225-002 - Piping Hydraulics and Specification - Book 1

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SECTION TOC
PIPING HYDRAULICS AND SPECIFICATION
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 3
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS DATE 07-95
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES

2.1 PIPE SIZING
2.1.1 Pressure Drop Criteria
2.1.2 Velocity Limitations
2.1.3 Economic Pipe Diameter
2.1.4 Acceptable Line Sizes
2.1.5 Design Criteria Considerations
2.1.6 General Pipe Data
2.1.7 Special Cases
2.2 PIPE SPECIFICATION
2.2.1 Specifying Piping Design Conditions
2.2.2 Design Pressure
2.2.3 Design Temperature
2.2.4 Special Design Condition Considerations
2.2.5 Other Piping Specification Parameters
2.2.6 Piping Identification
2.2.7 Piping Layout
2.2.8 Piping Characteristics Data
2.3 CONTROL VALVE DESIGN BASIS
3.0 SINGLE PHASE FLOW

3.1 SINGLE-PHASE LIQUID FLOW
3.2 SINGLE-PHASE GAS FLOW
3.3 STEAM FLOW
4.0 TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 TWO-PHASE FLOW REGIMES
4.3 RECOMMENDED DESIGN GUIDELINES
4.3.1 Recommended Methods
4.3.2 General Design Guidelines
4.3.3 Special Cases
4.4 REFERENCES
5.0 THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING THREE-PHASE FLOW SYSTEMS
5.3 PROPOSED SIZING PROCEDURE
5.4 ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
5.5 REFERENCES
6.0 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW
7.0 SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 Non-Newtonian Behavior
7.1.2 Particle Settling
7.1.3 Erosion
7.1.4 Slippage
7.1.5 Design Procedure
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BOOK 1 PAGE 2
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS 07-95
7.2 TEST DATA REQUIRED

7.2.1 Viscosity
7.2.2 Minimum Transport Velocity
7.2.3 Erosion/Corrosion
7.2.4 Restart
7.3 DESIGN VELOCITY AND LINE SIZING
7.4 PRESSURE GRADIENT
7.4.1 Line Friction Pressure Loss
7.4.2 Fittings Pressure Loss
7.5 HEAT TRANSFER
7.5.1 Turbulent Flow
7.5.2 Laminar Flow
7.6 SLURRY TRANSPORT
7.6.1 Slurry Preparation
7.6.2 Solids Grinding
7.6.3 Slurry Mixing
7.6.4 Slurry Pumping
7.6.5 Slurry Piping
7.7 INSTRUMENTATION
7.7.1 Major Considerations
7.7.2 Types
7.8 SUPPORT MATERIAL
7.8.1 Glossary
7.8.2 Nomenclature
7.9 REFERENCES
7.10 APPENDIX
7.10.1 Appendix 1: Sample Method
8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING - SEPARATE COVER

8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 GAS SOLIDS FLOW THEORY
8.2.1 General
8.2.2 Vertical Upwards Flow
8.2.3 Horizontal Flow
8.2.4 Material Characteristics
8.2.5 Design Calculation Methods
8.3 TYPES OF PNEUMATIC CONVEYING SYSTEMS
8.3.1 Dilute Phase Systems
8.3.2 Dense Phase Systems
8.4 SYSTEM SELECTION AND DESIGN
8.4.1 System Type
8.4.2 Pipeline Design
8.4.3 Mode of Operation
8.4.4 Solids Feeder
8.4.5 Air Mover
8.4.6 Gas-Solid Separation Equipment
8.4.7 Solids Storage
8.4.8 Factors Affecting System Design
8.5 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IN PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
8.5.1 Introduction
8.5.2 Dust Explosions - General
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BOOK 1 PAGE 3
PROCESS MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS DATE 07-95
8.5.3 Sizing of Vents - Basic Methods

8.5.4 Factors Affecting Estimation of Vent Size
8.5.5 Venting Considerations for Pneumatic Conveying Equipment
8.5.6 Control of Ignition
8.5.7 Inerting
8.6 REFERENCES, CODES AND STANDARDS
8.7 APPENDICES
8.8 INDEXES TO FIGURES AND TABLES
9.0 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
10.0 SAMPLE HAND CALCULATIONS

10.1 LIQUID FLOW
10.2 GAS FLOW
10.3 GAS FLOW (SONIC)
10.4 DIVIDED FLOW
10.5 TWO-PHASE FLOW
11.0 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

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SECTION 1.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 1
PROCESS MANUAL
INTRODUCTION DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This manual, which deals mainly with flow of fluids through circular pipe, is divided into two
books. This first book provides design methods and guidelines for sizing and specifying piping
systems. Included are sections on single-phase flow, two and three-phase flow, non-Newtonian
flow, liquid-solid slurries and pneumatic conveying. In addition, general hydraulic charts are
provided along with sample calculations and a listing of Fluor Daniel's hydraulic computer
programs.
The second book provides background information and includes sections on fluid flow
parameters and the development of equations and correlations for single-phase and two-phase
flow.
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 32
PROCESS MANUAL PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION
GUIDELINES DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES
2.1 PIPE SIZING
It is the responsibility of the Process Engineer to specify the diameter of all pipes in a
process unit. Consideration must be given to pressure drop, to maximum permissible
velocity from the standpoint of erosion and noise, and to economics (when a fluid is
compressed or pumped). The pipe must be sized to ensure that the total system
pressure drop (including pressure drop due to control valves, equipment, etc.) does not
exceed the available pressure drop.
In most instances the Process Engineer will summarize pipe sizing information on a Line
Sizing Calculation Sheet (Form E-701), which is provided as Figures 2-1(a) and 2-1(b)
(metric form).
2.1.1 Pressure Drop Criteria
When a given pressure or static head is available, it is relatively simple to size a

line. It should be sized to consume no more than the available pressure at the
rated flow conditions. The available frictional pressure loss is limited by pressure
drops due to other system components (e.g., control valves, equipment, etc.).
The frictional pressure drop for single-phase and two-phase systems should be
calculated using the methods described in this manual. It is recommended that
the computer programs described in Section 9 be used for this purpose. For
preliminary line sizing with single phase flow, the Darcy equation in Section 3 or
the generalized charts may be used. There are many instances where hand
calculations or the generalized charts are adequate, such as for study work.
However, for detail design engineering, or for systems that have high velocities
and/or large pressure drops with compressible fluids, these charts should not be
used. Table 2-1 presents recommended pressure drop limits for various liquid
and gas systems. These limits are somewhat arbitrary and are intended as
guidelines only.
A safety margin of 20 %, or a safety margin specified by the specific project or

client, shall be added to all friction loss calculations, with the exception of steam
systems, for which no margin is to be added. The hydraulic charts for gases and
liquids include a 20 % safety margin (except for the steam charts). A safety
margin should only be added to frictional losses, and not to pressure losses due
to elevation changes or acceleration.
2.1.2 Velocity Limitations
Every calculated line size must be checked to ensure the resulting velocity is
reasonable. If a line size is not governed by pressure drop availability or
economics, then velocity limits are usually the deciding factor. Table 2-1
contains recommended velocity limits for various liquid and gas systems. The
velocity limits presented can be quite arbitrary and are intended as guidelines
only. In addition to these guidelines, other velocity limitations -- erosional
velocity, sonic velocity, entrainment velocity and noise -- must be considered
when sizing lines.
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BOOK 1 PAGE 4
Table 2-1
PRESSURE DROP AND VELOCITY RANGES
Pressure Drop Velocity

psi/100 ft ft/sec
Liquids (bar/100 m) (m/sec)
Boiling liquids (at equilibrium) 0.05 - 0.25 1-4
at pump suction (0.011 - 0.056) (0.3 - 1.2)
Subcooled liquids (40 oF 0.2 - 1.0 1-8
below bubble point) at pump (0.04 - 0.23) (0.3 - 2.4)
suction
Cooling water at pump suction 0.2 - 1.0 1-8
(0.04 - 0.23) (0.3 - 2.4)
Boiling liquids (at equilibrium 1.0 - 4.0 5 - 15
at pump suction) at pump (0.22 - 0.90) (1.5 - 4.5)
discharge
Subcooled liquids 1.0 - 4.0 5 - 15
(40 oF or 22 oC below (0.22 - 0.90) (1.5 - 4.5)
bubble point) at pump
discharge
Cooling water at 0.5 - 2.0 5 - 15
pump discharge (0.11 - 0.45) (1.5 - 4.5)
Differential pressure -- 25 maximum
liquids (static head) (7.6 max)
Gases
Atmospheric or higher 0.1 - 2.0 --
pressure gases (0.02 - 0.45)
Vacuum gases 0.02 - 0.5 --
(0.004 - 0.11)
Gas stream with excess -- 250 maximum
pressure (76 max)
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 5
Table 2-1 (Continued)
PRESSURE DROP AND VELOCITY RANGES

Steam
Steam over 50 psig or 0.5 - 1.5 Maximum of 30 ft/sec
3.4 barg (Headers) (0.11 - 0.34) (9.1 m/sec) per inch of
Steam over 50 psig or 3.4 1.5 - 4.0 pipe diameter between
barg (short leads steady (0.34 - 0.90) 3" to 6" diameter; 200
flow to equipment) ft/sec (61 m/sec) for
saturated steam &
250 ft/sec (76 m/sec)
for superheated steam
in sizes over 6"
Steam under 50 psig or 0.25 - 0.5 --
3.4 barg (Headers) (0.056 - 0.11)
Steam above atmospheric 0.5 - 1.5 --
(Short leads steady flow to (0.11 - 0.34)
equipment)
Steam (Vacuum) On the Basis of --
Pressure Drop Available
See Section 4.0
a. Erosional Velocity
Erosional velocity is the velocity at which erosion or excessive wear on

elbows will start to occur. For single-phase systems it has more or less
been ignored, most likely due to the lack of readily available
experimental data explaining or verifying the phenomenon. Plant
experience has shown that velocity and the corrosiveness of a fluid are
directly related. For example, a liquid stream with H2S present will
create a much higher rate of erosion at an elbow than on a straight
portion of line. The sweeping effect of the stream as it travels through
the elbow removes the protective layer laid down by the action of the
H2S with iron. Also excessive erosion has been experienced at high
velocities with very corrosive fluids, such as sulfuric acid and hot
potassium carbonate. A rule of thumb used successfully on some
projects for these types of systems has been to limit velocity to 50 ft/sec
(15.2 m/sec) or 150/ρ 1/2 (where ρ is in lb/ft3), whichever is less.
Unfortunately, Fluor Daniel does not have historical operating data for
these types of systems. Consequently, we are forced to rely mainly
upon customers, licensors, suppliers, and manufacturers for guidance.
One possible solution to the effects of velocity of a corrosive fluid in

extreme cases is to use tees in place of elbows for all changes in pipe
flow direction. With this design the liquid trapped in the butt end of the
tee acts as a buffer between the corrosive fluid and the pipe metal.
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BOOK 1 PAGE 6
Erosional velocity effects in two-phase systems is discussed in

Section 4.3.
b. Sonic Velocity
The maximum velocity that a compressible fluid flowing in a pipe of

uniform cross-section can achieve is limited by the maximum velocity of
a pressure wave traveling in the pipe, which is equivalent to the velocity
of sound (sonic velocity) in the gas. As the gas flows through the pipe its
pressure decreases and its velocity increases. If the pressure drop
through a pipe of constant diameter is sufficiently large, the gas velocity
exiting the pipe will reach sonic velocity. If the pipe outlet pressure is
further decreased or the pipe inlet pressure is further increased the gas
velocity cannot increase beyond sonic velocity. The resulting "excess"
pressure drop occurs beyond the pipe exit, and is dissipated in shock
waves and turbulence of the exiting gas. As sonic velocity is
approached, noise and pipe vibration increase. Pipelines are rarely
designed for more than 80 % of sonic velocity.
Sonic flow can also occur in liquids, but is less common because of the
higher sonic velocity in liquids. In addition, sonic velocity can occur in
any constricted area in a piping system. For example, if the
cross-sectional area of a fitting within a system is appreciably less than
that of the line, sonic velocity may occur at that constriction.
Flow is considered to be "choked" when the fluid velocity is sonic. If the

downstream pressure in a "choked" system is decreased the flow rate
through the line will not increase. "Choked" flow is also sometimes
referred to as critical flow. The equations used for calculating sonic
velocity are provided in Section 3 in Book 2.
Supersonic velocities in pipe can be attained by a reduction in pressure

due to lateral expansion of gas in a specially designed divergent nozzle.
However, this phenomena is beyond the scope of this manual.
A convenient graphical method for solving flow problems for systems

containing compressible fluids that experience high pressure drops was
presented by Lapple in the Transactions of American Institute of
Chemical Engineers, (No. 39, pp. 385-432, 1943). The solutions
presented there are based on the assumption that the conditions of flow
at the inlet arise from the adiabatic expansion of the gas through a
frictionless nozzle originating from a chamber, where the velocity is
considered to be negligible. Lapple's method is presented in Section 3 in
Book 2.
c. Noise
Noise that occurs in piping systems can be attributed to high operating

velocities in piping, line surge, and control valves (where "choked" flow
can occur). Acceptable noise level in modern plants has become an
important design factor. Customers are specifying limits, such as a
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 7
maximum of 90 decibels from any single noise source. Examples of

other noise sources include burners, fans, gas turbines, etc.
For intermittent services, such as plant evacuation or reactor heat-up,

mufflers have been added to exhaust lines to meet the design noise level
limitations. Also, acoustic insulation, noise barriers, and other devices
can be added to a system after start-up if noise levels are unacceptable.
For control valves, the Control Systems Group is responsible for
evaluating noise levels and for recommending appropriate corrective
actions. However, the Process Engineer should have some familiarity
with this subject. An excellent discussion on this subject is presented in
"Noise and Vibration Control", by L. L. Beranek, McGraw Hill, 1971. Also
see CFR 29 (OSHA) Part 1910.95 - Occupational noise exposure, and
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 16 - Noise
Pollution.
2.1.3 Economic Pipe Diameter
Long lines that transport fluids which are pumped or compressed should be sized
on an economic basis. Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook (6th Edition, pp.
5-34) provides an excellent discussion, with several references, on this topic. An
economic study is usually not worthwhile for pipes of short length (e.g., pipes
within a unit boundary), since there is no sharp optimum in the selection of pipe
diameter for these systems.
A detailed economic study is usually made when appreciable incremental costs

are involved between two line sizes. Usually these cases will fall into the
following categories:
Long pipelines
Cooling water headers
Alloy pipe
Special pipe (e.g., refractory-lined pipe)
In the above cases, savings in pumping or compression costs must be balanced

against incremental piping costs. (Consider frequency of use with intermittent
systems.) Criteria should be developed on a project basis using client-provided
power costs and economic payback requirements. Most clients will consider
incremental investment if payout is expected to occur in three years or less, and
many will consider up to a five year payout period if the savings are certain, as
with electric power savings.
2.1.4 Acceptable Line Sizes
The minimum acceptable line size is 3/4" unless the client allows a smaller size.
Line sizes of 1¼", 3½", 5", 7", and 9" shall not be used. Many clients want a
minimum size of 2" on pipe racks. Also, some clients do not allow the use of 2½"
or 14" piping.
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BOOK 1 PAGE 8
2.1.5 Design Criteria Considerations
Early in project execution after sales award numerous project specific topics are
addressed and formally documented in the form of a Design Criteria. Other
details unforeseen at this time are developed as the project progresses.
Contributions are made by clients, licensors, equipment suppliers and Fluor
Daniel. Sufficient detail is developed to be built into the design to assure stable
operation of process units over the full range of anticipated operating conditions.
Such conditions include, but are not limited to, SOR, EOR, turn-down, feed and
product composition variations, utilities and other emergency operations, catalyst
conditioning/regeneration, heat exchanger cleaning, etc. Conflict of interest must
be addressed to assure a reasonable compromise between operating flexibility
and capital/operating costs.
Hydraulic contingency considerations are incorporated into process designs in a

