Discrete-Time Signal May Also Be Written As A Sequence of Numbers Inside Braces

•  Signals represented as sequences of •  Discrete-time signal may also be written as
numbers, called samples a sequence of numbers inside braces:

•  Sample value of a typical signal or sequence
denoted as x[n] with n being an integer in
the range −∞ ≤ n ≤ ∞ •  In the above,
•  x[n] defined only for integer values of n and etc.
undefined for noninteger values of n
•  The arrow is placed under the sample at
•  Discrete-time
€ signal represented by {x[n]} time index n = 0
1 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 2 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra
•  In some applications, a discrete-time

•  Graphical representation of a discrete-time sequence {x[n]} may be generated by
signal with real-valued samples is as shown periodically sampling a continuous-time
below: signal at uniform intervals of time
•  Here, n-th sample is given by •  Unit of sampling frequency is cycles per

second, or hertz (Hz), if T is in seconds
•  The spacing T between two consecutive •  Whether or not the sequence {x[n]} has
samples is called the sampling interval or been obtained by sampling, the quantity x
sampling period [n] is called the n-th sample of the
•  Reciprocal of sampling interval T, denoted sequence
as , is called the sampling frequency: •  {x[n]} is a real sequence, if the n-th sample
x[n] is real for all values of n
•  Otherwise, {x[n]} is a complex sequence
•  A complex sequence {x[n]} can be written •  Example - is a real
as where sequence
and are the real and imaginary •  is a complex sequence
parts of x[n] •  We can write
•  The complex conjugate sequence of {x[n]}
is given by
•  Often the braces are ignored to denote a where
sequence if there is no ambiguity
•  Two types of discrete-time signals:

•  Example -
- Sampled-data signals in which samples
are continuous-valued
is the complex conjugate sequence of {y[n]} - Digital signals in which samples are
•  That is, discrete-valued
•  Signals in a practical digital signal
processing system are digital signals
obtained by quantizing the sample values
either by rounding or truncation
•  Example - •  A discrete-time signal may be a finite-

length or an infinite-length sequence
Amplitude
Amplitude
•  Finite-length (also called finite-duration or

finite-extent) sequence is defined only for a
finite time interval:
where and with
Boxcar signal Digital signal •  Length or duration of the above finite-
length sequence is
•  A length-N sequence is often referred to as
•  Example - is a finite- an N-point sequence
length sequence of length
•  The length of a finite-length sequence can

is an infinite-length sequence be increased by zero-padding, i.e., by
appending it with zeros
•  Example - •  A right-sided sequence x[n] has zero-

valued samples for
is a finite-length sequence of length 12

obtained by zero-padding
with 4 zero-valued samples A right-sided sequence
•  If a right-sided sequence is called a

causal sequence
•  A left-sided sequence x[n] has zero-valued •  Size of a Signal

samples for
Given by the norm of the signal
L -norm
A left-sided sequence
•  If a left-sided sequence is called a where p is a positive integer

anti-causal sequence
•  The value of p is typically 1 or 2 or L1 -norm
is the mean absolute value of {x[n]}
L2 -norm
L -norm
is the peak absolute value of {x[n]}, i.e.
is the root-mean-squared (rms) value of {x
[n]}
Example
•  A single-input, single-output discrete-time
•  Let {y[n]}, , be an approximation of
{x[n]}, system operates on a sequence, called the
•  An estimate of the relative error is given by the
input sequence, according some prescribed
ratio of the L2 -norm of the difference signal and rules and develops another sequence, called
the L2 -norm of {x[n]}: the output sequence, with more desirable
⎛ N−1 1/ 2 properties
2 ⎞
⎜ ∑ y[n] − x[n] ⎟ Discrete-time
Erel = ⎜ n=0N−1 ⎟ x[n] system
y[n]
⎜ 2 ⎟ Input sequence Output sequence
⎜ ∑ x[n] ⎟
21 ⎝ n=0 ⎠ Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 22 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra
•  Product (modulation) operation:

•  For example, the input may be a signal x[n] y[n]
corrupted with additive noise –  Modulator
w[n]
•  Discrete-time system is designed to
generate an output by removing the noise •  An application is in forming a finite-length
component from the input sequence from an infinite-length sequence
•  In most cases, the operation defining a by multiplying the latter with a finite-length
particular discrete-time system is composed sequence called an window sequence
of some elementary operations •  Process called windowing
•  Multiplication operation
A
•  Subtraction operation
–  Multiplier x[n] y[n] By inverting the signs of all samples of w
[n], an adder can also implement the
•  Addition operation subtraction operation
–  Adder x[n] y[n]
w[n]
•  Time-shifting operation:
•  Time-reversal (folding) operation:
where N is an integer
•  If N > 0, it is delaying operation
–  Unit delay
x[n] y[n]
•  Branching operation: Used to provide
multiple copies of a sequence
•  If N < 0, it is an advance operation
x[n] x[n]
x[n] y[n]
–  Unit advance x[n]
•  Example - Consider the two following

sequences of length 5 defined for :
•  As pointed out by the above example,

•  New sequences generated from the above operations on two or more sequences can be
two sequences by applying the basic carried out if all sequences involved are of
operations are as follows: same length and defined for the same range
of the time index n
•  However if the sequences are not of same •  We cannot add the length-3 sequence
length, in some situations, this problem can to the length-5 sequence {a[n]} defined
be circumvented by appending zero-valued earlier
samples to the sequence(s) of smaller •  We therefore first append with 2
lengths to make all sequences have the same zero-valued samples resulting in a length-5
range of the time index sequence
•  Example - Consider the sequence of length •  Then
3 defined for :
Ensemble Averaging •  While the additive noise vector is random

•  A very simple application of the addition and not reproducible
operation in improving the quality of •  Let denote the noise vector corrupting
measured data corrupted by an additive the i-th measurement of the uncorrupted
random noise
data vector s:
•  In some cases, actual uncorrupted data
vector s remains essentially the same from
one measurement to next Measured data vector Noise vector
Uncorrupted data vector
•  Example
•  The average data vector, called the
ensemble average, obtained after K
measurements is given by
•  For large values of K, is usually a

reasonable replica of the desired data vector
s

•  The summation
•  Example -
is called the convolution sum of the

sequences x[n] and h[n] and represented
compactly as
y[n] = x[n] * h[n]
•  We illustrate the convolution operation for

the following two sequences:
•  Figures on the next several slides the steps

involved in the computation of
y[n] = x[n] * h[n]


•  Example - Develop the sequence y[n]

generated by the convolution of the
sequences x[n] and h[n] shown below
x[n]
h[n]
n n
•  As can be seen from the shifted time- •  As a result, for n < 0, the product of the k-th
reversed version for n < 0, shown samples of {x[k]} and is always
below for , for any value of the zero, and hence
sample index k, the k-th sample of either {x y[n] = 0 for n < 0
[k]} or is zero •  Consider now the computation of y[0]
•  The sequence
k
is shown
k
on the right
•  For the computation of y[1], we shift
•  The product sequence is plotted to the right by one sample period to form
below which has a single nonzero sample as shown below on the left
x[0]h[0] for k = 0
•  The product sequence is
shown below on the right
k
k
k
•  Thus
55
•  Hence,
56
Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra
•  To calculate y[2], we form as •  Continuing the process we get

shown below on the left
•  The product sequence is
plotted below on the right
2
1
–1
–4 –3 –2 0 1 2 3 5
k k
4
–1
•  From the plot of for n > 7 and the

plot of {x[k]} as shown below, it can be •  The sequence {y[n]} generated by the
seen that there is no overlap between these convolution sum is shown below
two sequences y[n]
•  As a result y[n] = 0 for n > 7

