Magnetotellurics – field techniques

1 Magnetotelluric instrumentation
 An MT station records time variations in the natural electric and magnetic fields.
 In magnetic surveys, the static component of the geomagnetic field is measured, and the MT signals are
noise that must be removed.
 5 components are recorded as a function of time [Ex(t) , Ey(t), Hx(t) , Hy(t), Hz(t)]
 Timing is obtained from GPS time signals.
EMI induction coils
Electric field measurements
 ~100 m dipole with non-polarizing electrode at each end. The instrument measures the voltage
between the electrodes. Usually two dipoles are used, one north-south and one east-west.
 Wire should be placed on the ground so it can’t move (why?).
 Metal stakes can be used. However electric field data quality can be low since as they corrode they
generate noise. Metal electrodes can also become polarized. Can be used above 50 Hz if needed.
 Vertical electric field can be measured but is usually very weak, owing to the contrast in conductivity
between the air and the Earth. Measurement requires a borehole (Jones and Geldart, (1967).
Magnetic field measurements
 3 components of the magnetic field are usually measured at each station.
 At high frequency (above 0.01 Hz) an induction coil is used. This is a cylinder with millions of turns of
copper wire. A change in the magnetic field along the axis of the coil will induce a voltage in the coil.
Thus only relative measurements of the magnetic field are made. The coils are usually buried to
minimize motion (why?) and give thermal stability (why?).
 For lower frequencies a 3-component flux gate magnetometer is used. These give absolute
measurements of the magnetic field with a precision to 0.01 nT, so there is no lowest frequency at which
they work. However they have non-geophysical uses and their export from North America is carefully
controlled.
Audio magnetotellurics (AMT)
 Few hours recording time per site. Data from 10000-1 Hz.
 Exploration to 1-2 km depth. Induction coils for magnetic sensor
Broadband magnetotellurics (BBMT)
Phoenix Geophysics V5-2000 system
 Typically 1-2 days recording per site.
 Used in exploration to 10 km, often in commercial exploration.
 Data from 1000 Hz to 1000 s.
 Induction coils for magnetic sensor
Long period magnetotellurics (LMT)
 Several weeks recording at each station.
 Used for deeper exploration, primarily in academic studies.
 Data in period range 1-10000 s.
 Fluxgate magnetometer for magnetic sensor
To measure from 1000 Hz to 20,000 s, two types of MT instruments are needed.
(1) The upper part of this frequency band (1000 Hz – 1000 s) can be recorded by occupying a site for a
day or two. These broadband MT instruments use induction coils for magnetic field measurements.
(2) The lower frequencies are recorded with long period instruments that stay at a site for 1 week to 1
month. They use fluxgate magnetometers for magnetic field measurements and a sample is recorded
every 5 s. What is the highest frequency they will record?

2. Origin of magnetotelluric signals

 The magnetic field measured at the surface of the Earth is due to sources inside and outside the Earth.
The internal component originates in dynamo action in the core and remnant magnetization in crustal
rocks. The external component is generated in the atmosphere and magnetosphere.
 Both internal and external components have a time variation and could potentially generate EM signals
that could be used in MT exploration
 However, variations in the internal component are very slow (low frequency)
 Thus only variations in the external component can be used as a source of EM signals in MT. We will
consider frequencies above 1 Hz as high and below 1 Hz as low.
3.2.1 Review of structure of the magnetosphere
 Below 1 Hz MT signals originate in the magnetosphere through several different processes.
 The solar wind (a stream of H and He ions) is deflected by the Earths internal magnetic field to
create the magnetosphere.
 The interactions between the solar wind and the Earth’s dipolar magnetic field are very complex.
 From 50-1500 km above the Earth’s surface is the ionosphere, a region of plasma with high electrical
conductivity. Changing magnetic fields from the magnetosphere can induce large electric currents in the
ionosphere. Changes in these currents produce large changes in the magnetic field measured at the Earth’s
surface.