number of different ways. Some are real contingencies while others cover such
things as uncertainty in experimental data or manufacturing production
standards. These include:
Control Valves (see Sub-section 2.3)
Equipment Sizing and Operation. Multistage compressor operating

strategy; pump suction lines, etc.
Piping Roughness Factor; Used Condition Fouling Factor. Roughness

factor is affected by materials of construction and manufacturing
procedures. Individual experimental data points deviate from the curve
through sets of data points to an appreciable extent.
Fouling allowances are pretty well dictated by experience with specific

fluids and run times between cleanings.
Valves and Fittings. Variations in dimensions among fabricators and

roughness differences between different materials of construction and
manufacturing methods contribute.
Overall Capacity Considerations/Client Input.
2.1.6 General Pipe data
Tables 2-2 and 2-3 provide pipe dimensions for the various schedule pipes,
Figure 2-21,2 provides friction factors as a function of Reynolds Number and
relative roughness of the pipe. Figure 2-3 and Table 2-4 contain relative
roughness factors and absolute roughness (rugosity) for various pipe materials.
1
See Cameron Hydraulic Data for large diameter pipes.
2
Figure 2-2 is Figure IIIA-3 in Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data Book, 2nd Edition 1990.
Figures IIIA-1 and -2 are for Asphalt-Dipped Cast Iron Pipe and Steel or Wrought Iron Pipe, respectively.
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 10
Figure 2-3
RELATIVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR NEW CLEAN PIPES
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BOOK 1 PAGE 11
Table 2-2
PIPE DIMENSIONS
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BOOK 1 PAGE 12
Table 2-3
PIPE DIMENSIONS
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BOOK 1 PAGE 13
PIPE DIMENSIONS
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BOOK 1 PAGE 14
PIPE DIMENSIONS
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BOOK 1 PAGE 15
Table 2-4
RUGOSITY FACTORS FOR LARGE CONDUITS FLOWING FULL
CONCRETE PIPE
ε, ft
Unusually rough 0.002-0.003

Erosion of poor concrete
Poor alignment of joints
Rough 0.0012-0.002
Erode by sharp material in transit
Spalling of laitance
Granular 0.0006-0.0012
Wood floated on brushed surface
Good joints
Centrifugally cast concrete 0.0005-0.0015
Fairly new-smooth concrete 0.0002-0.0006
Smooth joints - noticeable air voids
New - Unusually smooth concrete 0.00005-0.0002
Smooth joints
CONTINUOUS INTERIOR BUTT-WELDED STEEL PIPE
Severe tuberculation 0.008-0.02

General tuberculation (1-3 mm) 0.003-0.008
Heavy brush coat 0.0012-0.003
Asphalts, enamels and tars
Light rust 0.005-0.0012
Hot asphalt dipped 0.0002-0.005
Centrifugally applied concrete linings 0.00015-0.0005
New smooth pipe 0.000030-0.0002
Centrifugally applied enamels
Notes:
(a) Rugosity is absolute roughness of commercial pipes to be used with Figure 2-2.
(b) Rugosity values were calculated from experimental information obtained through field
measurements and large-scale laboratory experiments which the Bureau of Reclamation has
compiled from worldwide sources over a period of years. These have been published in Water
Resources Technical Bulletin - USDI/Engineering Monograph No. 7, Sept. 1965.
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BOOK 1 PAGE 16
2.1.7 Special Cases
a. Relief Device Line Sizing
Special care must be taken when sizing relief valve inlet and outlet
piping. Refer to the Fluor Daniel Relief and Flare, Process Offsites
Manual, Volume No. 48 for a detailed discussion on this subject.
b. Vessel Drawoff
The vortex that is formed when liquid is drawn out of the bottom of a
vessel that contains liquid and vapor in equilibrium or a two-phase liquid
mixture can cause entrapment of the vapor or the lighter liquid in the
liquid draw. In general, vortexing occurs when the static head above a
liquid drawoff nozzle is less than two velocity heads. For example, if a
column drawoff line has a velocity of 8 ft/sec (2.4 m/sec), vortexing will
usually occur when the liquid-gas or liquid-liquid interface is 2 ft or less
from the bottom of the drawoff nozzle.
The simplest solution to preventing vortex formation is to install a vortex

breaker at the drawoff nozzle, and to limit the drawoff line velocity to a
maximum of 4 ft/sec (1.2 m/sec).
The nozzle and line used to withdraw a stream from the side of a
fractionating column should be sized for a maximum velocity according
to Table 2-5.
Table 2-5
RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES FOR COLUMN DRAWOFF NOZZLES(a)
Liquid Falling Liquid from

from Above Quiet Zone
Suction box maximum velocity: 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/sec) 2 ft/sec (0.6 m/sec)
Drawoff Nozzle maximum velocity Minimum Liquid Height Above Nozzle
ft/sec m/sec ft m ft m
4 1.2 3 0.9 2 0.6
3 0.9 2.5 .8 1.5 0.5
2 0.6 2 .6 1 0.3
1 0.3 1 .3 0.5 0.2
<1 <0.3 .5 .2 0 0
Notes
(a) See Vessels, Columns and Internals, and Reactors Manual,
Volume 225-006, Paragraph 2.11 - Nozzles and Piping, Table 2.6 for
supplemental information.
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 17
This limitation is set to prevent trapped vapors from getting into the
pump. From a point 10 ft (3 m) below the drawoff nozzle, the line can be
reduced to its regular size.
c. Fractionating Column Feed
The feed to fractionating columns should not enter the column at a

velocity great enough to sweep the liquid seal off the tray and destroy its
efficiency. In the past, feed velocities have been limited to a maximum
of 10 ft/sec (3 m/sec). However, in most cases this velocity limit can be
exceeded if a feed distributor, a tangential nozzle or a flash zone is
provided.
d. Condensate from Steam Traps
The condensate line from a steam reboiler to a continuous drainer

should be sized for a maximum velocity of 1 ft/sec (0.3 m/sec). This
limitation is set to prevent vapor from entering the trap and affecting its
operation. Lines to and from bucket traps should be sized for the
maximum capacity of the trap, which is usually 2 or 3 times its average
capacity. The return condensate header must be sized for two-phase
flow.
e. Steam Lines to Exhaust Heads
It is frequently necessary to size exhaust steam lines to exhaust heads.

The velocity of discharge from the exhaust head should be low enough
so that objectionable noise is not caused. Based on experience, The
Swartout Company uses a maximum velocity of 5,000 ft/min
(1,524 m/min) in the line leading to the exhaust head. This is calculated
for steam specific volume at atmospheric pressure (26.8 ft3/lb).
Table 2-6 provides recommended line sizes for various steam flow rates
to exhaust heads.
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 18
Table 2-6(a)
SIZING OF STEAM LINES TO EXHAUST HEADS
Size of Steam Line Steam Flow

Inch lb/hr kg/hr
1 160 72
2 380 172
3 800 363
4 1,280 580
6 2,300 1,043
8 4,000 1,814
10 6,300 2,857
12 9,100 4,127
14 11,800 5,352
16 14,700 6,668
18 19,400 8,800
20 23,400 10,614
24 34,000 15,422
30 54,000 24,494
When there is pressure-drop available to dissipate, smaller line sizes

can be used up to within 10-20 pipe diameters of the exhaust head.
Notes:
(a) Swartout's basis for sizing
f. Boiler Blowdown
See Process Utility Manual Volume 42 - Steam and Power,

Section 1.4.0.
g. Vents and Drains
All special requirements associated with start-up, shutdown and

emergency operations are often not wholly identified until Operating
Manuals are written in coordination with client operating personnel.
Additions are often required after conventional design has been
completed. While this causes inconvenience the arrangement is still
better than later installation during plant start-up.
2.2 PIPE SPECIFICATION
The information presented in the previous section is used as a guide for completing the
line sizing part of the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet (refer to Figure 2-1 in the previous
section). This section presents information required to complete the line specification
design data portion of Figure 2-1. This data includes the operating and design pressure,
operating and design temperature, insulation requirements, and a description of
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 19
the flowing fluid. This information is used by the Piping Design Group to accomplish the
following:
Select the proper material and flange and valve rating (after a first pass by
process/metallurgist in materials review).
Select the proper pipe schedule, either from the piping material specifications or
by computation.
Calculate the necessary flexibility required in the piping layout to handle thermal
expansion.
Select the proper type and thickness of insulation.
Fluor Daniel's Piping Engineering Master Specifications are listed in Table 2-7. These
standards conform to the Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refining Piping Code
(ASME B31.3). Client specifications or supplements to this design criteria, when
submitted to Fluor Daniel, shall take precedence over this information.
2.2.1 Specifying Piping Design Conditions
Before selecting the design conditions of a section of line, it is necessary to

consider all of the possible operating scenarios. These may include, but are not
limited to: start-up, shutdown, reduced or increased flow, exchanger fouling,
steam-out, depressuring, regeneration (of desiccant dryer beds), catalyst
decoking, steam or electric tracing, hydrotesting, process upsets, lowest
temperature during normal operation, shock chilling, and lowest and highest
one-day mean temperature. In addition, deviations that occur due to plant upset
either by mechanical failure or operator error need to be taken into consideration.
For example, the line between a centrifugal pump and a discharge block valve
requires a design pressure equivalent to the pump shut-in discharge pressure in
case the valve is inadvertently closed while the pump is running.
The operating scenario which requires the highest design temperature may not
coincide with the one that requires the highest design pressure. For example, a
unit may operate normally at low temperature and high pressure but, during
regeneration, may operate at high temperature and low pressure. It would be
incorrect to design for the highest temperature and pressure as these two
conditions will not coincide. These two individual operating scenarios must be
considered separately and must be listed on the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet,
since either or both may govern the piping design. In addition, the scenario that
includes the highest design temperature should always be listed, even if it does
not include the highest design pressure, because it may determine the thermal
expansion stresses on the piping.
In order to minimize equipment costs, design temperatures and pressures should

be set as low as possible. However, they must be high enough to provide a safe
design and to allow for operational flexibility and to minimize relief situations.
The Process Engineer must have a comprehensive knowledge of a system to
produce an economical and safe design.
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SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 20
Design pressure and temperature criteria should be in compliance with the

ASME code for pressure piping, "Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refining Piping"
(ASME B31.3) and "Power Piping" (ASME B31.1).
Table 2-7
PIPING ENGINEERING MASTER SPECIFICATIONS (000.250.0005)
DESIGN AND
FABRICATION
SPECIFICATIONS
000.250.50001: Process and Utility Design, Layout, and Drawing

000.250.50002: Piping Design Models
000.250.50025: Shop Fabrication and Handling - Process and Utility Piping
000.250.50026: Field Fabrication and Installation - Process and Utility Piping
000.250.50027: Piping Tie-ins
000.250.50030: Geographic Color Coding
000.250.50300: Heat Tracing for Piping, Equipment and Instruments
PIPING
MATERIAL
SPECIFICATIONS
000.250.50003: Piping - Material Specification Line Class - Process and Utility

Piping
000.250.50028: Internal Cleaning of Piping Systems
000.250.50029: Cleaning and Passivation of Hygienic Systems
000.250.50035: Pipe Markers and Valve Tags for Commodity and Safety
Identification
000.250.50050: Piping Pressure Testing
000.250.50100: Purchase Specification for Gate, Globe, and Check Valves
000.250.50101: Purchase Specification for Ball, Butterfly, and Plug Valves
000.250.50102: Purchase Specification for Diaphragm Valves
000.250.50103: Purchase Specification for Knife Gate Valve
000.250.50104: Purchase Specification for Pipe, Fittings, and Flanges
000.250.50106: Purchase Specification for Bolts, Nuts, and Gaskets
000.250.50107: Purchase Specification for RTR Pipe and Fittings
000.250.50108: Purchase Specification for HF Modified Castings
000.250.50109: Internal Lining of Piping Systems
000.250.50110: Cement Lined Carbon Steel
000.250.50111: Piping Galvanizing
000.250.50112: Package Equipment Piping
000.250.50120: Piping Traceability and Certification
000.250.86110: Hot Insulation
000.250.86130: Cold Insulation
000.250.86150: Acoustical Insulation
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 21
PIPING ENGINEERING MASTER SPECIFICATIONS (000.250.0005)
000.250.86210: Painting
000.250.86310: Coating and Wrapping of Steel Piping
000.250.50200: Piping Flexibility
000.250.50201: Piping Support Elements
000.250.50202: Metallic Expansion Joints
000.250.50203: Elastomer Expansion Joints
000.250.50204: Shock Arrestors
RELATED
INTERDISCIPLINE
SPECIFICATIONS
000.285.85002: Welding - Pipe, Shop/Field Fabrication

000.250.85013: Welding - Stainless Steel Hygienic Tubing
2.2.2 Design Pressure
Design pressure is the maximum internal and/or external pressure used to

determine the required minimum thickness of a section of pipe.
a. Internal Design Pressure
A piping system must be designed to contain (or safely relieve) any

excessive internal pressures to which it may be subjected. Sources of
excessive pressure to be considered include the effects of ambient
influences, pressure oscillations and surges, improper operation, and
failure of equipment or control devices.
If a section of line can be shut in and exposed to an overpressure

situation, its design pressure is usually set by one of the following:
The set pressure of a relief valve mounted on the line.
The set pressure of a relief valve installed on equipment that is

connected to the line, adjusted to account for static head and
friction loss effects.
If the system does not contain a relief valve, or if the system can
be isolated from the relief valve, the maximum pressure that
upstream equipment can generate (e.g., the shut-in discharge
pressure of a centrifugal pump, the stalling pressure of a
reciprocating pump, etc.).
The design pressure of a line must be carried through to the last valve
which can be used to shut-in the system.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 22
b. Centrifugal Pump Discharge Piping
The design pressure of the line and equipment on the discharge side of a
centrifugal pump should be selected from one of the following two cases,
on the basis that either the suction is subject to excess pressure or the
discharge is shut-in, but not both:
The normal suction pressure plus the shut-in differential head of

the pump.
The maximum suction pressure (typically based on the relief

pressure of the vessel) plus the normal flow differential head of
the pump.
For most cases it would be considered double jeopardy to have the

maximum suction pressure along with the shut-in differential head of the
pump. However, it should be noted that for a top reflux pump, the
design pressure should be taken as the maximum suction pressure plus
the shut-in differential head.
Since piping design conditions are normally assigned before pump

curves are available, it is necessary to estimate the shut-in pressure, as
follows:
For centrifugal pumps with medium to high head, add 25 % to

the normal flow differential pressure.
For low-head centrifugal pumps or steam turbine-driven pumps,

add 35 % to the normal flow differential pressure.
For axial flow pumps, add 80 % to the normal flow differential

head, or install a relief valve in the discharge piping.
A relief valve is not normally installed in a centrifugal pump discharge

line, but it may prove economical if costly upgrading of the pump
discharge system design pressure can be avoided. This is particularly
true when there are exchangers or other equipment in the system. If
installed, this relief valve should be located downstream of the control
valve in the system, with the line upstream of the control valve rated at
the pump shut-in pressure.
The design pressure of product rundown lines in OBL systems should be

carefully evaluated. The block valves in the OBL product rundown piping
should be locked open if the OBL lines are not designed for the pump
shut-in pressure or relief valve protection is not provided.
c. Pump and Compressor Suction Piping
Special consideration must be given for determining design conditions

for pump and compressor suction piping and components. For a
system containing a single pump, and there is another source of equal
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 23
or higher pressure in the discharge line, the pump suction piping, up to

and including the pump suction isolation valve, must have a design
pressure equal to that of the discharge line. For pumps installed in
parallel, the suction piping and isolation valves must have a design
pressure equal to or greater than 75 % of the discharge design pressure
(many clients request that the suction design pressure be equal to the
discharge design pressure).
Compressor suction piping, up to and including the suction isolation

valve, must be designed for the discharge design pressure. This will
protect the suction piping if the suction valve is inadvertently closed
when the discharge valve is open.
d. Pulsating Service
Reciprocating pumps and compressors cause pressure pulsations in

their associated piping systems. A pulsation damper must be installed in
the discharge piping of these systems. Alternatively, volume bottles can
be installed on compressor suction and discharge piping. A relief valve
is also required on the discharge of reciprocating equipment to prevent
overpressuring the system in case of a blocked outlet. The relief valve
set pressure must be sufficiently high enough to eliminate the possibility
of relieving during the high pressure pulsation peaks.
The following table gives the recommended discharge relief valve

settings (as a multiplying factor to be applied to the normal pump
differential pressure) for various types of reciprocating pumps:
Pump Type Multiplying Factor

