Module 1

Sound: is a vibration that propagates as a typically audible mechanical wave of

pressure and displacement, through a medium such as air or water.
Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical
waves in gases, liquids, and solids including topics such as vibration, sound, ultrasound
and infrasound.
Architectural acoustics (also known as room acoustics and building acoustics) is
the science and engineering of achieving a good sound within a building and is a branch
of acoustical engineering.
Sound engineering is a highly technical job. Becoming an audio engineer requires
excellent computer skills and proficiency in working with electronic equipment.
Noise is a sound, especially one that is loud or unpleasant or that causes disturbance.
Termology:
Longitudinal waves- Longitudinal waves, also known as "l waves", are waves in
which the displacement of the medium is in the same direction as, or the opposite
direction to, the direction of travel of the wave.
Frequency- Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in alternating
current direction. The standard unit of frequency is the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a
current completes one cycle per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz.
Frequency = No. of Oscillation / Time taken
Intensity- Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area. The usual
context is the measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's location. The
basic units are watts/m2 or watts/cm2.

 Amplitude- The amplitude of a variable is a measure of its change over a single period.
The maximum height observed in the wave is called as Amplitude. It is denoted by
A and is given in decibels (dB).
The Amplitude Formula is given by

Where D is the distance traveled by the wave and

F is the frequency of the wave
 Amplitude strictly depends on the total energy of the system, whereas frequency of an
oscillation depends on the properties of the oscillator itself. Amplitude is uniformal
whereas frequency can be uniform or non-uniform.

Characteristic of Sound:
 Sound travels in longitudinal waves.
 Sound waves have frequency; that is, the pitch of sounds goes up or down.
 The amplitude of a sound determines its volume (loudness).
 Tone is a measure of the quality of a sound wave.
 Sound travels faster in a hot medium, or in a solid.
 Ultrasound uses sound waves with high frequencies to see things normally hard to
detect, like tumors. Animals, like bats and dolphins, use ultrasound (echolocation) to
navigate and locate things.
 Sound intensity is the energy transmitted over a certain area. Intensity is a measure of
the sound's frequency.

Decibel Scale- A decibel scale is a scale which shows the different values of sound
having different amplitude.
Measurement of Sound:
The energy in a sound wave can be measured using Decibels. The Decibel
Meter shows examples of things that make noise and measurements in decibels.
Amplitude measures how forceful the wave is. It is measured in decibels or dBA
of sound pressure.
Auditory Range:
Hearing range describes the range of frequencies that can be heard by humans or other animals,
though it can also refer to the range of levels. The human range is commonly given as 20 to
20,000 Hz.

Effects of Noise on human:

 Noise health effects are the health consequences of regular exposure, to
consistent elevated sound levels.
 Elevated workplace or other noise can cause hearing
impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance, and sleep
disturbance.
  Changes in the immune system and birth defects have been attributed to noise
exposure.
 Noise exposure also has been known to
induce tinnitus, hypertension,vasoconstriction, and other cardiovascular adverse
effects.
 Beyond these effects, elevated noise levels can create stress, increase
workplace accident rates, and stimulate aggression and other anti-social
behaviors.
 The most significant causes are vehicle and aircraft noise, prolonged exposure
to loud music, and industrial noise.
Loudness: is the characteristic of a sound that is primarily a psychological correlate of
physical strength (amplitude). More formally, it is defined as "that attribute of auditory
sensation in terms of which sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to
loud".

Module 2

Acoustic Environment: Acoustic Environment is defined as the environment is which

is noise proof and use of materials which produce better quality of sound. The acoustic
environment can affect us as we can become stress free and high blood pressure free.
Behavior of Space In closed Scale:
• Reflection: this occurs when the wavelength of a sound wave is smaller than the
surface of an obstacle. In the case of an enclosed space, the sound waves hit every
side of the enclosure continuously until the sound energy reduces to zero.

• Absorption: Acoustic absorption refers to the process by which a material, structure,

or object takes in sound energy when sound waves are encountered, as opposed to
reflecting the energy. Part of the absorbed energy is transformed into heat and part is
transmitted through the absorbing body.

• Refraction: Refraction of sound waves is most evident in situations in which

the sound wave passes through a medium with gradually varying properties. For
example, sound waves are known to refract when traveling over water.

• Diffusion: Diffusion, in acoustics and architectural engineering, is the efficacy by

which sound energy is spread evenly in a given environment. A perfectly
diffusive sound space is one that has certain key acoustic properties which are the
same anywhere in the space.