 Large currents flow in specific locations including:
-equatorial electrojet flows on magnetic equator on side facing sun
-auroral electrojet flows at high magnetic latitude
 When the solar wind is in a steady state, the Earth’s magnetic field shows a daily variation that is due to
the Earth turning within the current systems of the magnetosphere and ionosphere. The typical variation is
called the solar quiet day variation (Sq). The amplitude is typically 10-20 nT and varies with latitude.
 A much smaller variation is seen every 25 days and caused by the orbit of the moon around the Earth.
3.2.2 High frequency magnetotelluric signals from lightning strikes
 Above a frequency of 1 Hz, most of the MT signal comes from worldwide lightning activity. These
signals travel through the Earth-ionosphere waveguide, as discussed in D1.2
 Some people claim that the same spheric can be seen twice. What time delay should be observed in this
case? Signal would have to travel 40,000 km at the speed of light, which is 0.13 seconds.
 Above 2 kHz signals do not travel well and their amplitude is very small (when wavelength in air is
comparable to the width of the waveguide).
 At higher frequencies (above 5 kHz) signals travel efficiently again.
 Plot below shows MT data recorded at Carrizo Plain in California in 1994, during a study of the San
Andreas Fault. It shows a typical “spheric” caused by a distant lightning strike that probably originated in
the Amazon Basin. Data was recorded on an EMI MT-1 instrument.
 Many signals seen in MT data are local noise (either electric field and/or magnetic field). A good test to
determine if E-field and B-field variations are genuine signal is to look for coherency between Ex(t)-Hy(t)
and Ey(t)-Hx(t) combinations. Why should these be coherent? Are they coherent in this example?
 Global distribution of lightning activity shows a distinct spatial and seasonal variation. Look for the
animation from the National Space Science and Technology Centre at http://www.nsstc.org/.
Look at : http://www.ualberta.ca/~unsworth/MT/time_series_lightning.html
3.2.3 Low frequency MT signals from magnetospheric resonances
 The plot above shows a 5 minute recording that is due to oscillations of the magnetosphere.
 These nearly sinusoidal signals occur at different frequencies, and at different times of day (why?).
 These are PC3’s and were recorded at Carrizo Plain in California in 1994 during an MT study of the
San Andreas Fault with an EMI MT-1 instrument.
 Are the Ex(t)-Hy(t) and Ey(t)-Hx(t) combinations coherent?
 Note the short spikes superimposed on the sinusoidal variations. These are lightening strikes that were
shown in detail in 3.2.1
 Measuring the amplitude of Ex(t) and Hy(t) and calculating the frequency of the PC3, the apparent
resistivity can be calculated at 1 frequency (see assignment 1).
 You can seen the phase difference between the electric and magnetic fields in the example above. Can
you estimate the phase difference? This is the phase angle derived in 1.
3.2.4 (Very) low frequency MT signals from magnetic storms
 When the solar wind varies with time (usually when it is moving at a high velocity), the Earth’s
magnetic field is said to be disturbed.
 Magnetic storms occur when the current systems change over a period of several days and the
field at the Earth’s surface can change by 100’s of nanotesla. These changes are largestbeneath major
ionospheric current systems. Magnetic storms are caused by a range of solar phenomena such as flares
and coronal mass ejections.
 Smaller disturbances are classified as substorms and bays and have timescales of several hours.
 The figure below shows a typical long-period MT time series. It was recorded in 1995 in Tibet when
sunspot activity was low (the previous solar minimum). Data recorded with a LIMS instrument using a
Narod Geophysics fluxgate magnetometer.
 Very low frequency oscillations of the magnetosphere can be generated by major changes in the solar
wind. Note the magnetic storm in the time series plotted above, a little over half way through the
recording.
 Note also the daily variation in magnetic field. This is caused by the Earth rotating in the solar wind.
 Apart from the small storm on day 13, this MT time series is very quiet.
 Are Ex(t)-Hy(t) and Ey(t)-Hx(t) coherent? Note that at these low frequencies, the E-fields are high pass
filtered, with a cut off at 30,000 s. This is because at a period of 1 day (T = 86,400 s), very large signals
are generated by thermoelectric effects in the electrodes. Also, EM fields with a period of 1 day are not
plane waves, and many of the assumptions upon which MT relies are not valid.
