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B. J. Music Ed.

2014 31:1, 85–98 


C Cambridge University Press 2013

doi:10.1017/S0265051713000144 First published online 3 July 2013

Teaching stage fright? – Implications for music educators


Tim Patston

The Peninsula School, Mount Eliza, Victoria, Australia, 3930

tpatston@tps.vic.edu.au

Music performance anxiety (MPA) is a widely acknowledged condition in the field of


music performance. However, MPA is rarely discussed in the field of music education.
Classroom, studio and conservatoire teachers observe their students experiencing MPA
related to performances, examinations or auditions, but few have the prerequisite skills to
manage the condition. It is therefore essential for music educators to gain an understanding
of MPA in order to assist their students. This paper discusses the nature of MPA and its
prevalence in the various populations which have been reported in the literature, including
children and adolescents, undergraduates, amateur and professional musicians, and music
educators. The paper argues that music educators have a critical role in the developmental
trajectory of the condition and provides music educators with advice on how teaching
practice can ameliorate developing or extant MPA in their students.

Introduction
Music performance anxiety (MPA), colloquially referred to as stage fright, is a widely
acknowledged condition in the field of music performance. Many famous (and not so
famous) performers, from Chopin (Liszt, 1913) to Barbara Streisand (Kenny, 2011), have
acknowledged the debilitating effects of this psychological condition. However, MPA is
rarely discussed in the field of music education. Classroom, studio and conservatoire
teachers observe their students experiencing MPA related to performances, examinations
or auditions, but few have the prerequisite skills to manage the condition (Kenny, 2011).
Whilst the origins of MPA are still to be adequately researched, there is an increasing
body of evidence as to the prevalence of the condition (Gratto, 1998; Huston, 2001;
Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Kokotsaki & Davidson, 2003; Jabusch & Altenmüller, 2004;
Fehm & Schmidt, 2006). There is anecdotal consensus, gathered from more than 20 years
of international teaching experience, that among students and teachers MPA is considered
almost a normal part of the developmental trajectory involved in becoming a musician.
It is therefore essential for music educators to gain an understanding of MPA in order
to assist their students. This paper will discuss the nature of MPA and its prevalence
in the various populations which have been reported in the literature. These include
prevalence according to gender and in children and adolescents, undergraduates, amateur
and professional musicians, and music educators. I will argue that music educators have a
critical role in the developmental trajectory of the condition. The paper will also provide
music educators with advice on how teaching practice can ameliorate developing or extant
MPA in their students.

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Tim Patston

I would assert that MPA is more significantly related to the development of self-
imposed standards and developing perfectionism (Patston, 2010). During 10 years’ teaching
experience at a leading higher institution, music performance psychology was embedded
into the broader music curriculum. During that period no student withdrew from the degree
due to music performance anxiety.

What is music performance anxiety?


Most educators are aware of the symptoms of MPA in their students, and indeed themselves,
from increased heart rate and shallow breathing to anxious thoughts and the avoidance
of practice. Lehrer (1984) described MPA as a complex phenomenon, combining three
modalities of anxiety: somatic, behavioural and cognitive. The tripartite model of MPA is
consistent with broader conceptualisations of anxiety (see Lang, 1968; Clark & Watson,
1991) and is commonly accepted in the MPA literature today. It is clear that the frequency,
intensity and impact of symptomatology may vary significantly between individuals. It is
essential for teachers to understand each component of this tripartite model and how these
may impact their students’ musical processes. In common with most forms of anxiety, the
physiological and behavioural symptomatology flow on from a triggering cognitive event.
The cognitive component of MPA is well described by Salmon (1990), who defined
MPA as ‘the experience of persisting, distressful apprehension about and/or actual
impairment of, performance skills in a public context, to a degree unwarranted given
the individual’s musical aptitude, training and level of preparation’ (p. 3). This is perhaps
the most commonly used definition of the psychological manifestation of MPA in the
literature today, and is explicitly referred to in a number of studies, including those
authored by Brodsky (1996), Fehm and Schmidt (2006), Kenny (2004), McGinnis and
Milling (2005), Osborne and Kenny (2005) and Ryan (1998). Of key interest to teachers
are the concepts of aptitude, training and level of preparation. Students, particularly in
their prepubescent years of training, are developing both an aptitude for a particular
instrument from a technical perspective, and an aptitude for learning and performing
music. The balance between encouragement of attainment in both areas, and the
development of realistic expectations is a constant challenge. In instrumental studies,
external performative formal assessment can begin at a very young age. Teachers must be
mindful of exposing students to performing experiences which are beyond students’ levels
of ability, technically, musically and psychologically. Similarly, level of preparation for
an audition, examination or performance, will vary significantly over time. Apprehension
often comes from misunderstanding of expectations, and teachers are the main source of
expectations (Stipek, 2002), particularly in younger students.
What then are the negative thoughts or cognitions which trigger the MPA process?
A broad variety of cognitions relating to MPA have been reported in the literature, by
researchers such as Salmon (1990), Lehrer (1984) and van Kemenade and van Son (1995).
These cognitions or negative thoughts include catastrophising, fear of memory lapses, fear
of negative evaluation and lack of self-belief. Negative cognitions are either self-oriented,
such as personal catastrophising, negative-outcome expectancy, and low self-efficacy or
perfectionistic, or other-oriented, such as fear of negative evaluation or appearing foolish
in public. There has been little research attempting to identify specific cognitive mediators