• Diffraction: Diffraction describes how waves bend, or change direction, as they

travel around the edges of obstacles. Diffraction occurs in water waves, sound waves,
and light waves, but the amount of diffraction depends on the size of the obstacle or
opening in relation to the wavelength of the wave.

• Transmission: The vibration of an object, a sound source, causes waves to

be transmitted through air (usually) to our ears. It is this undulatory motion of air
particles that triggers a cascade of mechanical and electrical events leading, ultimately,
to the sensation of hearing.

Geometrical acoustics:
 Geometrical acoustics or ray acoustics is a branch of acoustics that studies
propagation of sound on the basis of the concept of rays considered as lines
along which the acoustic energy is transported.
 This concept is similar to the concept of geometrical optics, or ray optics, which is
valid in the limiting case of very small acoustic wavelengths, or very high
frequencies.
 The principal task of geometrical acoustics is to determine the trajectories of
sound rays. The rays have the simplest form in a homogeneous medium, where
they are straight lines.
 If the acoustic parameters of the medium are functions of spatial coordinates, the
ray trajectories become curvilinear, describing sound reflection, refraction,
possible focusing, etc.
 The same laws of reflection and refraction hold for sound rays as for light rays
However, it provides a very good approximation when the wavelength is very
small compared to the characteristic dimensions of inhomogeneous inclusions
through which the sound propagates.

Acoustic Defects:
(1) Reverberation: Reverberation means the prolonged reflection of sound from wall
floor or roof of a hall. When the sound is reflected back resulting in formation of
echoes, but sometimes this reflection of sound does not stop even the sound is died
out. The sound reflected back and forth against the walls, ceilings and floors for
several times this is mainly when sound in closed spaces successively reflected by
the smooth boundaries of the enclosed space. In this condition there is very little or
no energy is lost in multiple reflections and the echoes produced having maximum
intensity for long time. This is nothing but the reverberation.

(2) Formation of echoes: An echo (plural echoes) is a reflection of sound, sometime

after the direct sound. Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well,
by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true echo is a
single reflection of the sound source
(3) Sound foci: Sound foci are the defect originated from concave reflecting surfaces.
This creates sound of large intensity. By proper designing and by providing highly
absorbent materials, this defect can be eliminated.

(4) Dead spots: Dead spots are places where destructive interference occurs from the
interaction of two or more sound waves. Some of the waves hit the walls of the
auditorium, while other waves travel directly to the listeners. In some situations, a direct
wave can destructively interfere with a reflected wave so they cancel each other out at
that particular location. As a result, the listeners seated in those particular seats would
hear nothing from that soloist.

(5) Insufficient loudness: In case of theatre or large auditoriums, the speaker’s voice
or music from the stage should be easily audible in all parts of the hall at a uniform
intensity of loudness. To achieve this, the sound waves should be properly reflected and
uniform ally spread all over the interior part of the auditorium. But due to the lack of
sound reflecting flat surfaces near the sound source or stage and excessive absorption
of sound in the hall resulting the defect of insufficient loudness.

(6)External noise

Solutions:

 Absorbents or acoustical material are used.

 Sound Foci defect can be minimized by providing proper geometrical design.
Shape of the interior faces including ceiling and also by providing absorbent
materials on focusing areas.
 Dead spots defect can be minimized by providing diffusers, which provides the
uniform distribution of sound throughout the auditorium.
 Insufficient loudness can be minimized by providing hard surface near the stage
and absorbent material should be provided as per the requirements. Also the
location of the loud-speakers should be adjusted. So that there is no dead spots
and sound foci. Also use of adequate no of windows or door openings

Sound Proof Material:

 Roxul AFB Rockwool Insulation
 Green Glue Compound & Sealant
 Soundproof Foam Panels
 Resilient Channels, Sound Clips
 Soundproof Curtain
 Soundproof Windows
Reverberation Time:
The time gap between the initial direct note & the reflected note up to a minimum
audibility level is called as reverberation time. When the source emits sound, the waves
spread out and the listener is aware of the commencement of sound. When the direct
waves reach his ears subsequently the listener receives sound energy due to reflected
waves also. If the note is continuously sounded, the intensity of sound at the listener’s
ear gradually increases. After some time, a balance is reached between the energy
emitted per sound by the source and energy lost or dissipated by walls or other
materials.
The Value of reverberation time depends on the volume and they are of the room is
t = 0.166 V/as
Where t = Reverberation time in seconds. V = Volume of the room in m2 as = Total
absorption of various absorption units in m2 Sabin’ss
Sabine’s Formula:

Sabine's reverberation equation was developed in the late 1890s in

an empirical fashion. He established a relationship between the RT60 of a room, its
volume, and its total absorption (insabins). This is given by the equation:

.
Where is the speed of sound in the room (for 20 degrees Celsius), is the
volume of the room in m³, total surface area of room in m², is the average
absorption coefficient of room surfaces, and the product is the total absorption in
Sabin’s.
The reverberation time RT60 and the volume V of the room have great influence on
the critical distance dc (conditional equation):

Where critical distance is measured in meters, volume is measured in m³, and

reverberation time is measured in seconds.