Simplex 1.30
Duplex 1.25
Triplex 1.20
e. Thermal Expansion
Piping systems must be designed to either contain or relieve increased

pressure caused by the heating of static fluid. The use of relief valves,
where necessary, shall be determined by the Process Engineer. Typical
applications include liquid filled systems which can be blocked in and
exposed to a process heat source or solar radiation.
f. External Design Pressure
For piping systems that can experience vacuum conditions, the external
design pressure is set as the maximum difference in pressure between
the atmosphere and the inside of piping. The cooling of a gas or vapor
in a piping system that is normally pressurized may reduce the pressure
sufficiently to create an internal vacuum. In such a case, the piping shall
be capable of withstanding the external pressure at the lower
temperature, or a vacuum-breaking device must be installed. Large
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 24
diameter piping which normally operates at partial vacuum may require a

full vacuum external design pressure.
2.2.3 Design Temperature
Piping design temperature is generally defined as the most severe (maximum)

temperature condition to which the piping will be subjected at a coincident
maximum pressure condition. The design temperature is set higher than the
normal operating temperature due to the uncertainty in calculating the exact
flowing fluid temperature, which can be affected by normally occurring variations
in stream compositions and operating pressures.
a. Maximum Design Temperature
The following guidelines should be considered when establishing piping

design temperatures:
At a minimum, the maximum design temperature shall be 25 oF

(13.9 oC) above the normal, maximum sustained flowing fluid
temperature.
For lines that are subject to steam-out, use 250 oF (121 oC) as
the maximum design temperature minimum.
If a heat exchanger or a piece of equipment in which heat is

being removed can be taken out of service or bypassed, then
the line downstream of that equipment should be designed for
the resulting higher temperature.
Steam- or electrically-traced lines should be designed for a

temperature at least equal to the temperature of the steam or
the electrical control setting.
Determine if external insulation (either for personnel protection

or thermal efficiency) will affect the maximum design
temperature.
Abnormally high temperatures, such as those that may occur

during start-up or regeneration, must be considered.
b. Minimum Design Temperature
Materials exposed to low temperatures either during normal operation or

during abnormal conditions must have adequate toughness to prevent
brittle failure.
In order to establish materials selection requirements, the Minimum

Design Temperature (MDT) must be defined (MDT sometimes referred
to as "Critical Exposure Temperature" (CET)). The MDT shall be taken
as the lowest temperature in accordance with the following
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 25
considerations (some clients require that the MDT be adjusted downward

by an additional 25 oF (14 oC)):
The minimum process design temperature (if more than one

such temperature or temperature range is given, the lowest
value shall be used).
Upset conditions such as start-up, shutdown, depressurization,

or other process upsets which could cause abnormally low metal
temperatures.
Autorefrigeration: Autorefrigeration should be considered if it

can occur as the result of a single failure of a valve or other
piece of equipment. The MDT of piping which can be affected
by autorefrigeration should be set at the lowest temperature for
which the combined stress in tension does not exceed 10 % of
the specified minimum tensile strength. Consider the following
circumstances in evaluating the effects of autorefrigeration:
- Thermal inertia: Is the pipe wall too thick to cool down

quickly?
- Inventory: Is there too little liquid to fully cool down the

pipe wall?
- Does autorefrigeration take place fast enough to fully

autorefrigerate the piping system? Slow
autorefrigeration across a small valve (requiring
15 minutes or more) and accompanied by appropriate
operator alarms need not be addressed.
- Does the design require that the autorefrigerated piping

be capable of restart at full design pressure or will it be
first warmed up? The answer to this question may
determine if impact testing is mandatory.
Shock chilling presents a special piping design situation. This

condition is usually associated with blowdown or safety relief
facilities in gas plants or low temperature process units. When
the design temperature is lower than -29 oC (-20 oF) and the
shock chilling temperature differential exceeds 56 oC (100 oF),
the piping materials of construction must be either inherently
tough [e.g., austenitic stainless steel] or be of a material that will
successfully pass impact testing at the shock testing
temperature [e.g., 3-1/2 Ni steel, good down to -101 oC
(-150 oF)].
Flashing liquids across valves: The MDT for the valve and
downstream piping must be adequate for the resulting low
temperature.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 26
The lowest one-day mean atmospheric temperature specified for

plant start-up and shutdown. If not specified, this temperature
shall be taken as the lowest one-day mean atmospheric
temperature for the plant location. Consider the effect of
planned warm-ups, if applicable.
Where minimum operating temperatures are above minimum

ambient temperatures, the lowest one-day mean temperature
should be used as the MDT unless the client concurs with the
use of a higher temperature. Consider the effect of planned
warm-ups, if applicable.
For piping that is externally insulated or heated, the effect of

such insulation and/or heating shall be considered in establishing
the MDT.
In some cases, fouling of heat exchangers or abnormal flow

control problems can alter heat transfer sufficiently to cause the
temperature to be lower than normal.
Winterization, which is usually applied to non-flowing process

lines or lines containing highly viscous fluids, is used during
times of low ambient temperatures. The MDT of such lines may
have to be appropriately adjusted. Winterization techniques and
calculations are presented in Fluor Daniel Process Manual
Volume 87 and Manual 000 225 008 Winterization.
The hydrostatic fluid temperature (as it affects the metal

temperature during test) may govern, as noted below.
Hydrostatic testing conditions may govern the determination of the MDT.

The metal temperature during such tests must be at least 17 oC (30 oF)
warmer than the MDT. In some cases, the hydrotest water may have to
be heated to meet this requirement. If such heating is impractical, the
MDT must be adjusted downward so that it is at least 17 oC (30 oF)
cooler than the metal temperature during hydrotest with unheated water.
British codes require that materials used at temperatures 32 oF (0 oC) or

below should be subjected to brittle fracture evaluation. The U.S.
ASME B31.3 requires special material considerations for avoiding brittle
fracture conditions if MDT is below -20 oF (-29 oC).
Once the MDT has been defined the Piping Materials Group shall be
responsible to select the proper materials for the specified MDT.
Process Engineers shall assist in this effort because a balance must be
made between capital costs, engineering design efforts and possible
start-up and shutdown operating limitations.
c. Economics
Toughness requirements generally lead to material cost breakpoints at

temperatures below -29, -46, and -101 oC (-20, -51 and -150 oF). These
breakpoints exist because of different material specifications required to
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 27
provide adequate toughness. The temperatures listed are

representative, and actually vary as a result of numerous material
variables.
d. Internal Insulation
Piping that is internally insulated must be considered separately. This

includes piping associated with refractory-lined reactors, secondary
reformers, fluid cokers, and fluid catalytic crackers. For this piping, the
lowest one-day mean temperature should be used as the lowest metal
temperature, unless studies indicate otherwise.
2.2.4 Special Design Condition Considerations
a. Short-Term Conditions
ASME B31.3 allows a design pressure that is higher than that normally
permitted for a specific piping component to be used if it only occurs for
a limited period. According to Section F of B31.3, when the increased
operating conditions do not exceed 10 hours at any one time and occur
no more than 100 hours per year, the pressure rating or the
pressure/stress value for piping may be increased by no more than 33 %
at the temperature of the increased condition. This condition is identified
on the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet (Figures 2-1(a) and 2-1(b)) as
Case II.
B31.3 also states that when the variation lasts no more than 50 hours at
any one time and no more than 500 hours per year, the pressure rating
or the pressure/stress value for piping may be increased by no more
than 20 % at the temperature of the increased condition. This is
identified as Case III on the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet.
In order to rate piping valves using Case II or III, written permission must
be obtained from the valve manufacturer. Also, be aware that these
cases are not allowed in some countries. Application of these short-term
condition cases may yield cost savings due to the use of flanged
equipment having a lower rating. In reality, however, their application is
somewhat limited. With equipment setting the design conditions in a
large number of instances for piping, even for short-term conditions, a
conservative pipe design temperature and pressure is usually
considered. Examples of Case II and III conditions were provided in
abandoned Fluor Daniel Engineering Standard ST-1-5002. ASME B31.3
is primary reference.
b. Transitions in Design Conditions
When two lines that operate at different pressure and temperature

conditions are connected, the valves segregating the two lines should
be, in most cases, rated for the more severe service conditions.
Likewise, this same condition exists when a line is connected to a piece
of equipment which operates at a higher pressure and temperature than
that of the line. If, however, the valve is of sufficient distance from the
pipe or piece of equipment operating under the more severe conditions,
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 28
with the result that the temperature of this valve would be lower than the
more severe service condition, then this valve may be rated for the most
severe coexistent temperature/pressure condition to which it will be
actually subjected in normal operation. This temperature will lie
somewhere between the more severe service temperature and the less
severe temperature of the joining line.
2.2.5 Other Piping Specification Parameters
a. Insulation and Heat Tracing
When completing the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet (Figures 2-1(a) and
2-1(b)), the Process Engineer must designate the type of insulation or
heat tracing which is required. This designation is usually made by using
one of the following symbols:
IH Heat conservation, hot

IC Heat conservation, cold
IS Safety
ST Steam traced
ET Electric traced
F Anti-frost
The Insulation Group will select the insulation type and thickness from
the specified operating temperature. Design temperatures are not used
for selecting insulation, except where they dictate the mechanical
characteristics of the insulation.
b. Corrosion and Erosion
A corrosion and/or erosion allowance is normally applied to the standard

pipe wall thickness. The allowance is usually determined during the
materials review and finalized with the Piping Group. A typical corrosion
allowance for 150 pound carbon steel pipe would be 1/16 or 1/8 of an
inch.
c. Expansion and Flexibility
The Piping Stress Group is responsible for ensuring that the design of
piping systems has sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion from
causing either failure of piping or anchors, leakage at joints, or excessive
thrusts and moments on connected equipment, such as pumps or
turbines. The thermal expansion values used in computing piping stress
are based on the maximum and minimum metal temperatures normally
expected during operation or shutdown. For the maximum metal
temperature, the Piping Stress Group uses the operating temperature at
flowing conditions. Therefore, it is important that all of the various
operating condition cases be listed on the Line Sizing Calculation Sheet,
particularly those where the operating temperature may be greater than
the normal operating case. The minimum metal temperature that is used
for stress calculations is 250 oF (121 oC) for onsite or on-plot refinery
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 29
piping that is subject to steam out operations. For all other lines,
including those in a tank farm, the minimum metal temperature is 180 oF
(82 oC) for evaluating piping clearances and 150 oF (65 oC) for analyzing
piping flexibility.
The flowing fluid specific gravity, as listed on the Line Sizing Calculation
Sheet, is also used by the Piping Group to design pipe hangers and
supports.
2.2.6 Piping Identification
a. Pipe Classification
The Fluor Daniel pipe classification system is discussed in Piping

Engineering, Material Engineering - Piping Line Designations,
Practice 000 250 3723, Attachment 01. A few basic rules which usually
apply are given below to aid in recognizing the basic classifications,
which are denoted by a series of "Identifiers":
Identifier 1 Identifier 2
Business Sectors Pressure Rating
B-Biotech
C-Process Identifier 3
D-Pharmaceuticals Material
F-Food
G-Government Identifier 4
H-Hydrocarbons Modifiers
I-Industrial
P-Power Note that Commodity Code is part of
S-Steel Mills Line Numbering System.
U-Utilities
W-Pulp and Paper
b. Line Identification3
All process and utility lines are numbered on the P&ID's and utility flow
diagrams by the Piping Materials Group, primarily to aid in spooling pipe
runs. The Fluor Daniel line identification normally consists of the
following five parts:
Unit or area number.
Line sequence number.
Line class symbol. (Letters designating the piping material

specifications.)
3
Piping Engineering, Material Engineering - Line Identification and Line Numbering,
Practice 000 250 3705.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 30
The size of the line in inches or mm.
Commodity code (optional)
Insulation symbol, when required or heat tracing symbol, when

required (the heat tracing symbol also includes the quantity and
size of tracers).
c. Pipe Line List4
All lines in a plant are itemized on a Pipe Line List prepared by the Piping
Materials Group. The lines are listed in numerical order with the
following information given for each line:
The drawing number(s) of the flow sheet(s) showing the line.