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which may trigger, maintain or escalate MPA. For example, research may identify a fear of
making mistakes as a psychological symptom of MPA, but it must also determine whether
the fear is other-oriented (as in the case of a fear of mistakes being viewed negatively by
others), or self-oriented (as a form of fear of failing personal standards or perfectionistic
attitudes). Thoughts do not occur in isolation, and the pathways of cognitions leading
from normal to impaired musical functioning have not been explored. I will argue later in
this article that self-oriented perfectionism is a significant driver of MPA, and that music
educators may (unwittingly) exacerbate the condition.
The physiological manifestations of MPA have received more attention in the literature,
as their impact upon performance is often more readily apparent. The physiological
symptoms of MPA are those typically reported by individuals experiencing a ‘fight or flight’
response. The concept of the fight or flight response was introduced by Cannon (1927) to
refer to the body’s general reaction to situations in which threat is perceived. Cannon
identified accelerated heart rate; contracted arteries, which leads to cold extremities;
inhibited gastrointestinal activity; sweating; dilated pupils, and a rush of adrenalin, as
being typical manifestations of sympathetic arousal. Blood vessels constrict, which raises
blood pressure, thus causing the body to heat up. Perspiration is then released, but because
of the restricted blood supply to the extremities such as hands and feet, this perspiration
feels cold. According to Triplett (1983), the muscles of the diaphragm are shortened, which
makes breathing shallow. McCallion (1988) concurred with Triplett when he discussed the
panic reflex action of the neck muscles pulling the head down at the back at the same time
as raising the shoulders. This also tightens the muscles surrounding the larynx, which may
have an impact upon breath-based music activities.
For the general population these symptoms may be uncomfortable, but this level of
physiological arousal does not affect their completion of tasks. There are few data (Hiner
et al 1987) in the literature on the effect of particular symptoms on differing aspects of
performance, that is, dry mouth in singers as opposed to muscle tremor in pianists. This
is an important area for future research. It would be expected that different symptoms
would be more or less troubling depending on the instrument being played. The issue of
symptomatology is particularly relevant when discussing types of instrument played. It is
probable that musicians experience MPA in a similar way, but report the symptoms which
are most salient to them. For example, a singer may be deeply troubled by dry mouth but
a pianist may not notice it. If there is a perceived or actual level of physical or technical
impairment, MPA may be strengthened. There are no studies extant which have attempted
to measure this. It would be expected that if a part of the body is affected by MPA, for
example, vasoconstriction causing decreased blood flow in the fingers, then exponents
of an instrument requiring digital dexterity would perceive an impact upon their playing.
Clearly it is the responsibility of teachers to identify the physical symptoms of MPA in their
students, and offer appropriate technical advice.
Music performance anxiety may also manifest itself in a number of ways behaviourally,
such as avoidance of practice or performance (Kirchner, 2002; Salmon, 1990), or an
increased number of errors in performance (Kendrick et al., 1982). Music performance
anxiety may also be exhibited through compulsive repetitive practice or checking of
instruments, similar to some OCD disorders, although this area has not been researched in
the field of MPA. A number of behavioural manifestations of MPA which can be noticed