x[k]
2 n
1
5
k k
2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11
–1
•  Note: The sum of indices of each sample
product inside the convolution sum is equal •  In the example considered the convolution
to the index of the sample being generated of a sequence {x[n]} of length 5 with a
by the convolution operation sequence {h[n]} of length 4 resulted in a
sequence {y[n]} of length 8
•  For example, the computation of y[3] in the
previous example involves the products x[0] •  In general, if the lengths of the two
h[3], x[1]h[2], x[2]h[1], and x[3]h[0] sequences being convolved are M and N,
•  The sum of indices in each of these products then the sequence generated by the
convolution is of length
is equal to 3
•  Employed to generate a new sequence y[n] •  In up-sampling by an integer factor L > 1,

with a sampling rate higher or lower equidistant zero-valued samples are
than that of the sampling rate of a given inserted by the up-sampler between each
sequence x[n] two consecutive samples of the input
•  Sampling rate alteration ratio is sequence x[n]:
•  If R > 1, the process called interpolation

•  If R < 1, the process called decimation L
•  An example of the up-sampling operation •  In down-sampling by an integer factor

M > 1, every M-th samples of the input
sequence are kept and in-between
samples are removed:

•  An example of the down-sampling
operation
67 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

Discrete-Time Signal May Also Be Written As A Sequence of Numbers Inside Braces

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• Signals represented as sequences of • Discrete-time signal may also be written as

numbers, called samples a sequence of numbers inside braces:

• In some applications, a discrete-time

3 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 4 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• Here, n-th sample is given by • Unit of sampling frequency is cycles per

• Two types of discrete-time signals:

• Example - • A discrete-time signal may be a finite-

• Finite-length (also called finite-duration or

• The length of a finite-length sequence can

13 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 14 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• Example - • A right-sided sequence x[n] has zero-

is a finite-length sequence of length 12

• If a right-sided sequence is called a

• A left-sided sequence x[n] has zero-valued • Size of a Signal

• If a left-sided sequence is called a where p is a positive integer

19 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 20 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• Product (modulation) operation:

• Example - Consider the two following

• As pointed out by the above example,

Ensemble Averaging • While the additive noise vector is random

33 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 34 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• For large values of K, is usually a

35 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 36 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

is called the convolution sum of the

37 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 38 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• We illustrate the convolution operation for

• Figures on the next several slides the steps

41 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 42 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

45 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 46 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

47 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 48 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• Example - Develop the sequence y[n]

51 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 52 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• To calculate y[2], we form as • Continuing the process we get

57 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 58 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

• From the plot of for n > 7 and the

• As a result y[n] = 0 for n > 7

• Employed to generate a new sequence y[n] • In up-sampling by an integer factor L > 1,

• If R > 1, the process called interpolation

• An example of the up-sampling operation • In down-sampling by an integer factor

65 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra 66 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

67 Copyright © 2010, S. K. Mitra

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen

•  Signals represented as sequences of •  Discrete-time signal may also be written as

•  In some applications, a discrete-time

•  Here, n-th sample is given by •  Unit of sampling frequency is cycles per

•  Two types of discrete-time signals:

•  Example - •  A discrete-time signal may be a finite-

•  Finite-length (also called finite-duration or

•  The length of a finite-length sequence can

•  Example - •  A right-sided sequence x[n] has zero-

•  If a right-sided sequence is called a

•  A left-sided sequence x[n] has zero-valued •  Size of a Signal

•  If a left-sided sequence is called a where p is a positive integer

•  Product (modulation) operation:

•  Example - Consider the two following

•  As pointed out by the above example,

Ensemble Averaging •  While the additive noise vector is random

•  For large values of K, is usually a

•  We illustrate the convolution operation for

•  Figures on the next several slides the steps

•  Example - Develop the sequence y[n]

•  To calculate y[2], we form as •  Continuing the process we get

•  From the plot of for n > 7 and the

•  As a result y[n] = 0 for n > 7

•  Employed to generate a new sequence y[n] •  In up-sampling by an integer factor L > 1,

•  If R > 1, the process called interpolation

•  An example of the up-sampling operation •  In down-sampling by an integer factor