The complete line number (e.g., 11-4A-6"-IH).
The flowing commodity and phase.
Description of line (origin and terminus).
Design pressure and temperature.
Operating pressure and temperature.
The line list is a key document for other groups, including Piping
Materials, Piping Layout, Piping Stress, and Construction. The line list
facilitates working between the P&ID's and the pipe spool drawings.
2.2.7 Piping Layout
The Piping Design Group is responsible for the layout of all equipment and
piping. The piping and equipment layout must satisfy requirements of:
Economics
Thermal stress
Accessibility (both for operating and maintenance)
Safety
Process
Special layout requirements (e.g., do not pocket)5
The Process Engineer should work closely with the piping designers, especially
in the early stages of layout work, to ensure mutual understanding of process
and layout requirements and limitations.
4
Piping Engineering, Material Engineering - Control and Issue of Line Lists,
Practice 000 250 0822.
5
See superseded Process Manual Volume V Flow of Fluids, Section A General Discussion,
page 25 for other special conditions.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 31
2.2.8 Piping Characteristics Data
See the following along with other pertinent references.
Hydraulic Institute - Engineering Data Book, Second Edition, Section IV

-Steel Pipe, Iron Pipe, Non-Ferrous Pipe and Tubing, Plastic Lined Pipe.
GPSA Engineering Data Book, Volume II, Section 17 - Fluid Flow and
Piping, Figure 17-26 - Design Properties and Allowable Working
Pressure for Piping.
Piping Material Engineering Practice 000 250 0040, Prac-

tice 000 250 9822. Properties of Pipe.
Piping Engineering Design Guide 000 250 0020.
2.3 CONTROL VALVE DESIGN BASIS
A conference should be held at the start of the job between the lead Control Systems
engineer and all Process Engineers involved in sizing valves or in providing data, to
confirm the guidelines presented here or to explain any departures therefrom that may be
requested by the client.
Pressure drop allowance for control valves is specified by the process engineer. If the
allowance does not meet the requirements outlined here, check with the Control Systems
Engineer.
Sufficient pressure drop must be allowed for control valves to obtain good regulation,
maintain flow characteristics, and obtain desired maximum capacity. It is important that
a valve pressure drop allowance be made in specifying pumps, blowers, compressors
and reboilers. The following minimum control valve pressure drops are for normal
applications and standard types of valves. A check should be made for hydrostatic head.
It should not be included in the variable system pressure drop unless it varies (which may
occur in storage tanks), keeping in mind the relative rate of response of the valve to the
rate of head change in the tank.
At normal design rate (which is the normal flow rate or the rate required at nominal plant
throughput, or the material balance flow rate), allow a pressure drop across the valve
equal to one-half of the variable system pressure drop exclusive of the control valve; in
other words, one-third of the total variable system drop including the control valve.
On light hydrocarbon products to storage that are stored under product vapor pressure,
use a valve pressure drop based on downstream vapor pressure at maximum ambient
temperature of, say, 120 oF (49 oC).
For control valves at the discharge of reflux, charge and recycle pumps, use whichever of
the following four pressure drops is greater:
a. At normal design rate, one-third of the total variable system pressure drop.
b. At normal design rate, 15 psi (1.03 bar).
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 2.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 32
c. At maximum design rate (the rated flow on the pump data sheet, which is
10-25 % more than the normal flow rate), 20 % of the total variable system drop.
d. At maximum design rate, 10 psi (0.69 bar).
Limitations c. and d. are required to make sure there is enough pressure drop built into
the pump head for the control valve to operate at the maximum design rate.
For control valves in the steam line to reboilers, allow a pressure drop of 5 % to 10 % of
the initial absolute steam pressure or, when operating with low pressure steam of 30 psig
(2.0 barg) or less, use a minimum drop of 5 psi (0.34 bar). (Note that this drop must also
be considered when specifying the reboiler.)
The same criteria apply to vapors and gases other than steam.
If 5 psi is not available (which may be the case in low pressure gaseous systems),
consult with the Control Systems Engineer to determine mutually satisfactory conditions.
Gas streams can be controlled properly with less valve pressure drop than is required for
liquids. However, a limit may exist below which proper control cannot be realized with
commonly used control valve types.
For large variable system pressure drops of 150 psi (10.3 bar) or more, such as may be
encountered with heaters or furnaces, allow 15 % of the variable system pressure drop
exclusive of the control valve.
For automatic pump start-up where the control valve is in the steam line to the pump
driver, the control valve shall be line size. The resulting pressure drop generally should
be 5 psi (0.34 bar) or less.
Despite these guidelines, expensive loops may warrant a separate economic study of
capital and operating costs for pump and driver, piping, control valve and control valve
manifold.
Block and bypass valves shall normally be sized by a Control Systems Engineer.
Formerly sized by abandoned Engineering Standard ST-4-5084A Control Manifold
Arrangement and Layout Guide. Client may stipulate design basis. Most current
standard is Instrument Piping - Control Manifold Arrangement and Layout Guide -
Practice 000 250 2701.
When filling out control valve data sheets, the value for "P Sizing" is the drop across the
control valve only. The drop across the remainder of the control manifold (block valves,
swages, elbows, etc.) should be included in line losses. Also, remember start-up
conditions, especially for the "Pressure Maximum In".
Note that at times there is insufficient straight run pipe upstream of control valve orifices
and that installation of straightening vanes may be used to alleviate this situation in lieu
of repiping for a suitable straight run. See Control Systems for more detail.
For an overview of details see Control Systems Engineering Manual, Technical

Practice 000 270 1501 - Control Valves and Positioners. Refer to API RP 550, Part I,
Section 6 for details.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 3.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 11
PROCESS MANUAL
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0 SINGLE-PHASE FLOW
3.1 SINGLE-PHASE LIQUID FLOW
The hydraulic programs used at Fluor Daniel compute pressure drop from the Bernoulli
equation. For quick calculations of frictional pressure drop in liquid systems, the Darcy
equation may be used:
fρv 2 L
∆P = .001294 (English)
d
fρv 2 L
∆P = .0001967 (Metric)
d
where:
v = mean velocity of flow, ft/sec (m/sec)

d = internal pipe diameter, in (in)
∆P = pressure drop, psi (bar)
L = equivalent length of pipe, ft (m)
ρ = density of fluid, lbm/ft3 (kg/m3)
f = friction factor, dimensionless
This formula does not include a safety margin and the calculated pressure drop should
be multiplied by 1.2 when determining line sizes.
The Darcy equation is valid for laminar or turbulent flow of any liquid in a pipe. However,
when extreme velocities occur in a pipe and cause the downstream pressure to fall to the
vapor pressure of the liquid, cavitation occurs and the results will not be accurate. The
Crane Technical Paper No. 410 presents several versions of the Darcy formula using
different flow rate parameters (gpm, lb/hr, ft3/sec, etc.).
A sample calculation using the above equation is provided in Section 11. The hydraulic
charts shown in Figures 3-1, 3-2 and 3-3 are also available and are very useful for
estimating frictional pressure drop and line sizes in liquid systems for Schedule 40 pipe.
Examples are provided with the charts. These liquid flow charts include a 20 % safety
margin. Additional charts providing correction factors for friction losses of different
schedule pipes and for various pipe materials are shown in Figures 3-4 and 3-5.
In Book 2 of this manual, friction factor and velocity of flow are discussed in Section 2
and the derivation of the Darcy equation from Bernoulli's equation is presented in
Section 3. Also discussed in Section 3 are pressure drop calculations that involve pipe
fittings and elevation changes.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 3.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 7
PROCESS MANUAL
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
3.2 SINGLE-PHASE GAS FLOW
For incompressible fluids, the changes in fluid density and kinetic energy are negligible
and pressure drop is easily and accurately solved using the Darcy equation.
Compressible flow, however, is often accompanied by changes in kinetic energy and fluid
density. The hydraulic programs at Fluor Daniel compute pressure drop for gas flow
from the isothermal equation (discussed in Section 3 in Book 2).
For hand calculations, the Darcy equation can be extended to gases under limited
conditions. If the calculated pressure drop is less than 10 % of the inlet pressure,
reasonable accuracy is obtained if the gas density used in the formula is based upon
either the upstream or downstream conditions. If the calculated pressure drop is greater
than 10 %, but less than 40 % of the inlet pressure, the Darcy equation may be used with
reasonable accuracy by using a gas density based on the average of upstream and
downstream conditions. For pressure drops greater than 40 % of the inlet pressure,
break the line up into segments or use the isothermal flow equation.
A sample calculation using the Darcy formula for gas flow is provided in Section 11. As
mentioned previously for liquid flow, the Darcy equation in Section 3.1 does not include a
safety margin and the calculated pressure drop should be multiplied by 1.2 when
determining line sizes (except for steam). The hydraulic charts in Figures 3-6 and 3-7
are also available for estimating frictional pressure drop and line sizes for gas flow for
Schedule 40 pipe. Examples are provided with the charts. These gas flow charts
include a 20 % safety margin (except for steam). The correction factors for pipe
schedule and material are provided in Figures 3-4 and 3-5.
Section 3 in Book 2 of this manual presents equations for compressible isothermal flow
and sonic velocity. In addition, the Crane Technical Paper No. 410 provides a thorough
write-up on the principles of compressible flow.
3.3 STEAM FLOW
Special charts for sizing steam lines are provided in Figures 3-8 and 3-9 for Schedule 40,
80 and 160 pipes. These charts permit rapid determination of frictional pressure loss and
linear velocity. Examples are provided with the charts.
The frictional pressure drop for steam systems is calculated in accordance with the
Standards of the Hydraulic Institute, on the basis of clean commercial pipe. Therefore,
no safety margin is provided in the charts for steam flow. Correction factors for pipe
schedule and material are provided in Figures 3-4 and 3-5.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 4.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 6
PROCESS MANUAL
TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0 TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Two-phase (gas-liquid) flow has been the subject of a great deal of experimentation, and
is a very important consideration in the design of process plant piping. It is most often
encountered in vacuum transfer lines, reboiler return lines, and condenser outlet lines,
and may occur in relief and flare lines.
If two-phase flow is not considered during design, pressure drop will be underestimated.
Higher than expected pressure drops can reduce plant capacity and, in the case of relief
valves, lead to increased back-pressure that can restrict relief valve capacity. Ignoring
two-phase flow may also lead to poor process control. Two-phase flow to a control valve
is difficult to regulate smoothly and reproducibly. Slug or intermittent flow destabilizes
separation operations and can affect product purity or recovery. Continued operation in
slug flow can lead to increased maintenance costs, reduced equipment service life, and
catastrophic piping and equipment failure.
It is important to note that the prediction of two-phase flow regimes and pressure drops is
not very accurate. For example, one of the better horizontal flow regime maps was
shown to predict the correct regime only 67.2 % of the time. In addition, errors as high
as ± 50 % in pressure drop calculations are not uncommon. It is essential that
engineering judgement be used when designing for two-phase flow. The potential impact
on the system design and operation must be evaluated for scenarios where pressure
drop is under- or over-predicted and/or where the flow regime is incorrectly identified.
Due to the engineering uncertainties involved, it is imperative that two-phase flow

designs and design methods be reviewed and approved by the lead Process Engineer
and the Process Director for the project in advance.
This section of the Hydraulics Manual describes two-phase (gas-liquid) flow and presents
guidelines for sizing both general and specific systems. In addition, detailed background
is provided in Section 4 of Book 2 on two-phase flow design criteria, including flow
regimes, liquid hold-up and pressure drop correlations, and velocity considerations.
4.2 TWO-PHASE FLOW REGIMES
Two-phase flow regimes are broadly categorized according to the continuity of the
flowing gas and liquid phases. The three most commonly identified types include:
Segregated Flow
Each phase is continuous. Stratified, wavy, and annular flow regimes are
examples of segregated flow.
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Intermittent Flow
Each phase is discontinuous, such as in slug or plug flow.
Distributed Flow
One phase is continuous and the other is discontinuous, such as in bubble flow
(liquid phase is continuous) and mist flow (gas phase is continuous). This type of
flow regime most closely resembles homogeneous single phase flow.
For a given system, flow regimes can vary depending on the orientation of the
pipe (horizontal, vertical, or inclined). Each type of flow regime is described in
Section 4 of Book 2 according to pipe orientation.
4.3 RECOMMENDED DESIGN GUIDELINES
The recommended design methods for two-phase flow applications are summarized in
this section. Several methods were evaluated in the course of preparing this manual.
Section 4.3.1 provides an overview of the recommended flow regime maps and
correlations. In Section 4.3.2, recommended evaluation procedures are described for
new and rerate designs. Section 4.3.3 provides a discussion of some special cases:
vacuum unit transfer lines, reboiler return lines, and condenser outlet lines. A sample
calculation illustrating some of the recommended design methods can be found in
Section 10.
4.3.1 Recommended Methods1,2
The recommended methods to be used in evaluating two-phase flow in pipes

are:
a. Flow Regime Maps
- horizontal flow: Dukler & Taitel (preferred)
- vertical flow: Dukler & Taitel (preferred)
- inclined flow: Dukler & Taitel
b. Friction Pressure Drop
- all flow directions: Dukler with Hughmark liquid

hold-up correlation
- pipe fittings and Chisholm correlation

valves:
1
Piping Design Handbook, McKetta, Two-Phase Flow, Pressure Drop and Holdup Equations,
pages 647-658.
2
Two Phase (Gas-Liquid) Flow Articles, Volumes I and II, Irvine Process Library.
` FLUOR DANIEL
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Flow regime maps and details of these recommended methods are provided in
Section 4.2 of Book 2.
4.3.2 General Design Guidelines
This subsection includes some general design guidelines for gas-liquid

two-phase flow piping design and evaluation. The general guidelines can be
applied to all two-phase flow situations. In addition, a few special cases,
including vacuum unit transfer lines, reboiler return lines, and condenser outlet
lines are discussed separately.
a. General Design Approach
To obtain the most accurate pressure drop estimation, the piping system
should be evaluated in small segments. In addition, because the
methods presented in this manual are flow regime and pipe orientation
dependent, each segment should only have one pipe diameter, one pipe
orientation and flow direction, and one flow regime. Pipe fittings should
be treated as their own segments.
The pressure drop for each segment should be limited to less than 10 %
of either the upstream or downstream pressure. This reduces the
compressibility induced errors to less than one percent. Significant
changes in the gas/liquid ratio due to flashing may necessitate further
subdivision to update the phase volumes and physical properties.
Caution must be used to ensure that a flow regime transition has not
occurred due to flashing.
Because of potential inaccuracies in liquid hold-up predictions, credit

should not be taken for static head in downward two-phase flow. For
upward two-phase flow, the liquid-full cases should be considered when
estimating the static head. Start-up cases may exist where the line is
indeed liquid-full.
It is important to note that two-phase pressure drop correlations are

probably no more accurate than ±50 %. The engineer must ensure that
the design can handle this limited accuracy.
b. Flow Regimes
When designing for two-phase flow, all turndown and alternate operating
conditions must be evaluated. The flow may be annular at normal or
design conditions, but may transition to slug flow at turndown conditions.
The intermittent flow regimes, slug and plug flow, should be avoided if at
all possible. Use more than one map, if possible, to determine the
system flow regime. Each map must be checked for generally
unacceptable flow regimes. If one of the maps shows an intermittent
flow regime, the basis and implications must be understood before the
map is disregarded or the flow conditions are changed.
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It must be emphasized that flow regime maps are not very accurate. In
fact, one of the recommended maps was found to correctly predict flow
regime only 67.2 % of the time. These maps are only an approximation.
Thought must be given to what is occurring in the system under
evaluation.
Changes from horizontal flow to inclined upward flow can greatly alter
the flow regime. Horizontal stratified flow will transition to slug flow when
the piping is rotated toward vertical. Unfortunately, the inclined flow
maps are the least well developed and are probably less reliable than
either the vertical or horizontal flow maps.
Fittings may strongly affect the flow regime of two-phase mixtures.