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Tim Patston

by observers have been reported in the literature (Kendrick et al., 1982; Sweeney &
Horan, 1982; Craske & Craig, 1984; Brotons, 1994). These include repeated moistening
of the lips, arm and neck stiffness, shoulder lifting, and distressed or deadpan facial
expressions. No study yet, however, has determined how and if these behaviours reflect
levels of MPA. One performer may appear relaxed but be experiencing high levels of
anxiety, while another may appear tense but be calm. Once again teachers’ level of
awareness of their students may help in this area. Observing or recording a number of
performances would assist teachers in understanding how their students behave under
performance conditions. This information can then be discussed and integrated into
planning.
The behavioural impact of MPA most frequently discussed in the literature is that of
performance quality (Leglar, 1979; Hamann, 1982; Steptoe & Fidler, 1987; Brotons, 1994;
Ryan, 1998; Kirchner, 2002). It would be expected that performance quality would be
negatively affected by MPA (Sweeney-Burton, 1997). Performance quality is in itself a
difficult subject to discuss as it is, of course, subjective in nature. Ratings of performances
may be made by the performers themselves, or by external sources, such as examiners
or audiences. In addition, the parameters of performance quality may vary according to
situation and experience. A performance which has musical errors in terms of accuracy
of pitch and rhythm may be expressively superior to one which is technically more
adept. A performer may look calm and perform poorly, while another may look extremely
uncomfortable and perform well. When discussing performance quality it is essential to
clarify the criteria. Once again, teachers are very familiar with the normal disposition of
their students, and should be able to identify behaviours which may be inhibiting desired
performance outcomes.

P r e v a l e n c e o f M PA

There is a high prevalence of MPA across a broad spectrum of sample groups. The current
consensus from the literature is that MPA develops during childhood (Gratto, 1998; Ryan,
1998; Maroon, 2002; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Smith & Rickard, 2004; Osborne &
Kenny, 2005; Fehm & Schmidt, 2006), but precisely when is yet to be determined. It
affects adolescent populations of musicians to an extent, but is more prevalent by the
undergraduate years (Appel, 1976; Cox & Kenardy, 1993; Esplen & Hodnett, 1999; Huston,
2001; Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Kokotsaki & Davidson, 2003). Professionals report high
levels of MPA, independent of age or years of experience (James et al., 1983; Steptoe &
Fidler, 1987; Fishbein et al., 1988; Kivimäki & Jokinen, 1994; van Kemenade & van Son,
1995; Raeburn, 2000; Huston, 2001; Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Jabusch & Altenmüller,
2004). The belief that women appear to be more susceptible than men to developing MPA
appears frequently in the literature, but many robust studies (Rae & McCambridge, 2004;
Fehm & Schmidt, 2006) find no difference between genders.
Studies concerning prevalence have been reported from Europe, the Americas, Asia
and Oceania, indicating that MPA is neither racially nor culturally specific (Fishbein et al.,
1988; Bartel & Thompson, 1994; James, 1997; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Yondem,
2007). The style of music and instrument played do not appear to be mediators (Fishbein
et al., 1988; Kivimäki & Jokinen, 1994; van Kemenade & van Son, 1995; Huston, 2001;