 At frequencies below one day, MT works again, provided that the more complicated nature of the
source is accounted for. See Egbert and Booker (1992a,b) for details of long-period MT. The major
problem is stability of electric fields and the fact that the EM fields are not plane waves at long-period.
 At longer periods the fields can be expressed as spherical harmonics and the ratio of magnetic field
components used to estimate impedance of the Earth. Estimates at periods of 11 years have been obtained
(energy from sun-spot cycle) and sample the mantle. See Olson (1999) for details. e.g. with σ = 1 S/m,
what is the skin depth at 1 years? What about 11 years?
 The step at day 13 is represents a polarized magnetic field. That is, it occurs mainly in Hx as a
consequence of the N-S orientation of the Earths internal magnetic field.
 Solar activity is characterized by an 11 year cycle
 Maximum solar activity results in large time variations of the Earth’s externalmagnetic field, frequent
magnetic storms and strong auroral displays. Photos below were taken during the last solar maximum in
2002 – 2003.
 The last sunspot minimum was particularly quiet with almost no sunspots from summer 2008 to
summer 2009. MT data quality was low at that time, especially at low latitudes (far from the sources in
the auroral zone).
 At the last solar minimum, the solar was blowing at the slowest in 50 years as
reported by the BBC at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7632331.stm
 In the past there have been periods of time with almost no sunspots e.g. the socalled Maunder
minimum from 1645 -1715 that was described by Eddy (1976).
 In 2008 some people speculated that another Maunder minimum had begun. However the sunspots
returned and it has been possible to collect high quality MT data once more.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maunder_Minimum
 This subject is important is that the amount of solar radiation may also decrease during these times. The
Maunder minimum coincided with below average global temperatures, suggesting that climate was
modulated by solar output.
 For an updated view of the surface of the sun, look at the images at
www.solarcycle24.com.
3.2.5 Magnetic forecasts
 A number of agencies issue predictions (space weather forecasts) of upcoming variations in the Earth’s
magnetic field. This is used by operators of power grids and satellites.
 These forecasts can also be useful for planning geophysical surveys. MT surveys benefit from high
signal levels, although beneath the auroral zone the data will have non-plane wave effects that make
interpretation difficult. It can also be difficult to collect high quality magnetic data during magnetic
storms, and the telluric signals can also be noise in DC resistivity and IP surveys at high latitudes
during magnetic storms.
 One common measure of the strength of geomagnetic activity is the planetary Kindex. See
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/info/Kindex.html for a definition
 Today’s data can be seen at http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/alerts/k-index.html
 Sunspot number predictions are made by www.sidc.be
 Since magnetic field activity causes aurora, predictions can be made for the chance of seeing the aurora.

3.3 Magnetotelluric time series analysis

 These field components are then Fourier transformed into the frequency domain to give estimates of
{Ex(ω) , Ey(ω), Hx(ω) , Hy(ω), Hz(ω)}
 Apparent resistivity, ρa (ω), and phase, Φ(ω), are then computed as a function of frequency.
ρxy (ω) and Φ(ω)xy are computed from Ex and Hy
ρyx (ω) and Φ(ω)yx are computed from Ey and Hx
 If the Earth is 1-D then ρxy (ω) = ρyx (ω). Generally this is not the case and 2-D or
3-D modelling and inversion is needed.
 1-D analysis of 2-D MT data has greatly hindered the development of the MT
method!
3.3.1 Analogue and digital recording
 Analogue input signal is converted into a digital representation, using an analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC). The recorded signal is represented by a set of discrete values (numbers).
 Consider the example below with an 8 Hz sinusoidal signal with amplitude 1 V as input.
 Panel on left shows digitization with N = 8 quantization levels dividing the fullscale range (FSR)
between the maximum and minimum possible values. FSR = 4 volts.
 This is clearly not enough to accurately represent a sinusoidal signal.