Bends tend to separate the flow, causing the liquid to follow the outer
wall, while valves and other flow restrictions disperse the two phases into
each other. Downstream of a fitting, a flow regime transition may occur
within one pipe diameter, and may take dozens of pipe diameters before
an equilibrium regime is reached.
The flow regime may also be affected by weld penetration into the pipe.
Weld penetration may prevent the establishment of a uniform flow
regime. However, in most cases, this effect should be minor.
c. Slug Flow
If possible, slug flow should be avoided. Refer to Book 2, Section 4.0,

e.g., Figure 4-20 to identify slug flow conditions. This regime can lead to
serious pressure fluctuations and vibration, especially at vessel inlets,
pipe bends, valves, and other flow restrictions. This can lead to
equipment deterioration and operating problems.
If a piping system cannot be designed to avoid slug flow in a turndown

case, then it may be possible to adjust the operating conditions to
eliminate slug flow. For example, the gas/liquid ratio could be increased
by increasing the gas recycle rate (e.g., hydrotreater recycle gas rate). If
the system cannot be modified to avoid slug flow, a smaller line size
should be considered. The cost trade-offs between anchoring the
affected piping for the turndown slugging case versus increased pumping
costs for a smaller line diameter which avoids slug flow must be
evaluated. However, erosional velocity criteria may limit the selection of
line size to the extent that slug flow cannot be avoided for a given
service. If slug flow cannot be avoided, both the line and downstream
equipment must be designed for slug flow. Piping and Mechanical
Engineering must be consulted to establish design requirements.
It is important to remember that an undesirable flow regime can

propagate. If slug flow develops at the beginning of a pipe run, it will
propagate downstream, regardless of changes in pipe size and
orientation. Only a slug catcher will eliminate this effect. Refer to GPSA
` FLUOR DANIEL
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Engineering Data Book, Volume II, Section 17 Fluid Flow and Piping,
17-21 Liquid Slugging for one slug catcher design.
d. Erosional Velocity
It is important to check the erosional velocity limitations. A good design

strategy for two-phase flow piping is to start with the next larger pipe
diameter than that which would be at the erosional velocity limit. An
equation for erosional velocity is provided in Section 4.2.10 of Book 2.
e. Economic Pressure Drop
It is recommended that the friction pressure drop for a two-phase line

should be limited to 4 psi/100 ft (0.9 bar/100 m). This is a general
guideline. It may be better to operate outside of slug flow at the expense
of a higher pressure drop, as long as the erosional velocity limits are not
exceeded.
f. Distribution of Two-Phase Flow
Distribution of two-phase flow to parallel equipment should be done in a

symmetrical fashion. For example, uniform distribution to four heat
exchangers requires that the flow first be divided symmetrically into two
substreams and then each substream again be split into two streams.
Bends immediately upstream of a distributing tee should be mounted
perpendicular to the plane of the tee. If this is not possible, a blind tee
should be used. In cases where gravity would seriously affect
distribution, the equipment should be kept at the same level.
Two-phase manifolding systems must be reviewed by the lead Process

Engineer and Process Director.
4.3.3 Special Cases
a. Vacuum Unit Transfer Lines
One very important case where two-phase flow occurs is in a vacuum

unit transfer line from the heater to the distillation tower. It is essential
that the pressure drop is estimated accurately for this system.
Improperly designed transfer lines can cause critical flow to occur which
destabilizes vacuum column operation. This can lead to entrainment
contamination of bottom side products with residua. If the pressure drop
is underestimated then valuable vacuum gasoils may be lost to the short
residue.
The first step in designing or rating a transfer line is to determine the flow
regime. At design conditions, mist flow is almost always present. At
turndown, the flow regime may transition to annular flow. Due to the
high flowing velocities at design and turndown conditions, all of the
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recommended flow regime maps should give reliable predictions of the

transfer line flow regimes.
At design conditions where mist flow is present, the liquid holdup should
closely approximate the feed liquid volume fraction (no-slip liquid
holdup). Both Dukler's method using the Hughmark liquid holdup
correlation and Dukler's no-slip correlation should give reliable pressure
drop estimates. Beggs & Brill's pressure drop method should also
perform well. At turndown, the liquid hold-up should be considered.
A complete analysis of vacuum tower transfer line design is presented in

Fluor Daniel's Vacuum Unit Transfer Line Design Guide.
b. Reboiler Return Lines
When designing reboiler return lines use the recommended flow regime
maps and pressure drop correlations listed previously in Section 4.3.1.
When the reboiler is rated by Mechanical Engineering, the HTRI program
will select the line size and predict the pressure drop for the return line.
The HTRI result should be reviewed and any significant discrepancies in
line sizing resolved.
Also see Houston Design Manual for Reboiler and Condenser - Kern
method, etc. A new writeup titled "Thermosyphon Reboiler" Calculation
Method is in preparation.
c. Condenser Outlet Lines
Condenser outlet lines, especially in the case of partial condensers, are

considered a special two-phase flow case because the gas/liquid ratio
can vary over a wide range. The differences in the gas/liquid ratio
between design, turndown, and maximum reflux cases can be
significant. This makes it difficult to avoid slug flow at all design
conditions. For this reason, condenser lines should drain freely (no
pockets) into the overhead receiver. A vertical downward flow
orientation mitigates any concern about slug flow.
d. Fired Heater, Boiler Blowdown, etc.
Fired heater outlets, boiler blowdown, etc., two-phase flow often

generate vibrations of such magnitude as to require mitigation with
hold-down mechanical arrangements. Proximity to grade facilities
hold-down installation.
4.4 REFERENCES
Two-phase flow references are located in Section 4.3 Book 2 of this manual.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 5.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 4
PROCESS MANUAL
THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0 THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This section of the Hydraulics Manual presents information on evaluating three-phase

(gas-liquid-solid) flow in piping systems. Gas-liquid-solid flow systems are not commonly
encountered by Process Engineers. Generally, these types of systems are encountered
in the design of fluidized or ebullating bed reactors, with proprietary designs that are
typically handled by process licensors. However, Fluor Daniel has had some recent
involvement in two similar vacuum resid hydrogenation processes that require
gas-liquid-solid piping systems. This design guide outlines a proposed procedure for
sizing these types of systems.
5.2 DESCRIPTION OF EXISTING THREE-PHASE FLOW SYSTEMS
There are two similar vacuum resid hydrogenation processes that contain three-phase
flow systems that have been studied recently by Fluor Daniel: the Intevep HDH process
and the Veba Combi-Cracking process. In each of these processes the vacuum resid is
mixed with a solid catalyst to form a slurry, which is then mixed with a hydrogen-rich gas
to form a three-phase stream. This stream is fed through preheat exchangers and then
to a hydrogenation reactor. The resulting three-phase effluent stream is separated into
liquid, gas and solid streams via several processing stages. Both of these processes
have been successfully operated in small-capacity (150 to 3,500 BPD throughput) plants.
In a typical vacuum resid hydrogenation process the feed slurry has a solids content of
approximately 2 to 3 wt%, and a particle size under 300 µ (can be as low as 10-20 µ).
These solids may be either a non-reactive inorganic material or an organic type material
which reacts as the three phase system is heated. Due to the low solids content and
relatively small particle sizes, the three-phase lines have been treated as two-phase
(gas-liquid) lines, using the homogeneous slurry mixture rates and properties as the
"liquid" rates and properties. Line sizes are selected to give a velocity that is below the
erosional velocity and above the solids particle "settling" velocity, while still maintaining
an acceptable two-phase flow regime.
A literature search on gas-liquid-solid three-phase piping systems yielded little useful

information. However, one article did provide some indication that the above basis for
sizing the vacuum resid hydrogenation three-phase systems is valid. Segev and Golan1
performed a series of pressure drop and heat transfer tests on a three-phase flow heater
that was part of the 250 ton/day Exxon Donor Solvent (EDS) Process plant located in
Baytown, Texas. In this process coal particles are mixed with recycled hydrocarbon
solvent and then fed with hydrogen to a preheat furnace. The three-phase vapor fraction
varied from 70 to 80 vol% through the heater, while the coal feed slurry solids content
ranged from 25 to 65 wt%, with an unspecified particle size distribution.
Segev and Golan found that for the EDS heater, the slurry could be regarded as a
homogeneous fluid (they did not present any data on particle size or shape). Therefore,
they concluded that the actual gas-liquid-solid flow in the heater could be represented as
a gas-liquid flow, and a suitable two-phase model could be used to predict pressure drop.
The "liquid" density was taken as the weighted average slurry density, while the viscosity
was estimated taking into account solid volume fraction and stream temperature. The
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1.0
authors used the Chisholm two-phase flow correlation, which is a modification of the
Lockhart-Martinelli correlation. For most of the reported test runs the predicted pressure
drop was within ± 10 % of the measured pressure drop. At the maximum, the calculated
pressure drop was 40 % below the measured value, which the authors thought may have
been due to experimental procedure difficulties, such as plugging in a pressure tap line.
5.3 PROPOSED SIZING PROCEDURE
A literature search failed to find a published method for calculating gas-liquid-solid

pressure drop in pipes. However, based on the information presented in the preceding
section, the following procedure is proposed, which must be approved and reviewed by
the responsible lead engineer and the process director responsible for the project.
a. Simplify Problem
For systems where the particle size is 40 µ or less, the combined liquid-solid
phase can be assumed to be homogeneous (refer to Slurry (Liquid-Solid) Flow,
Section 7.0 of this manual). If this assumption can be made for the system
under consideration, then the three-phase system can be reduced to a
two-phase system by treating the liquid and solid as a single "liquid" phase.
Even if some of the particle sizes are greater than 40 µ, as is the case with the
vacuum resid hydrogenation processes discussed earlier, the liquid-solid mixture
can most likely be treated as a single phase if the particle concentration is low.
With these simplifying assumptions, the appropriate two-phase methods for flow
regime and pressure drop can be used (refer to the Two-Phase (Gas-Liquid)
Flow, Section 4.0 of this manual). If the particle size is larger than 40 but under
300, the same procedure may be applied but special attention to be given to
settling velocities. In case of larger than 300 particles test data must be obtained
for any design. Refer to Section 7.0 for further details.
b. Calculate Slurry Properties
The slurry density is calculated as the weighted average of the liquid and solid
densities, using the following formula:
where:
ρ slurry = (x solid ρ solid + x liquid ρ liquid ) −1
x = the weight fraction
Because slurries may exhibit non-Newtonian flow behavior, slurry viscosity is

much more difficult to calculate. Although there are several viscosity correlations
for slurries, in Section 7.0 it is recommended that slurry viscosities be obtained
by measurement of a representative sample using a Haake-Roto viscometer.
Refer to Section 7.0 for further details.
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c. Size Line
Choose an initial line size and calculate its pressure drop using an appropriate
method for the system under consideration as recommended in the two-phase
flow section of this manual. Avoid problem flow regimes (e.g., slug flow).
d. Check Minimum Velocity
A minimum liquid-phase superficial velocity must be maintained in liquid-solid

flow systems to keep the suspended solid particles from settling out and possibly
hindering or blocking flow. Section 7.0 presents methods for calculating the
minimum transport velocity.
e. Check Maximum Velocity
In two-phase flow there is a recommended maximum velocity above which

erosion becomes a significant problem. Erosional velocity methods are
discussed in the two-phase flow section of this manual. For three-phase flow the
erosion caused by the presence of solid particles must also be considered.
There are no methods presented in Volume 98 to calculate slurry erosional
velocity limits. Generally, it is expected that higher velocities lead to greater
erosion. Therefore, it is recommended that the design velocity be set at a
minimum amount above the minimum transport velocity. In Volume 98 it is
recommended that the selected velocity be at least 1 ft/sec greater than the
minimum transport velocity.
f. Select Line Size
If the initial line size does not meet all of the pressure drop and velocity
guidelines, select a new line size and repeat the procedure described above. If
other operating conditions apply to this line (e.g., turndown, alternate operating
cases, etc.), the selected line size must be further evaluated. It may prove
difficult to stay within the settling and erosional velocity limitations at all operating
conditions. If this is the case, it may be necessary to increase the margin above
the minimum settling velocity at the design throughput. Alternately, a
recirculation system can be used to maintain an adequate liquid-phase velocity at
reduced throughput conditions. Increasing the vapor volume fraction will also
have the same effect.
5.4 ADDITIONAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Long radius ells, pipe bends, and dead leg tees are generally used to minimize the
erosive effects of slurries.
For ease in maintenance, flushing connections, cleanout tees, swing ells, and drop-out
spools should be provided to access all piping components. Alternatively, piping sections
may be removable for inspection and cleaning at grade.
` FLUOR DANIEL
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5.5 REFERENCES
1. Segev, A., and Golan, L.P., Multiphase Flow and Heat Transfer in the EDS
Slurry Preheat Furnace, AIChE Symposium Series, No. 255, Vol. 79, 1983.
` FLUOR DANIEL
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NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW
[ LATER ]
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SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW DATE 07-95
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0 SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This manual section is intended to give the user a guide to designing an in-plant slurry
transport system. Transporting solids in a pipe using a liquid carrier is becoming
increasingly more common, especially in the area of coal transport through pipelines.
Much of the theory and published literature on the design of pipelines can be used in the
design of in-plant slurry systems, and has, in fact, been used here.
Important elements in slurry transport are:
7.1.1 Non-Newtonian Behavior
As might be expected, transporting slurries creates engineering problems not

normally encountered with simple liquid systems. The primary problem stems
from the fact that when particles are added to a liquid, the viscosity of the mixture
changes with flow rate. This non-Newtonian behavior must be considered in
pressure drop calculations.
7.1.2 Particle Settling
Solid particles immersed in a stagnant fluid tend to rise or sink according to the
relative densities of the two phases. Stokes law, based on the assumption that
the fluid is infinite with respect to the particles (i.e. the volume fraction of solids is
less than 10 % and the nearest wall is 20 particle diameters away), can be used
to explain why small particles do not settle and instead are carried along with the
fluid. In the Stokes regime the drag coefficient is related to the particle Reynolds
number by the following equation:
CD = 24/NReP when NReP < 1
With this relationship, we can find the terminal velocity for particles with NReP < 1.
gd 2 (ρ p − ρ)
VP =
18µ
When the liquid is flowing, lift forces become significant which tend to keep the
slurry mixed. Obviously, a well designed slurry piping system will keep the solids
from settling and building up deposits which could inhibit or stop flow.
7.1.3 Erosion
Turbulent eddies can cause severe erosion of pipes, pumps and fittings when
solid particles are present. Abrasion can be lessened by ensuring that wetted
surfaces are smooth. Easily replaceable pipe linings are often used. Long radius
elbows spread out erosion effects.
H:\MANUALS\PH&SB1\002-07.SAM-02/06/1997
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In addition, erosion may increase corrosion because the particles abrade

protective corrosion products. The absence of a protective film increases the rate
of dissolved oxygen transfer to the surface.
Particle properties may change as the particles rub against each other and erode.
This will have a significant effect only in long distance pipelines.
7.1.4 Slippage
This condition occurs when the solid and liquid phases are traveling at different
rates. The extent of slippage between phases is a function of pipe angle, particle
size, relative phase densities and average velocity.
The slurry density, usually taken to be the weighted average of the solid and
liquid phases, is not constant when slippage occurs. The density will be a
function of the amount of slippage expressed as a concentration gradient.
7.1.5 Design Procedure
Design should follow the procedure outlined in Figure 7-1.
7.2 REQUIRED TEST DATA
7.2.1 Viscosity
Viscosity correlations for slurries are many and varied. Our recommendation is
that the viscosity be measured. Viscometers used to measure slurry properties
must keep the slurry in suspension. A Brookfield viscometer is especially
inaccurate for slurries. A viscometer that is recommended is the Haake-Roto
viscometer made in Germany. (1) The Stormer viscometer is frequently used for
drilling mud. Shear stress vs. shear rate data should be obtained over the entire
range of anticipated velocities. This data will be essential for calculating pressure
drops.
7.2.2 Minimum Transport Velocity
Durand and Condolios (11) published the following classification of particles by

size and mode of particle transport:
Particles of a size less than 40 µm; transported as a homogeneous

suspension.
Particles of a size between 40 µm and 0.15 mm; transported as a

suspension which is maintained by turbulence.
Particles of a size between 0.15 and 1.5 mm; transported by suspension

and saltation.
Particles of a size greater than 1.5 mm transported by saltation.
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Figure 7-1
DESIGN PROCEDURE
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Solids in category 2 tend to settle because gravity forces dominate. The larger
particles and the liquid phase tend to retain their own identities, not interacting
chemically or physically. These slurries are known as heterogeneous slurries.
A major factor in designing a heterogeneous slurry system is the minimum

transport velocity. This is the velocity which is just enough to keep the solids
from settling. Many correlations have been developed to calculate the minimum
transport velocity. However, these correlations are not accurate enough for our
purposes because the behavior is dependent upon complicated interactions
between phases. Thus the minimum transport-velocity should be measured
experimentally and scaled up.
a. How to Measure
An approach recommended by Cheng (14) for the development of

scale-up criterion would be to retain the geometric similarity between the
large and small systems. That is, the particle size should be scaled down
in proportion to the pipe diameter. However, this could be difficult
especially if small particles (e.g. 50 µm) are to be carried in the full scale
line. The difficulties lie in retaining the shape of the scaled down particles
without producing particles with a tendency to flocculate.
It is also important that the scaled-down particles settle in the same flow
regime (laminar, transition, turbulent) as the particles on the full scale.
b. Scale-Up of Design Velocity
1. Non-settling fluids
Laminar Flow
For laminar flow, a plot of shear rate (8V/D) versus shear

stress (DP/4L) is independent of pipeline diameter, so
small scale data can be converted directly to data to be
used for calculating the full scale line. (13)
Turbulent Flow
Bowen (13) suggests a modification of the Blasius

equation for scale-up from turbulent flow.
Dx τ = kVw (1)
A plot of shear stress, τ, against flow rate, V allows w to

be calculated. Then replotting in the form τ/Vw against D
gives the values of k and x.
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2. Settling fluids
The following two methods for scale-up suggested by Cheng