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Jabusch & Altenmüller, 2004). There are as yet no studies which report on those who
never enter the profession, or leave the profession, because of MPA. There is a need for
a longitudinal study which assesses the developmental pathways of MPA from childhood
to adulthood, and whether the condition causes any particular segment of the population
to discontinue music. Music performance anxiety affects individuals in a broad variety
of musical endeavours. Professionals and amateurs alike are known to be affected by
MPA. This suggests that the circumstances of musical performance and education are more
significant that the type of instrument played, ethnicity, cultural background, gender or
age. In fact, very few authors appear to question the prevalence of MPA, confirming the
common view that MPA is somehow considered an almost normal part of the musician’s
development.
Research into MPA in children and adolescents has been a recent addition to the MPA
literature, with the first papers published by Gratto (1998) and Ryan (1998). A small number
of authors have published in the area, including Maroon (2002), Rae and McCambridge
(2004), Smith and Rickard (2004), Osborne and Kenny (2005) and Fehm and Schmidt
(2006). While this research is a relatively recent development, the high prevalence of
MPA in this population, as reported by the authors above, indicates the need for further
investigation. Given that 90% of musicians begin music lessons before the age of 12 (Nagel,
1990), an understanding of prevalence in this population would seem essential. In primary
schools, students have a variety of musical experiences, ranging from choral singing in the
classroom to solo performances. There have been no studies which compare prevalence
of MPA in children or adolescents in a variety of settings.
Musicians may have many years of formal training before adolescence. In a study
of adolescent musicians in a selective music high school by Smith and Rickard (2004),
participants had an average of 6.55 years of musical training. Given that these participants
had spent nearly 50% of their lives studying music, and were at a specialist music school, it
would appear that MPA is a major concern for teenage musicians, in spite of their training
and experience. It is worth noting that years of playing experience is in itself an imprecise
measure, it requires quantification of the number of lessons attended, the average amount
of practice or the number of solo or ensemble performances played. Such variables may
have an impact upon the development of MPA.
Fehm and Schmidt (2006) reported that those adolescent respondents with plans for
future study in music or ambitions to be professional musicians reported lower levels of
MPA than those without such plans. This finding was also reported in the study by Osborne
and Kenny (2005).
Among the anxiety disorders, MPA appears unique in that it is acknowledged as
being an almost universal condition among some populations, particularly undergraduates
(Wardle, 1969; Appel, 1976; Cox & Kenardy, 1993; Esplen & Hodnett, 1999; Huston,
2001; Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Kokotsaki & Davidson, 2003). In the majority of these
studies the reported prevalence of MPA is higher than in the studies involving children
and adolescents. Acceptance that an anxiety condition is perceived as almost ‘normal’ in
training institutions requires further exploration, not only of MPA, but of its place within
the conservatorium culture. Undergraduate classical singers (N = 43) were the subjects of
a study into MPA by Kokotsaki and Davidson (2003). Interestingly, levels of anxiety were
higher among the third-year students than the second-year students, despite extra training

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Tim Patston

and performance opportunities, further supporting the idea that experience is not a mediator
of MPA. In this study 65% of participants believed that their performing standards were
lower due to MPA. Musicians appear to be significantly more anxious in their ‘workplace’
than the general population. These levels of prevalence are of major concern. There is
no other condition in the anxiety disorders where such a high proportion of a population
report functional impairment.
There have been a number of studies on the prevalence of MPA in samples of
professional performers, including those of James et al. (1983), Fishbein et al. (1987),
Wolfe (1989), Kivimäki (1995), Bartel and Thompson (1994), van Kemenade and van Son
(1995), Raeburn (2000), Huston (2001), Osborne and Franklin (2002) and Jabusch and
Altenmüller (2004). These studies confirm the idea that MPA is a condition with a high
level of prevalence among all populations studied in the literature. Research in the area
of professional performers indicates that, despite increasing levels of experience, MPA is
still of major concern to the majority of musicians. Unfortunately the lack of standard
definitions and measures makes assessing accurate levels of prevalence difficult. In order
to assess prevalence it is necessary to agree on what exactly is being measured. Stress in
performance may or may not be MPA. It would be desirable to undertake a study of a large
sample of performers to validate potential measures of MPA, so that the true prevalence of
the condition may be assessed. Given that the above studies were of professional performers
in the workplace, MPA was obviously not sufficiently debilitating for them to be forced to
leave the profession.
Given the high level of prevalence of MPA across all age groups of musicians, it is
appropriate to explore the incidence of MPA in teachers and educators. As MPA appears
to start at a young age, and develops over time, teachers would presumably influence the
development of this condition in their students. Anecdotal evidence suggests that music
teachers do little, if anything, to dispel that notion that MPA is somehow a normal part
of being a musician. Qualitative research, based upon formal and informal interviews,
indicates that around 30% of musicians who leave the profession because of debilitating
MPA become educators rather than continue as performers. It seems logical to assume
that MPA may be reinforced in the education sector. There is evidence that teachers may
influence the development of anxiety in their students, in studies focusing on athletics
by Bruch and Heimberg (1994), and in the MPA literature by Stoeber and Eismann
(2007).
Three studies in the MPA literature, Wesner et al. (1990), Tamborrino (2001), and
Kirchner (2002), have reported high levels of MPA when attempting to assess prevalence
of MPA in professional music educators. Despite being unable to manage their own MPA,
faculty members feel able to manage this condition in their students. It is not surprising
that their students do not have effective coping strategies. There is an obvious need for a
series of studies to broaden our understanding of the relationship (if any) between anxious
teachers and their students. Teachers and institutions may ultimately unintentionally
facilitate the development of MPA if they cannot practice preventative and/or therapeutic
paedagogy. There is a need for broad epidemiological studies of a wide variety of
populations to assess onset causality and developmental trajectories of MPA. As educational
institutions bear responsibility for the holistic care of individuals, this research is clearly
warranted.