 Resolution can be expressed as R = FSR/N and in this example R = 0.5 volts
 Panel on right shows same signal with 32 quantization levels. This is better, but not really enough and R
= 0.125 V
 Modern MT systems use ADC’s with 224 quantization levels (16777216). This gives the instrument a
broad dynamic range, so that it can record both large amplitude and small amplitude signals reliable. FSR
= 4 V gives R = 0.24 μV
 See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter for more details
3.3.2 Saturation
 MT instruments have an amplifier that allows small signals to be recorded.
 The ADC has a full scale range denoted by the red lines ( in this case FSR = 4V)
 In left panel the gain is G = 1 and there is some digitization noise (sine curve not represented smoothly
by the digitized values)
 Right panel shows gain increased to G = 2.8. Note that the steep part of the sine curve is now better
represented in the digitized version (smoother!)
 However the amplified signal exceeds the full-scale range of the ADC and the sinusoidal signal is
clipped.
 Information is lost in the flat parts of the curve and this situation should be avoided.
 Digitization noise is always preferable to saturation.
3.3.3 Sample rate and Nyquist frequency
 The 8 Hz signal is well sampled with sample rates of 256 Hz and 64 Hz
 With sample rate = 32 Hz (4 samples per cycle) the signal amplitude is recovered.
 Plot on right shows signal with phase shift of 45°.
 With a sample rate of 16 Hz detection of the signal is just possible. Depending onthe relative phase of
the input signal and the digital sampling either (a) zero crossings or (b) maximum and minimum values
will be recorded.
 Thus the maximum frequency that can be detected is called the Nyquist frequency. This is defined as
half the sample rate.
The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem
“If a function x(t) contains no frequencies higher than B cps, it is completely determined by giving its
ordinates at a series of points spaced 1/(2B) seconds apart.” Shannon (1949)
3.3.4 Aliasing
Aliasing refers to measurements (in space or time) that are insufficient to sample the quantity being
measured. For example, it was once reported that migrating birds returned most often on Saturdays or
Sundays. Clearly this is a result of more bird watchers being outside at weekends. Aliasing is also an
issue in time series recording.
Consider a input analogue signal composed of two frequencies (f1 and f2)
 At sample rate of 256 Hz, both frequencies are recorded.
 At sample rate of 32 Hz, only the lower frequency (f1) is detected. The complete absence of the higher
frequency (f2) is a consequence that the sample rate is a multiple of the higher frequency.
 If the high frequency is not a multiple of the sample rate, the situation is more complicated. The higher
frequency causes noise, even when sample rate is less than f2 .
 This phenomena is called aliasing. It can be overcome by filtering the data to remove all frequencies
greater than the sample rate. Typically this uses a low pass (anti-alias) filter.
3.3.5 Length of recording
 The lowest frequency that will be detected in a time series is f = 1 /L where L isthe length of time in
seconds.
 Averaging over multiple cycles of the signal is required to get an accurate estimate of a given
frequency. This typically requires at least 20 cycles.
 Broadband MT example : To measure ρa (ω) and Φ(ω) at 20 Hz, at least 1 second of data is needed.
 Long period MT example : To estimate ρa (ω) and Φ(ω) at a period of 20,000 s (5.5 hours), data should
be recorded for at least 110 hours. In reality, longer recordings are often needed since the MT signal is
not always present.
3.3.6 Simple processing demonstration
MATLAB TS code : mt_process_mju_may7_2008 and features:
 NIMS data processing from 2 stations in Canadian Cordillera from 2006
 Remote reference
 Coherence weighting
 EDI file output
3.3.7 Remote reference technique and noise
 One important development in MT has been improved signal processing ( i.e. making sure the Fourier
transform only takes account of E-H field combinations that are coherent. This requires that local noise
be excluded from the analysis.
The problem
 It can be shown that the impedance can be estimated from Ex(ω) and Hy(ω) as
 Assuming that magnetic/electric fields are not coherent with the noise: nH H 0 y ()  0 nH E0x ()  0
 Also, it can be assumed that noise in Ex(ω) and Hy(ω) are incoherent so that 0
 However, the magnetic field noise is coherent with itself and thus the autopower term  0
 The impedance is therefore given by
 This means that the effect of noise in the magnetic field will be to make the estimate of Z
xy(ω) smaller than the true value.