(14) are recommended.
Power Law function of D.
A single Power Law function will not apply to all values

of D. However, it may be possible to use simple Power
Law functions if the data are divided into two regimes
corresponding to large and small D/d ratios.
V = KCp Dq dr (S-1)s (2)
The indices; p,q,r, and s, may be found experimentally in

the small system. As a check the ASCE recommended
indices are found in Table 7-l. The small scale tests
must be carried out in the same D/d region as the full
scale system to use the scale-up method.
Table 7-1
ASCE RECOMMENDED VALUES (14)

Index
Variable Index Value Limitations
C p 0.3 c = 0.05
0.1 c = 0.15
D q 0.4 D/d > 100
0.5 intermediate values D/d
0.6 < 10
d r 0.5-1.0 d< 0.5 mm
0-0.5 0.5 mm < d < 1.5 mm
0 d > 1.5 mm
(S-1) s 0.5 All Values
Scale-up based on Reynolds number
This scale-up method is based on the ratio of the

Reynolds number at the design velocity to the Reynolds
number at the laminar-turbulent transition. This method
of scale-up is recommended for suspensions in which
there is particle interaction (i.e. flocculated suspensions).
The rheological properties of the homogeneous

suspension should be measured and used to calculate
the laminar-turbulent transition Reynolds number for a
small and a large scale pipe.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 6
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The laminar-turbulent transition should be calculated using the

method suggested by Cheng (14).
Once the laminar-turbulent transition is obtained the suspending

velocity or some other design velocity should be determined in a
small scale line. The velocity to be used on the large scale line
can then be calculated using the same small-scale pipe ratio of
the Reynolds number at suspension to that of the Reynolds
number at transition.
7.2.3 Erosion/Corrosion
The corrosion rate in slurry pipelines could be accelerated over that of the carrier
fluid by the presence of solids. Solids can also abrade the pipe. In addition,
solids can erode away the corrosion products which form a protective film and
further increase the corrosion rate.
The corrosion rate can be measured in a reaction kettle with a mixer by means of
a corrosometer probe. The corrosion rate, dissolved oxygen concentration, and
pH of the slurry should be measured. Instead of a corrosometer, steel "coupons"
can be dropped into the reaction kettle. The weight loss of the coupons will be a
measure of the corrosion rate. Electrochemical measuring techniques can also
be used, the electrochemical method will give instantaneous corrosion rates.
Erosion by abrasion is more difficult to measure in the laboratory. The

mechanics of abrasion involve a combination of deformation wear and cutting
wear, both of which involve plastic deformation. Generally it is expected that the
faster the slurry goes the higher the erosion rate is. Therefore, it is suggested
that the design velocity not exceed the minimum transport velocity by a large
amount.
7.2.4 Restart
Restarting a slurry system after the slurry has been stagnant in the pipe over a
period of time may prove to be difficult if not impossible. Some solid particles
may tend to interact physically and essentially create a solid mass which may not
be pumpable.
Therefore, it is recommended that all lines be equipped with purges unless there
is unequivocal evidence that restart will be easy. Then in the event of a
shutdown of lasting duration the lines can be purged. In the event of a
slowdown, water may be recycled to maintain the minimum transport velocity.
If it is possible, when testing is done on the other properties, the slurry should be
allowed to set for specified lengths of time (e.g., 4 hrs, 8 hrs, 16 hrs., 24 hrs, 2
days etc.) and the restart ability observed at the end of each time segment. This
will give the operators an idea of how soon after shutdown they should consider
purging the lines.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 7
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
7.3 DESIGN VELOCITY AND LINE SIZING
Most sources recommend, as a rule of thumb, that the design velocity be 1 ft/sec greater
than the minimum transport velocity. However, the design velocity should not exceed
this amount by very much due to the erosive nature of slurries.
The procedure is as follows:
Select a trial pipe diameter.
Based on the solids throughput calculate the design velocity.
Check to see that the design velocity meets the criterion discussed above; if it
does not, go to step one and repeat the procedure.
If it does, more work may need to be done to determine the economic optimal
pipe diameter. If data on the erosion rate vs. slurry velocity is available, it should
be considered here also. In the economic analysis pipe material and linings
should be considered as well.
7.4 PRESSURE GRADIENT
7.4.1 Line Friction Pressure Drop
a. Non-Settling/Homogeneous
As discussed earlier, slurries are non-Newtonian fluids; they do not have

constant viscosity. Cheng (3) developed a method to describe a variety
of these Non-Newtonian fluids, particularly Bingham plastics and power
law fluids. Bingham plastics are fluids which exhibit a yield stress. The
yield stress is the shear rate below which the fluid will not flow; the
viscosity is essentially infinite. Above the yield stress point, the viscosity
remains constant. Power law fluids also do not have a constant
viscosity; it is a function of velocity. See Figure 7-2.
This method is based on a generalized Bingham model flow curve. The

error is about 20 % with the predicted flow rate being high.
The generalized Bingham model flow curve is:
τ = τ y + K nγ (3)
where:
τ = the shear stress, γ the shear rate, τ γ the yield stress

K = the consistency coefficient
n = the consistency index
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 8
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 7-2
FLUID CLASSIFICATION
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 9
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
1. Laminar Flow Regime
In the laminar flow regime the pressure drop is characterized by

the following equation:
τw = D ∆P (4)
4 L
where:
τw = the shear stress at the wall. τ w can be obtained from

viscometer data and
Q =
πD 3 4n  τ w  1/h  1 − τ y 
32 3n + 1  K   τw 
τ y /τ w  2n ( τ y ) (1 + n τ y )  }
{1 − 1 + τ w  (5)
2n + 1  n + 1 τw
This equation must be solved iteratively to find τ w once the

material parameters, K and n, are know.
Turbulent Flow Regime
It is not yet possible to calculate pressure drop in the turbulent

flow regime from first principles, so the pressure drop is defined
in terms of the Fanning friction factor.
Dodge & Metzner (4) derived the modified von Karman equation
to describe turbulent flow characteristics:
Cf_0.5 = E log (NRe'Cfa) + F (6)
where the Reynolds number is given in terms of the consistency

coefficient (K) and index (n) by:
ρs VD  3n + 1  n  8V  n−1
N Re = (7)
K  4n   D 
The parameters, E, F, and a, depend on the power law index.

Dodge and Metzner found that:
E1= 4.0/n0.75 (8)
F1= -0.4/n1.2 (9)
a 1 = 1 − n2 (10)
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 10
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
However Thomas (3) recommends that:
E2 = 4.0/n (11)
F2 = - 0.4/n (12)
a2 = 1 − n
2
(13)
It is suggested that the parameters be calculated by both

methods and both sets be used to calculate Cf. After both Cf's
have been calculated, a decision can be made on which set to
use based on the reasonableness of the answers and/or the
magnitude of difference between them.
Once Cf is found, the pressure drop is given by the following

equation:
C f 2 ρs V 2  1lb f /ft 2 
= ∆P   (14)
gc D L  ft 
2. Transitional Flow Regime
The transitional flow regime encompasses a range of Reynolds

numbers. Cheng provides a method whereby the lower value,
NRe1 which marks the spot where laminar flow becomes unstable,
may be calculated (3).
For the transitional flow regime, the friction factor is defined in

terms of the Reynolds and Hedstrom numbers, as well as the
consistency index. When the yield stress and hence the
Hedstrom number are nonzero two situations are possible (3).
In one, Cf becomes:
 
C f = 16/N Re  1 − 2He2  {1 − 1 2He }
 C f Re 
N 2n − 1 C 2
f N Re

 1 + 2n 2He (1 + n 2He ) 
  (15)

n + 1 C fN2
Re C f N 2Re 
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 11
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
where:
ρVD
NRe = µ (16)
and
τ y N Re 2
He = (17)
ρV 2
This equation must be solved iteratively for Cf.
For fluids which have an n < 0.28 the turbulent flow curve
intercepts the laminar flow curve at a point higher than NRe2.
This means that such fluids have no transitional flow regime. If a
transitional flow regime does not exist the procedure for turbulent
flow should be used (3).
For Hedstrom numbers > 50,000 there probably won't be a

transitional regime. If He < 50,000 the laminar flow curve will
probably intersect the transitional flow curve and a transitional
regime will exist (3).
b. Settling/Heterogeneous Slurries
1. Horizontal Pipes
A characteristic of settling slurries is that the solid and liquid

phases remain distinct. There is not, for example, any increase
in the viscosity of the liquid phase because of its association with
the particles. Another difference between heterogeneous and
homogeneous systems is that the solid particles are generally
larger in the heterogeneous system.
The criteria for heterogeneous flow proposed by Zandi (5) are

that:
The particles do not interact either chemically or through

electrical charges with the conveying fluid.
There is a concentration gradient across the pipe cross

section.
There is no deposit on the bottom of the pipe.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 12
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Although many equations exist for predicting head loss in

heterogeneous flow, a major difficulty with any of these
correlations is the inability to predict the regime of the flow from
purely a priori considerations, i.e. independent variables such as
particle diameter, pipe diameter, volumetric concentration, mean
velocity of the flow and solid density.
According to Zandi (5), this is due to the inability to separate

heterogeneous data from saltation data. Zandi & Govatos (5)
propose a dimensionless number as a criterion for this
separation.
V 2 C 0.5
Nl = D
N (18)*
C v Dg (S − 1) l
This number is analogous to the Reynolds number. If NI < 40, it

suggests that the flow is heterogeneous, otherwise it is in
saltation.
When this criterion is used, the Durand-Condolios equation

modified by Zandi and Govatos (5) gives a good prediction of the
head loss. This correlation is:
∅ = 6.34 Ψ −0.35 when Ψ > 10 (19)
∅ = 280 Ψ −1.93 when Ψ < 10 (20)*
J − Jw
∅ = (21)
Cv Jw
where:
J = energy gradient (head loss) for the suspension
Jw = the energy gradient for water alone
V 2 C 0.5
Ψ = D
(22)*
gD (S − 1)
Reference (5) gives other correlations for pressure drop and

their ranges of accuracy. The correlation presented by Zandi
and Govatos is recommended here because it seemed the most
applicable over the range of flow conditions.
* For non-aqueous slurries (S - 1) = (SpGr of Particle/SpGr of Liquid)-1
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 13
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
2. Vertical Pipes
According to Wasp et. al. (6) the friction losses in vertical pipes
differ from the friction losses in horizontal pipes for
heterogeneous slurries only.
The friction pressure losses in vertical pipes are calculated as

follows:
The Reynolds number for the slurry is calculated. (This,

of course, involves knowing slurry viscosity).
The friction factor is determined from the normal f vs.

NRe chart.
∆ P is calculated with this equation:
2f p V 2 L
∆P = (ft) (23)
gD
c. Hetero-Homogeneous Flow
Hetero-homogeneous slurries are those which exhibit properties of both

heterogeneous and homogeneous slurries. That is, the finer particles
associate with the carrier fluid to form the vehicle which carries the larger
particles along as in heterogeneous slurries.
The prediction of pressure losses with this type of slurry is not as

theoretical as with homogeneous slurries.
The most common approach, as recommended by Hanks, (7) is to

separate the total pressure loss into two separate parts.
∆ PT = ∆ Pv + ∆ PH (24)
where:
∆ Pv = the pressure loss due to the vehicle
∆ PH = the pressure loss due to the heterogeneous part of the slurry
To actually calculate the pressure losses, the friction factor must first be
calculated. For hetero-homogeneous slurries the following empirical
correlation may be applied:
  < v > 2 ρ v C D 0.5 

−1.5 
f T = f v + f H = f v  1 + K C v    (25)
  gD (ρ s − ρv)  
 
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 14
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Govier and Aziz (8) suggest that K' = 150 be used and Hanks (7) asserts
that data exist which back Govier and Aziz.
7.4.2 Fittings Pressure Loss
a. Laminar Flow
For Laminar flow conditions, the fitting losses depend on the fluid
properties. Cheng (3) suggests that the losses, when expressed as a
ratio to corresponding Newtonian losses, increases as the Reynolds
number decreases and can be on the order of ten when NRe is low.
Cheng has a method from which the ratio may be determined for various
Reynolds numbers and pipe diameters. See Appendix 1 of Section 7.10.
From the ratio read from the graph, the non-Newtonian fittings losses
may be calculated using the tabulated Newtonian losses.
b. Turbulent Flow
Cheng (3) suggests that for suspensions in turbulent flow, the fittings
losses do not depend on fluid properties and the pressure losses can be
assumed to be the same as for a Newtonian fluid.
7.5 HEAT TRANSFER
7.5.1 Turbulent Flow
For slurries in which the solids thermal conductivity is greater than that of the
suspending medium, the controlling resistance to heat transfer is in the liquid and
the thermal conductivity of the solid does not appreciably affect heat transfer (9).
In this case the following correlation for slurries holds:
  C p µ 
0.4
h jD 0.8
= 0.029  DG
µ   k  (26)
k
This correlation is good to within + 15 %.
The physical properties should be evaluated in the following manner (9):
The viscosity is the apparent viscosity of the suspension in turbulent

flow.
The density is that of the slurry
The specific heat is either determined experimentally, or a weighted

average of the solid and liquid specific heats is taken.
The thermal conductivity is that of the suspending medium.
\002-07.SAM-02/06/1997
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 15
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
7.5.2 Laminar Flow
For Laminar flow the thermal conductivities and specifics of the mixture can be
found by weighted average of the separate component properties.
Beyond that the slurry may be treated as a normal fluid.
7.6 SLURRY TRANSPORT
7.6.1 Slurry Preparation (18)
Some physical and chemical processing is necessary to give the slurry

characteristics required for hydraulic transport and utilization. Preparation
normally involves both size reduction (crushing and grinding) and slurrification or
addition of the liquid phase. Chemical treatment may also be part of slurry
preparation for corrosion inhibition, thinning, and improving the characteristics of
the final product.
Some systems require special slurry/preparation facilities. Coal preparation for

slurry pipeline transportation is an example. In this case, a particle size
specifically suited for slurry transfer must be produced (see Table 7-2).
Table 7-2
TYPICAL SLURRY PREPARATION REQUIREMENTS