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Implications for educators

Given substantive anecdotal evidence that there is a tacit acceptance of degrees of MPA as
‘normal’ in primary, secondary and elite higher institutions, this issue must be of concern
for music educators. This section will offer advice for educators of musicians at each critical
stage of their developmental trajectory.
Contemporary understanding of the aetiology of anxiety disorders is that anxiety
develops through a combination of a genetic predisposition and an individual’s learning
history (see Mineka & Zinbarg, 1996; Barlow et al., 2004; Kenny, 2006; Papageorgi et al.,
2007). In the case of MPA, a learning history is a complex amalgam of experiences with
teachers, parents, peers, examinations and performances. Given that students in their early
teens may have eight years or more of one-to-one instructional experience, music teachers
need to have some understanding of their role in the development and maintenance of
MPA. Contextual variables leading up to and following performing experiences must also
be considered (Mineka & Zinbarg, 1996).
For young students commencing their studies, music lessons are their first experience of
one-to-one learning. Accordingly the influence of instrumental teachers can be profound.
Research in the area of early music experiences (Boucher & Ryan, 2011) has demonstrated
that children as young as four can experience the physiological arousal associated with
MPA. This level of excitement may generate a positive response in one individual, but
an overwhelming sense of loss of control in another. Teachers should explain to students
the feelings that may arise in performance, and discuss with them after a performance
their positive experiences and any areas for improvement. Many teachers focus on pre-
performance planning, but omit to provide a detailed and structured debrief to their
students. The efficacy of debriefing is undisputed in the areas of medical education (Perera
et al., 2008) and sports coaching (Hogg, 1998) . Music educators should assist their students
to develop an understanding that the process of any performance commences with the
selection of suitable repertoire and finishes with a session which discusses the strengths and
weaknesses of any given performance. It is also essential that students are dialogue partners
in the debriefing process. In younger students they should be asked simple questions, such
as what went well, or what would the student would like to do better next time. Such
simple interactions provide students with a realistic view of their performance outcomes,
and are preferable to unconditional praise or criticism (Kohn, 1993).
As students’ musical experiences accumulate, the balance of positive and negative
feedback becomes more critical. Children grow into adolescents, and develop a set of
personal values, where ability may become linked to self-worth (Harter & Jackson, 1993).
For many students, the period of adolescence brings with it a number of years of musical
experience (Nagel, 1990), not necessarily in auditions but in performances and external
examinations. Choice of repertoire commensurate with skills development is of increasing
importance at this age. For many teachers the striving for achievement can often result in
a striving for perfectionism, as students search for ‘perfect’ pitch or aim to ‘perfect’ their
technique. In isolation these terms may seem innocuous, but if repeated lesson after lesson
for a number of years by a teacher whom the students hold in high regard, may trigger
feelings of perfectionism and MPA in adolescent students (Mor et al., 1995). What can
sound like well-meaning advice to a student ‘practice that piece and bring it back when