Live room: The typical recording studio consists of a room called the "studio" or "live
room". Live rooms, on the other hand, bounce sound around in a way pleasing to the ear.
Dead Room: The sound of a room that is completely dead is very unnatural sounding. If
you have ever been inside of an anechoic chamber, you can hear yourself breathing,
possibly a soft ringing noise from your ears, and when you talk, your voice sounds very
tiny and strange.
 Module 3

Auditorium: An auditorium is a room built to enable an audience to hear and watch

performances at venues such as theatres.
 Shape:
Rectangular shoebox type structure with stage at one narrow end is perfect for
music and great ratio of reverberant sound is desired. However rectangular
geometry is suitable for small hall only.
Splayed walls should be used for better seating and reflects better sound energy.
30’ or 60’ angle should be used for seating.

 Size:

The bigger the room, the more sound it can hold. Conversely, a sound in a small
room will be louder than if played in a big room. Turn up the volume of a radio in
a small plaster room. It’s plenty loud anywhere in the room. Then move the radio,
same volume setting, into a big church and step way back, the radio now seems
quiet. Big rooms swallow sound. It takes a lot sounder to fill up a big room than a
small room.

 Geometry: Two different shaped rooms might have the same cubic volume but
different surface areas. If they have the same volume, they both can hold the same
amount of sound. But, the room with the larger surface area will have its sound die
out faster. Conversely, two different shaped rooms may have the same surface
area but different volumes. The room with the larger volume will store more sound,
and it will take longer for sound to die out in the larger room.

 Ceiling: Ceiling reflectors are used to direct sound energy from stage towards
listener. Smooth ceiling should not be in parallel to the floor. Concave surface,
domes and arches should be avoided as they can produce sound foci.
 Floor: A sloped floor allows more direct angles of incidence and less sound
absorption. Slope of auditorium should not be less than 8’.

 Walls: Walls are highly sound absorptive in nature. Concave walls focus sound
undesirably.
Studio:

 The sound should be sufficiently loud in the studio.

 The studio must be free from internal or external noise.
 The studio must be free from echoes or other interfering reflections.
 The reflecting boundaries of the studio have to be so disposed as to
provide a nearly uniform distribution of sound energy throughout the
studio.
 The studio must be free from undesirable resonance.
Theaters:

 Although the seating area will provide absorption, thereby reducing the
reverberation time need to add absorptive materials to the other surfaces within
the space.
 Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation time in the
stage area should be the same as in the house. Since the stage area might have
a higher ceiling than the rest of the theater, more absorptive materials might be
required in this area.
 The back wall of the stage, and possibly one or both of the side walls, is treated
with an acoustically absorptive material, typically black in color.
 It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall
 If there is a balcony, consider adding an acoustic treatment to its face to avoid
slap back.
 Splay or use irregular surfaces on the walls to avoid flutter echoes. Parallel
reflective surfaces can allow sound to "ricochet" back and forth between the
surfaces.
 Noise from the lobby area can be disruptive. Be sure openings such as doorways
are properly sealed. Consider a vestibule door system.
 Persons seated deep under a balcony might experience auditory distortion. To
avoid this, the balcony should be no deeper than twice its height. Ideally, the
balcony should not be any deeper than its height.

Church & Cathedral:

 Angle the side walls slightly near the front of the church to project more sound to
the back.
  The roof peak over the pastor catches the upward moving sound, compresses it
with its megaphone shape and then reflects the sound right back down.
Classroom:
 In a class room, it is important to ensure good speech and listening comfort.
 The most important aspect in achieving listening comfort is the audibility and
clarity of consonants. This is due to the fact that comprehension of speech is
dependent on consonants.
 In addition, interfering noise must be reduced
 Speech comfort is ensured by creating a sense of reverb in order for the rhetoric
effects to be used. If too much sound is absorbed, the rhetoric effects of the
speech will disappear. If too little sound is absorbed, the noise will impede the
listening comfort.
 Acoustic design Rectangular room, 50 to 70 m².
 Ceiling height max. 3 m.
 Ceiling: acoustic materials with sound absorbing and diffusing properties, as well
as a small amount of reflexion.
 Walls: sound absorbing materials with diffusion characteristics.