Material Specific Maximum Special Size Reduction
Gravity Particle Preparation Equipment
Diameter (mesh) Required Commonly Used
Gilsonite 1.05 4 Yes High-Pressure
water jets,
crushers
Coal 1.4 8 Yes Impactors, cage
mills, rod mills
Limestone 2.7 48 No Impactors, ball
mills
Copper 4.3 65 No Crushers,
autogenous mills,
ball mills
Magnetite 4.9 150 No Autogenous
mills, ball mills
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 16
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
In all slurry systems a balance has to be made between pumpability and

dewatering characteristics. If sizing is too fine, pumpability may be good but the
slurry may be difficult to dewater. If the size is too coarse, the slurry is
heterogeneous and must be pumped at higher flow rates to maintain suspension.
The cost of pumping then goes up. The choice of particle size for a slurry
depends on (1) overall cost of preparation, pumping, and use of the slurry; and
(2) operability of the slurry, including shutdown/start-up characteristics and
critical velocity.
7.6.2 Solids Grinding
Mineral extraction generally requires very fine grinding of ore; 70 to 80 % of

particles passing 325 mesh (44 µ m) is common. Size reduction of the ore
normally involves a wet process and the resulting slurries are readily handled
hydraulically. As a result, the minerals industry is ideally suited for hydraulic
transportation of solids.
Where grinding is done specifically to prepare a material for pipelining, the step
will normally involve conventional milling equipment. In some cases the
equipment may be a new application to grinding the specific material.
In slurry preparation, two variables are quite important which may have only
minor significance in other crushing processes. These are the slurry density and
the product top size.
Control of slurry density is necessary to produce a consistent material that fits

the hydraulic design of the pipeline. Slurry concentration plays an important role
in both the friction loss and the critical velocity of the slurry. The preparation step
is usually performed at a solids concentration slightly higher than that required,
with dilution control instrumentation provided downstream in the line.
Top-size control is extremely important for any slurry transport. Large quantities
of coarse, fast-settling particles can plug the piping.
7.6.3 Slurry Mixing
a. Purpose
Mixing is involved during two slurry handling functions: initial slurry

preparation and maintaining slurry uniformity.
1. Initial slurry preparation may require mixes in the preparation

tank where the solids and the transport fluid are commingled. In
some designs, the mixing is accomplished in the final stages of
particle size reduction in the wet grinding mill. In other designs
the mixing of the two components is achieved in hopper-shaped
sumps directly upstream of pumping.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 17
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
2. Maintaining the uniformity of the slurry sometimes is required

during storage. This can be accomplished in an agitated storage
tank where sometimes multiple and variable height mixers are
installed.
When specifying mixer types and design, the major things the
engineer should consider are:
Concentration variation of the slurry on withdrawal from

the tank.
Avoidance of large quantities of solids being deposited

at the edge of the tank due to insufficient turbulence.
The following practical design considerations presented by

Cowper et. al. (17) should also be considered in mixer design:
Access doors should be big enough to allow wheel

barrows to be rolled into the bottom of the tank for
periodic trash removal.
Drains should be at the very bottom of the tank, below

normal suction, to permit complete drainage for tank
inspection.
There should be adequate lighting at the top of the tank

to show slurry level.
Suction piping leading to the pump should be placed a

few feet above the floor of the tank to avoid drawing
trash into the pump.
The delivery pipe to the agitator tank is sometimes

placed below the surface to minimize air entrapment.
It is not recommended that bearings be used for the

bottom shaft guide, instead the bottom of the shaft
should be fitted with a loose guide to prevent shaft whip.
b. Power Requirements
The calculation of mixing power requirements is discussed in detail in:
Holland, F., Chapman; F., "Liquid Mixing and Processing in Stirred

Tanks," Reinhold, N.Y. (1966)
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 18
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
7.6.4 Slurry Pumping
a. Type of Pumps
Slurry pumping can be implemented by a variety of pumps depending on

slurry characteristics and system pressure requirements.
1. Centrifugal Pumps
These are limited in casing pressure and efficiency, owing to the

nature of the material they are designed to handle. Their
casing-pressure capacity is limited by the vertical-split-casing
design necessary for easy replacement of the impeller and of the
wear linings of the casing. Impeller tip speed is generally limited
to 1,350 m/s to minimize wear of the volute. Multiple pumps in
series can develop final-stage discharge pressures up to about
600 lb/in2.
2. Positive-Displacement Pumps
These are used where pumping pressures above 600 lb/in2 are
required. For very abrasive slurries, the plunger-type pump is
used, with a flushing arrangement injecting clear liquid to keep
solids away from the plunger packing.
Piston pumps have application in less-abrasive service, such as

for coal slurry; they have the advantage of displacing slurry on
both the in and out strokes, but depend on sealing the full
differential pressure across the piston. Positive-displacement
pumps up to 1,700 hp are now in service at flows about
2,000 gal/min. Units in excess of 3,000 hp are being considered,
but large-volume and high-pressure systems will require multiple
units in parallel.
A pulsation-dampening system is required when

positive-displacement pumps are used. The primary elements of
this system should be proper piping configuration and restraint,
and gas-filled pulsation dampeners. Short, straight, suction lines
are preferable; longer ones call for a centrifugal pump to charge
the positive-displacement pumps. Pulsation dampeners should
be fitted as close to the pump as possible on both the suction
and discharge side.
3. Diaphragm Pumps
Diaphragm pumps have been used in low-volume, low-head

systems; however, they are emerging as competition to the
plungers pumps. They can now deliver high volumes at high
discharge heads and have superior expendable parts life.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 19
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
4. Advancing Cavity Pumps
The "advancing cavity," Moyno pump is ideal for slurries at

moderate flow and pressures where steady delivery is required.
It is well suited to very thick slurries.
b. Selection
Head and capacity requirements are generally the most important

considerations in pump selection. However, for slurry applications, the
first consideration must be the material to be pumped. (16) The most
important elements are:
Size of the solids (What are the largest particles the pump must
handle?)
Nature of the solids (Are they light or dense? Abrasive?

Corrosive?)
Nature of the liquid (Will it lubricate the solids and reduce the
abrasion? Corrosive?)
Concentration of the solids.
c. Power Requirements
Once the total pressure drop is known, sizing the pumps is a simple
matter. The pump discharge pressure is the sum of the pressure losses
(line friction losses, and fitting friction losses plus hydrostatic head
changes). The power requirement is then:
Q∆P T
Power = e e = pump efficiency
7.6.5 Slurry Piping
a. Pipe Material
The designer of slurry systems is always faced with the selection of the
most economical pipe that will have an expected life consistent with the
particular application. Pipe choice depends on pressure, temperature,
limitations, corrosiveness, and abrasiveness of the slurry. Available pipe
includes:
Conventional unlined carbon steel

Rubber-lined carbon steel
Concrete-lined carbon steel
Special abrasion-resistant steel
Aluminum
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 20
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The last four types are more expensive than conventional unlined carbon
steel and would only be used with a very abrasive or corrosive slurry. As
noted, general pipe abrasion becomes a consideration at velocities of
13 ft/sec (4 m/s). Also, pipe wear increases exponentially with velocity
above a certain threshold velocity. This exponential value has been
reported to range from 2.1 to 2.9.
The amount of annual wear on a pipe is a function not only of the

velocity, but, of course, the abrasive character of the slurry. This must
be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. However, some general relative
values of abrasivity as measured by the Miller Number on a scale of 0 to
1,000 are given in Table 7-3.
Table 7-3
MATERIAL HARDNESS
Material Miller Number
Detergent 0
Coal A 11
Coal B 28
Fine magnetite 64
Hematite 260
Carborundum 1,000
Corrosiveness must also be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. If

conventional unlined pipe is used, extra wall thickness must be added to
compensate for the metal that will corrode away during the life of the
system. As discussed earlier, it may also be desirable to add corrosion
inhibitors.
After selecting the pipe, the designer must specify the pipe minimum
yield strength and the wall thickness required to contain the expected
pressures. This is done using standard formulas.
In areas subjected to prolonged subfreezing temperatures, slurry

pipelines require the same degree of protection as any water-supply
piping. Although a flowing solids-water slurry will usually generate
sufficient heat from wall friction to prevent freezing, a prolonged system
shutdown in subzero temperatures may produce frozen pipes. To
minimize this risk, exposed piping in the immediate area of the plant can
be protected by external insulation or heat tracing.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 21
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
b. Piping Layout
When laying out the slurry piping system, the designer must consider:
Flushing or draining the piping on normal or emergency

shutdown.
Replacement of wear points: near pump discharge, at and

downstream of restrictions.
Rotation of straight horizontal sections (very coarse slurries).
Access for unplugging (sufficient draining and flushing

connections).
Using long radius pipe bends instead of elbows.
Implementation of these is extremely important, especially for

heterogeneous and settling slurries.
In process plants where the movement of slurry must cover horizontal

and vertical distances, plugging of the transfer lines during normal and
emergency shutdowns is a main concern. Draining slurries from
horizontal lines is impossible without flushing; and excessive flushing can
upset the slurry concentration. Therefore, for in-plant piping horizontal
lines for slurries should be avoided and only inclined lines without low
points should be used which can drain completely with minimum
flushing.
Valves, like pumps, must be designed for abrasive service and with
consideration to sedimentation and plugging. They preferably provide a
full opening, should not depend on machined-metal surfaces for closure,
and do not have dead pockets that can fill with solids and restrict
operation.
7.7 INSTRUMENTATION
7.7.1 Major Considerations
The presence of solids in slurry systems complicates measurements. Many

conventional measuring elements may be worn away or plugged by solids. The
major consideration in choosing an element for system variable measurement is
the need to avoid plugging the sensing element of impulse lines (6).
A difficulty in pressure measurement is in keeping the pressure taps from

plugging. Wasp (6) suggests using a diaphragm close mounted to the pipe to
separate the slurry from the pressure sensor. In some cases a continual
backflush of pressure-sensing lines may be required.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 22
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
The types of things a slurry measurement system should be able to measure

are:
Percent suspended solids
Liquid level - height of liquid in a vessel
Blanket level - The height of solids which have "buildup" on the bottom of
the tank and formed a blanket
Pressure Drop
Flow Rate
7.7.2 Instrumentation Types
a. Solids Concentration
Paulis and Silvermetz (10) describe three types of slurry instrumentation

systems.
Ultrasonic
Photoelectric
Nuclear
While no one system is suitable for all types of slurries, each of the
above measurement systems has strong and weak points. The
ultrasonic system is good for slurries with low to media solids
concentration. The nuclear system is especially good for extremely
heavy, opaque, abrasive slurries. The photoelectric systems are only
suitable for very thin slurries, since their penetration of individual solid
particles is almost nil and they reach saturation quickly. They are best
for measuring a highly aerated liquid media because ultrasonic and
nuclear sensor become confused by the profusion of water bubbles.
b. Flowmeters
The best type of flowmeter is one which is obstructionless. Obstructions

to flow will quickly become worn and/or corroded.
The following types of flowmeters are useful for slurry applications:
Electromagnetic flowmeters
These flow meters are truly obstructionless. Although somewhat

expensive, they operate well unless conductive or non
conductive pipewall deposits build up. Pipewall coatings upset
the signal balance, producing a zero shift and a calibration
shift (10).
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 23
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Also obstructionless they are useful in that sense, but they are
more sensitive to process liquid variations. They have difficulty
measuring liquids containing high concentrations of solids and
air (10).
7.8 SUPPORT MATERIAL
7.8.1 Glossary
Bingham Plastic Slurries - Slurries which behave like a Bingham Plastic and
require a knowledge of the shear stress as a function of shear rate to be properly
treated.
Dilatant Slurries - Slurries whose behavior is time independent. An infinitesimal

shear stress will start motion, but the rate of increase in shear stress with
velocity gradient increases as the velocity gradient is increased.
Froude Number - Fr = V2/gD for a given concentration and particle size, the
onset of deposition occurs at a constant Froude number.
τ y (N Re ) 2
Hedstrom Number - He = identifies the boundary between laminar and
V 2ρ
transitional flows.
Heterogeneous Slurries - Slurries in which a concentration gradient exists along

the vertical axis of a horizontal pipe, even at high flow rates.
Homogeneous Slurries - Slurries in which the solid particles are evenly

distributed throughout the liquid phase. These slurries are also characterized by
high solid concentration and fine particle size.
Newtonian Slurries - Behaves like a Newtonian fluid and can be treated as such.
Non-Settling Slurries - Slurry in which the particles, due to the relative densities
of the solid and liquid phases, do not settle out.
Power Law Fluid - Non-Newtonian fluid with viscosity a function of fluid velocity.
Pseudo Homogeneous Slurry - A heterogeneous slurry which exhibits

homogeneous behavior due to pipeline design conditions, (i.e. pipeline is
designed so solids do not settle).
Pseudo Plastic - Slurries or fluids whose behavior is time independent, for which
an infinitesimal shear stress will initiate motion, and for which the rate of increase
in shear stress with velocity gradient decreases with increasing velocity gradient.
Settling Slurries - Slurry in which the particles, due to the relative densities of the
solid and liquid phases, tend to sink.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 24
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Rheotropic Suspensions - A form of thixotropic suspensions in which the

suspension undergoes, a rapid increase in viscosity if it is rhythmically shaken or
tapped.
Thickeners - A tank or basin on which solids settle by gravity, the primary

objective being to recover settled solids as a concentrated slurry.
Thixotropic Suspensions - These suspensions possess a structure, the

breakdown of which is a function of time as well as shear stress. A plot of shear
rate against shear stress exhibits a hysteresis loop, the area of which is a
measure of thixotropy.
Vehicle - In a slurry with a wide range of particle sizes, the fine particles will mix
with the liquid to form a homogeneous mixture known at the vehicle.
Depositing Velocity - The point at which the particles settle out as the velocity is
lowered. The particles may settle as a static bed or as a moving bed. This
velocity is related to the suspension velocity but they are not necessarily equal.
Also known as the minimum transport velocity.
Velocity for Homogeneous Flow - The velocity at which the particles become
evenly distributed throughout the pipe.
Saltating Velocity - Velocity at which particles are transported along the bottom
of a pipe in a series of jumps.
Sliding Bed Velocity - The velocity at which the shearing forces in the liquid are
just sufficient to move the particles lying on the floor of the pipe.
Standard Velocity - This is defined as the velocity above which the pressure
gradient of the suspension is equal to that for an equivalent fluid (that is, a fluid
with the density of the suspension and the viscosity of the suspending fluid).
Suspending Velocity - This is the velocity at which the particles are just picked up
and remain in suspension, and is the velocity which should be used for designing
most pipelines.
Critical Velocity - Corresponding to a minimum in the pressure gradient vs.