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Tim Patston

it’s perfect’ may seem reasonable to a teacher but can be damaging to a student if not
explained and contextualized.
Recent research (Moretz & McKay, 2009; Patston, 2010) has identified that
perfectionism has a key role to play in the development of MPA. If, over time, a musician is
convinced that musical perfection is their goal, their search for the unattainable may lead
initially to frustration and ultimately to anxiety, as they fail to reach these self-imposed
standards. Such failures may be the cognitive mediators, or specific thoughts, which
trigger MPA. As with younger students, teachers of adolescents need to build up a realistic
framework of goal setting. As a student plays at a higher level, this goal setting should apply
to individual lessons, practice sessions, solo and ensemble rehearsals, performances and
competitions. Perfectionism is also known to have a significant behavioural component.
This may manifest in sufferers of MPA in areas such as practice efficacy. A perfectionist
may be expected either to practise incessantly in the pursuit of the perfect performance,
or to avoid practice as they believe that the perfect performance is unattainable. Such
behaviours may reinforce the condition of MPA. The very best teachers understand that
encouraging students to be self-aware and develop the ability to problem solve in the
moment is the key to increased skills paralleling an increased confidence in performance.
Unfortunately the process of developing perfectionistic attitudes and the commensurate
MPA can be incremental, such that a catastrophic experience may appear to come from
nowhere. At such times, teachers may be lacking in strategies, as demonstrated by the
following typical quote from a teacher:

I have got a student who has cried in every exam that she’s done and I really haven’t
helped her a lot with that. I just kept making her do more. Yes, so I haven’t got good
strategies, I don’t think, to handle them. (Kenny, 2011)

How then can teachers be aware if they are creating an anxious perfectionist, and
how do they find time within a very short lesson to deal with performance psychology and
instrumental technique? During 10 years as Head of Music in an internationally regarded
tertiary/higher education institution, I incorporated music performance psychology into the
music curriculum. Students were offered theory in their first year, encouraged to maintain
performance diaries and share performing experiences from a psychological perspective
in their second year, and to develop a psychological self-management plan on completion
of their third year. In a decade of teaching no student withdrew from their studies due to
MPA.
As an experienced educator, teaching in primary, secondary and higher education
institutions I have encountered few studio teachers who set annual individualized goals
for their students in any written form. Even fewer have structured lesson plans tailored to
meet specific individual needs. Many teachers feel confident engaging with the technical
aspects of the instrument, but not with the individual who plays it. Music pedagogy is, like
music performance, a journey of lifelong learning. If we expect students to be structured
in practice, keeping diaries and bringing feedback experiences to the lesson, why not offer
documented and structured lessons which include broader aspects of music study and
performance? A few minutes dedicated at an appropriate time of year to a discussion of, for
example, rehearsal techniques, diet and exercise, music performance anxiety, or a one-,
two- or five-year plan, will reap benefits. Opening a dialogue with students which not

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Fig. 1 (Colour online) Comparison between studies of PAI Scores.


PAI score range = 20–80. NHP = Nagel et al. (1989); S = Sinden; H = Harris; WV =
Watson and Valentine; OF = Osborne and Franklin (2002); Study 1, Study 2, Study 3
(Patston, 2010).

only acknowledges that nerves may be a part of musical development, but also encourages
them to talk about their experiences when discussing such issues, is also a way to identify
if students are becoming perfectionistic or overly anxious.
As students progress to tertiary or higher education studies, despite years of training
and performance experience, neither perfectionism nor MPA are less prevalent. Studies
comparing levels of MPA (Harris, 1987; Nagel et al., 1989; Watson & Valentine 1995;
Sinden, 1999; Osborne & Franklin, 2002; Patston, 2010) using the Performance Anxiety
Inventory (Nagel et al., 1989) (see Fig. 1), reveal that MPA is at high levels in tertiary
institutions.
A widely accepted measure of perfectionism is the Multidimensional Perfectionism
Scale (MPS; Frost et al., 1990), which measures self-oriented and other- oriented
components of perfectionism. Studies using the MPS to compare levels of perfectionism
in undergraduate musicians (Patston, 2010) reported significantly higher levels of
perfectionism than studies involving samples of non-clinical undergraduates (Adkins &
Parker, 1996; Schweitzer & Hamilton, 2002) as demonstrated in Fig. 2. The primary
differences between the populations, however, were revealed in the subscale scores of the
MPS. Further analysis of the subscale scores revealed the differences are apparent in the self-
oriented components of perfectionism, particularly in the Concern Over Mistakes, Personal
Standards and Doubts about Actions. Such results are worthy of further investigation.
It is therefore essential that higher education educators are aware of such findings
and develop appropriate pedagogic strategies. Given that the stakes are higher in terms of
career development, and that it is clear that MPA is not only highly prevalent in tertiary
students, but may have been ingrained for some years, a higher level of intervention

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Tim Patston

Fig. 2 (Colour online) Comparison between studies of MPS total scores.


