amount of fumes are
Higher productivity generated

Backing material is required

shieldng & Slag helps the weld for root pass welding

equipment required is
more costly and extensive,
a) provides very high metal deposition rates; and less portable;
b) produces repeatable high quality welds for d) process is limited to
large weldments and repetitive short welds shop applications and flat
position

a) high productivity rates compared to manually process is primarily suitable

welding studs to base metal; for only carbon steel and
b) considered an all-position process low-alloy steels

a) arc has good tolerance to misalignments

b) high welding rate;
c) high penetrating capability (keyhole effect);
d) lower total heat input due to focused arc
results in less distortion;
e) welds produced are narrower than GTAW due
to the constricted arc.