 This is illustrated in the extreme example below from Amchitka Island, Alaska. On a windy day,
magnetic noise is generated by ground motion and the apparent resistivity is down-biased over the whole
frequency band 10-0.1 Hz
MT data recorded on Amchitka Island, Alaska. (a) No remote reference (b) with remote
reference to remove effect of ground motion that causes noise in the magnetic fields. See
Unsworth et al., Geophysics, (2007) for more details.
The solution – remote reference
 Solution to this problem is to use the remote reference technique and to record
magnetic fields at a second location as proposed by Gamble et al., (1979). This
should measure the same signal but different noise.
Local data Remote magnetic data
Ex ()  E0x ()  nE H y ()  H 0 y ()  nH Ry ()  R0 y ()  nR
The impedance can now be written as:
The lack of an autopower term in the denominator removes the downward bias in the local data. The
figure above shows that the use of a remote reference greatly improves the quality of the MT data
 Typical sources of noise include:
Ground motion (wind, distant ocean, foot traffic, trains …)
Electric power lines (even after a notch filter is used at50 or 60 Hz)
Electric trains (DC is really bad with ground return such as BART)
Cathodically protected pipelines
Water pumps
Vehicles and trains
Electric fences
Animals eating cables
Water flowing over electrodes
In other words, finding an electrically quiet location can be difficult!
 How remote should the remote reference be? A remote MT station should be out of range of the
noise, but close enough to measure essentially the same signal. To eliminate ground motion, 500 m is
often enough. To eliminate the effect of DC electric trains, 500 km might be needed. See Goubau et al.,
(1984).
 MT data should always be collected with a remote reference in operation. No excuses please!
Timing
Application of the remote reference requires that both instruments are synchronized.
How accurate should this be?
In the early days of MT, timing has used:
 A cable between the stations
 Manual synchronization with timing signals from radio stations e.g. 5, 10, 15 MHz signals from Fort
Collins, Colorado.
 Manual alignment of time-series after data collection has finished
 High precision (bulky, expensive) rubidium clocks
Modern systems use timing signals from GPS satellites (very convenient, except in dense forest and in
seafloor MT instruments)
References
Eddy JA, The Maunder Minimum, Science, 192, 1189 – 1202, 1976.
Egbert GD and JR Booker, Very Long Period Magnetotellurics at Tucson
Observatory: Implications for Mantle Conductivity, JGR, 97, 15,099-15,112, 1992.
Egbert GD, and JR Booker, Very Long Period Magnetotellurics at Tucson
Observatory: Estimation of impedances, JGR, 97, 15,113-15,128, 1992.
Gamble TB, WM Goubau, J Clarke, Magnetotellurics with a remote reference,
Geophysics, 44, 53-68, 1979.
Goubau WM, PM Maxton, RH Koch, and J Clarke, Noise correlation lengths in
remote reference magnetotellurics, Geophysics, 49, 433-438, 1984.
Jones FW and LP Geldart, Vertical telluric currents, Earth and Planetary Science
Letters, 2, 69-74, 1967.
Olsen N, Long-period (30 days-1 year) electromagnetic sounding and the electrical
conductivity of the lower mantle beneath Europe, GJI, 138, 179-187, 1999.
Shannon CE, "Communication in the presence of noise", Proc. Institute of Radio
Engineers, vol. 37, no.1, pp. 10-21, Jan. 1949.
Sims WE, FX Bostick and HW Smith, The Estimation of Magnetotelluric Impedance
Tensor Elements from Measured Data, Geophysics, 36, 938-942, 1971.
Unsworth MJ, W Soyer, V Tuncer, A Wagner, D Barnes, Hydrogeologic assessment
of the Amchitka Island nuclear test site (Alaska) with magnetotellurics, Geophysics,
72 (3), B47-B57, 2007.