MPS score range 35–175. AP = Adkins & Parker; SH = Schweitzer & Hamilton; Study 1,
Study 2, Study 3 (Patston, 2010).

may be required which is beyond the remit of a studio teacher. It would be expected
that higher education educators would be highly experienced in their field of pedagogy.
However, given that higher education students are part of a specialised course in music, it
is appropriate that students are offered broader studies in music performance psychology.
Universities such as the Royal College of Music, with the Centre for Performance Science,
and the University of Melbourne, with the Centre for Music, Mind and Wellbeing, are
now offering support networks for musicians who have specific concern with aspects of
music study and performance beyond those covered in studio lessons. Students are able
to study in more detail practice methodologies and music performance psychology, and
encouraged to share performance experiences with their peers.

Discussion

It is clear that MPA, and associated perfectionism, are significant issues for music students
of all ages and levels of musical ability and experience. Anxiety disorders arise from a
combination of genetic predisposition and learning experiences. Research involving young
students indicates that the origins of MPA may be earlier than other anxiety disorders. Music
teachers are responsible, through one-to-one pedagogy, for the formative experiences that
musicians have, both in their lessons, and their practice and performance. If practice is
reinforcing maladaptive cognitions, and performances are not given some form of context,
both musically and personally, then years of training will lead to the high levels of MPA
which the research indicates is prevalent across the secondary or higher education music
populations.

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Te a c h i n g s t a g e f r i g h t ?

Music pedagogues are highly trained in the technical aspects of playing musical
instruments. However, they have rarely had any formal training in music performance
psychology. Music teachers would benefit from being more informed of the development
trajectories of their students from a psychological perspective, and the potential influence
that teachers have. A contemporary music pedagogue provides lessons which provide a
balanced view of progress and goal setting. A contemporary music pedagogue should
provide a structured framework of influence which extends beyond the studio, and covers
such areas as practice process and efficacy, performance preparation and debriefing. A
contemporary music pedagogue encourages their students to read widely in the field of
music performance, not merely the study of their instrument.

Implications for future research

The study of MPA has made significant progress in the last 20 years. More researchers
are analysing aspects of the condition, from origins, to definitions and treatment. There
is an increasing awareness within institutions that holistic care of the musician is
the contemporary paradigm. However there are many aspects of the condition which
are not fully understood, including the role of educators in unintentionally facilitating the
development of the condition. There is a need for broad epidemiological studies of a wide
variety of populations to assess onset causality and developmental trajectories of MPA.
Teachers, and in the case of higher education institutions, faculties, must learn to practice
preventative and/or therapeutic pedagogy.
In 2011, the first complete text dedicated to MPA was published, The Psychology of
Music Performance Anxiety (Kenny, 2011). This text provides in many ways a starting point
for more rigorous, and most importantly, more transparent research into this field. The study
of MPA has been to date largely fragmented and divergent. Future research of the vital role
that teachers play is clearly warranted. Well-informed, supportive pedagogy of both the
individual and their instrument would be a tangible benefit of such research, and reduce
the impact of this insidious condition.

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Dr Tim Patston is a specialist in the psychology of music performance. He has been Head
of Music at NIDA, and Lecturer at the NSW State Conservatorium of Music in Music
Performance Psychology. He lectures nationally at conferences and institutions such as
NIDA, WAAPA and the University of Melbourne, and internationally at institutions as
diverse as The Royal College of Music, RADA, Central School of Speech and Drama and
the Hanoi Conservatoire, in the area of music performance anxiety. He is currently Director
of Performing Arts at The Peninsula School in Melbourne, Australia.

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