Velocity curve.
7.8.2 Nomenclature
a = Parameter for modified von Karman Equation
C = Volume concentration of solids
CD = Particle drag coefficient
Cf = Fanning friction factor coefficient
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 25
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Cp = Slurry specific heat
Cv = Volume fraction of solids
d = Particle diameter
D = Pipe diameter (inside)
E = Parameter for modified von Karman Equation
F = Parameter for modified von Karman Equation
Fr = Froude Number
fH = Friction factor due only to heterogeneous part of slurry
fT = Total friction factor (hetero-homogeneous slurries)
fv = Friction factor due to vehicle
G = Mass velocity
hi = Coefficient of heat transfer between fluids and surface; based on the

inside area of the pipe.
He = Hedstrom number
J = Energy gradient of suspension (ft water/foot pipe)
Jw = Energy gradient of water alone (ft water/foot pipe)
K = Consistency coefficient
Kl = Coefficient for scale up by power law function of D.
K' = 150
k = Thermal conductivity
L = Characteristic pipe length
n = Consistency index
NI = Criterion for distinguishing between heterogeneous flow and saltation: NI

< 40 implies heterogeneous flow
p = Concentration index
∆P = Pressure drop
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 26
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
∆ PT = Total pressure drop hetero-homogeneous slurries
∆ Pv = Pressure drop due to vehicle
∆ PH = Pressure drop due to heterogeneous part of slurry over that of the

vehicle
q = Pipe diameter index
Q = Volumetric flow rate
r = Particle diameter index
NRe = Reynolds number
NRe1 = Reynolds number at which laminar flow becomes unstable
NRe' = Modified Reynolds number for von Karman Equation
NReP = Particle Reynolds number
s = Index of specific gravity
S = Specific gravity
V = Slurry velocity
Vmin = Minimum transport velocity
VD = Design velocity
<V>= Average Velocity
VP = Particle velocity
W = Index of V in Blasius Equation
X = Index of D in Blasius Equation
γ = Shear rate
ν = Kinematic viscosity
µ = Absolute/dynamic viscosity
ρ = Fluid density
ρP = Particle density
ρs = Density of the slurry
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 27
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
ρv = Density of the vehicle
τ = Shear stress
τw = Shear stress at the wall
τY = Yield stress
Note: Units should be consistent with applicable formulas, e.g., Eqn. 1-26,
pages 4-14.
7.9 REFERENCES
1) Ed Gordon "Communication to R.E. Kelly" Interoffice Correspondence,

April 9, 1981.
2) Wasp E.J., J. P. Kenny, R.L. Gandhi, Solid Liquid Flow, Slurry Pipeline
Transportation, Trans - Tech Publications, Glavsthal, Germany 1977.
+ 3) Cheng D.C-H., A Design procedure for Pipeline Flow of non-Newtonian

Dispersed Systems, Proceedings 1st International Conference on the
Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Pipes British Hydraulic Research
Association, 1970.
*4) Dodge, D.W., and A.B. Metzner, Turbulent Flow of non-Newtonian

Systems A.I.Ch.E. Journal, 5, pp 433-5 (1959)
5) Zandi, I.ed., Advances in Solid-Liquid Flow in Pipes and its Application,

Pergamon Press, New York, 1971.
* 6) Aude, T.C., N.T. Cowper, T.C. Thompson, E.J. Wasp, Slurry Piping
Systems: Trends Design Methods, Guidelines, Chem. Engr. Vol 78,
June 28, pp 47 (1971).
+ 7) Hanks R.W. The Influence of non-Newtonian Rheology in Mixed

Homogeneous Heterogeneous Slurry Flow Proceedings, 5th
International Technical Conference on Slurry Transportation, Slurry
Transport Association, pp 251.
* 8) Govier, G.W., and K. Aziz, The Flow of Complex Mixtures in Pipes, Van
Nostrand Rheinhold Corp, New York, 1972.
+ 9) Miller, A.P. A Study of Heat Transfer to Liquid-Solid Suspensions in

Turbulent Flow in Pipes, PhD Thesis. Univ. of Wash. 104 pp. (1953)
* 10) Paulis, N.J., D. Silvermetz Instrumentation for Slurry Systems Chem.

Engr., Vol. 84, April 23, pp 107, (1977).
11) Durand, R., and E. Condolios, Deuximes Tournee's de l'Hydrauliz, Soc.

Hyd. de. France, Grenoble, 1952.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 28
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
12) Bain, A.G., and S.T. Bonnington, The Hydraulic Transport of Solids by
Pipelines, Pergamon Press, New York, 1970.
* 13) Carleton, A.J. and D. C-H. Cheng Pipeline Design for Industrial Slurries
Chem. Engr., 84, April 25 pg 95 (1977).
+ 14) Carleton, A.J., and D.C-H. Cheng, Design Velocities for Hydraulic
Conveying of Settling Suspensions, Proceedings, 3rd International
Conference on Hydraulic Transport of Solids in Pipes. BHRA, 1974.
15) Morton Denn, Process Fluid Mechanics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey. @ 1980.
* 16) Daistad, J.I., Slurry Pump Selection and Application, Chem Engr., Vol
84, April 25, pg 104 (1977).
* 17) N.T. Cowper, T.L. Thompson, T.C. Aude, and E.J. Wasp. Processing
Steps: Key to Successful Slurry - Piping Systems, Chem.
Engr., Vol. 79, Feb. 7, pg 58 (1972).
* 18) R.H. Derammelaere, E.J. Wasp, Slurry Systems and Pipelines, Piping
Design Handbook by J.J. McKetta, p. 89, Dekker Inc. 1992.
* The above items are available in the FDI Process Engineering Library.
+ The above items are available in the FDI Technical Library, Technical
Data Files under Slurries 5.44.6.1 (with Slurry Files Volumes I and II).
7.10 APPENDIX
7.10.1 Appendix 1 - Sample Method
Since for laminar flow condition losses depend on fluid properties a method for
determining these losses must be established.
Cheng (3) suggests a method for constructing a graph which gives the ratio of
fittings pressure loss in non-Newtonian flow to fittings pressure loss in
non-Newtonian flow. This graph may be constructed when the fluid parameters
K, and n are known. With these parameters and any given pipe diameter, NRe1
may be calculated; for this and larger values of the Reynolds number, the ratio of
non-Newtonian fittings loss to that of Newtonian is unity. If it is assumed that this
ratio increases to 10 when NRe is reduced from NRel by a factor of 1,000, a
straight line may be drawn in the graph so that the ratio may be fixed at
intermediate Reynolds numbers. As NRe1 varies with the pipe diameter, a family
of parallel lines is obtained for different pipe diameters. From the ratio read off
these lines, the non-Newtonian fittings losses may be calculated using the
tabulated Newtonian losses.
Following is a sample graph (Figure 7-3) for a manganese dioxide slurry. (From
Ref. 3).
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 7.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 29
PROCESS MANUAL
1.0
Figure 7-3
SUGGESTED RELATION BETWEEN PRESSURE LOSS IN PIPE FITTING AND REYNOLDS NUMBER
FOR NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS FOR A MANGANESE DIOXIDE SLURRY
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 8.0
PIPING HYDRAULICS AND SPECIFICATIONS
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 1
PROCESS MANUAL
PNEUMATIC CONVEYING DATE 08-94
1.0
1.0
2.0
8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
UNDER SEPARATE COVER
SEE: PROCESS DESIGN 225-002

BOOK 1, SECTION 8 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING
ON LOTUS NOTES: 670-225-9002C
K:\WRK090\037\345\MANUALS\PH&SB1\STYLESHT.SAM-02/06/1997
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 9.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 1
PROCESS MANUAL
COMPUTER PROGRAMS DATE 08-94
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0 COMPUTER PROGRAMS
Out-of-date program as presented in Process Manual Volume 5B (HAP) Hydraulic Analysis

Program.
New program, PALS, is in use for single phase flow. Two phase flow section is scheduled for
completion in FY 1995.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 24
PROCESS MANUAL
SAMPLE HAND CALCULATIONS DATE 08-94
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0 SAMPLE HAND CALCULATIONS
10.1 LIQUID FLOW
Example Problem:
S.A.E. Lube Oil @ 100oF is flowing at the rate of 600 bbls/hr through 200 feet of 8"
Schedule 40 pipe.
Diameter = 7.981 in (8" Schedule 40 pipe)

Flowrate = 600 bbl/hr = 420 gpm
Viscosity = 470 cp
Density = 56.2 lb/ft3
Find the pressure drop in the line:
a. Reynolds Number
Qρ
NRe = 50.6
dµ
(420 gpm)(56.2 lb/ft 3 )

= 50.6 = 318
(7.981 in)(470 cp)
thus, flow is laminar
b. Friction Factor
f = 64/NRe = 64/318 = 0.20
c. Velocity
420 gpm = 0.93 ft3/sec
0.93 ft 3 / sec
v, ft/sec = 2.7 ft/sec
π (0.33 ft) 2
d. Pressure Drop
0.001294 fρv 2 L
∆P =
d
(0.20)(56.2 lb/ft 3 )(2.7 ft/ sec) 2 (200 ft)

= 0.001294
(7.981 in)
= 2.65 psi
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 2
PROCESS MANUAL
with safety margin of 20 %,
∆ P = 2.65 psi x 1.2 = 3.2 psi
10.2 GAS FLOW
Example Problem:
600 psig steam at 850 oF flows through 400 feet of horizontal 6-inch Schedule 80 pipe at
a rate of 90,000 lbs/hr.
The system contains three 90 degree standard elbows and one 6-inch Class
600 Y-pattern globe valve. The valve has a seat diameter equal to 0.9 of the inside
diameter of Schedule 80 pipe, disc fully lifted.
Find the pressure drop through the system.
a. Reynolds Number
NRe = 6.31 W = (6.31)(90, 000)

dµ (5.76)(0.027)
= 3,650,000
b. Friction Factor from Figure 2-2
f = 0.015
c. Globe Valve Fitting (see Crane)
55 f T 0.5(1 − β 2 ) + (1 − β 2 ) 2
K = + β
β4 β4
fT = 0.015
(55)(0.015) 0.5(1 − 0.9 2 ) + (1 − 0.9 2 ) 2

K = 4
+
0.9 0.9 4
= 1.44
d. Elbows (see Crane)
K = 30 fT
= 0.45
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 3
PROCESS MANUAL
e. Equivalent Length
K = fL/D
(0.48 ft)
∴L overall = 400 ft + [1.44 + (3)(0.45)]]
(0.015)
= 489 ft
f. Density
From steam table, specific volume
V = 1.216 ft3/lbm
ρ = 1 = 1 = 0.8223 lb m /ft 3
V 1.216
g. Velocity
Across-sectional area = π (0.48 ft) 2 = 0.181 ft 2

4
(90, 000 lb m /hr)

v = = 168 ft/ sec
(0.8223 lb m /ft 3 )(3, 600 sec /hr)(0.181 ft 2 )
h. Pressure Drop
fρv 2 L
∆P = 0.001294
d
(0.015)(0.8223 lb m /ft 3 )(168 ft/ sec) 2 (489 ft )

= 0.001294
(5.76 in)
= 38.3 psi
With 20 % safety factor for valves and fittings (no safety factor for pipe per
Section 3.0),
(89)(38.3)
∆ P = 38.3 + (0.2) = 38.3 + 1.4 = 39.7
489
Since the pressure drop is less than 10 % of the inlet pressure, it is not
necessary to repeat the calculation using an average gas density based on the
upstream and downstream conditions.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 4
PROCESS MANUAL
10.3 GAS FLOW (SONIC)
Example Problem:
Air is discharged from a large reservoir at 150 psig and 70oF through 33 feet of straight
2-inch Sch. 40 standard steel pipe, and three 90-degree standard elbows to the
atmosphere. The pipe intake projects slightly into the reservoir.
Find the discharge rate of air.
From the Moody friction factor chart or from Figure 2-2, for a 2" Sch 40 pipe,
ε /D = 0.0009, and for completely turbulent flow, f = 0.019.
L/D
Assume f = 0.019 Intake K = 0.78 41
Straight Pipe: (33) (12)/(2.067) = 191.6
Three elbows; (3) (30) = 90
322.6
N = (0.019) (322.6) = 6.13
N1/2 = 2.48
From the problem statement:
To = 530oR
Po = (150 + 14.7) = 164.7 psia
P3 = 14.7 psia
P3/Po = 0.0893
M = 28.9 lbm/lb mole
e = 2.718
1/2
 gc M 
GCNi = Po   (from Section 3.3, Book 2)
 e R To 
 (32.17)(28.9) 
1/2
= (164.7)(144)  
 (2.718)(1, 545)(530) 
= 484.7 lbm/sec ft2
It is now possible to calculate the discharge by direct use of the Lapple charts
(Section 3.3, Book 2) as shown by the following tabulation.
For air, γ = 1.4: Use Figure 3-3b
G/GCNi from curve for N = 2.48 and P3/Po = 0.0893 0.540

G, lbm/sec ft2 262.0
Discharge Rate in 2" line = (0.0233)(262) lbm/sec 6.10
P2/PO from dashed line 0.25
D FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 5
PROCESS MANUAL
P2, at end of pipe = (0.25)(164.7) psia 41.2

T2/T0 from dashed line 0.833
T2 at end of pipe, oR 441.5
Average gas temperature within pipe, oF. 26
Viscosity at average gas temp., cp. 0.0165
Reynolds number = DG/µ 4.1 E06
f from Moody friction factor chart 0.0192
This calculated f is so close to the assumed f that it is not necessary to repeat the
calculation.
Although not a part of the example, it is instructive to identify the impact of different γ ’s.
γ = 1.0 γ = 1.4 γ = 1.8

Use Figure 3.3a 3.3b 3.3c
G/G CNi at N = 2.48 0.51 0.54 0.57
G, lbm/sec ft2 247 262 276
Rate in 2" pipe, lbm/sec 5.76 6.10 6.43
P2/P0 0.32 0.25 0.21
P2 at end of pipe, psia 52.7 41.2 34.6
T2/T0 1.0 0.833 0.714
T2 at end of pipe, oR 530 441.5 378.4
Average Gas Temperature, oF 70 26 -6
Viscosity at average gas temp., cp. 0.0175 0.0165 0.0158
Reynolds number (x E-06) 3.60 4.07 4.47
f from Moody chart for 2" pipe 0.0193 0.0192 0.0192
10.4 DIVIDED FLOW
Example Problem:
Piping as shown in sketch (Schedule 40 I.P.S. Carbon Steel)
Flow = 1,550 gpm Water @ 60oF
QL = 775 gpm
D FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 6
PROCESS MANUAL
Static Pressure @ Point (3), P3 = 10 psig
Find Static Pressure at Point (4), P4
Determine Reynolds No. and Friction Factor at point (2):
124 dvρ (124)(8)(10)(62.4)

N Re = µ = = 619, 000
1.0
From Friction Charts f = 0.0155 for 8" pipe
Using Bernoulli’s Equation From (2) to (3)
Z2 = Z3, As there is no difference in elevation
V 22 ρ V 23 ρ KV 22 ρ
+ P2 = + P3 +
9, 270 9, 270 9, 270
Given that P3 = 10 psig
Calculated Velocity at 2 = 10 ft/sec

Calculated Velocity at 3 = 5 ft/sec
DL
= 4 = 0.5
D 8
QL
= 775 = 0.5
Q 1, 550
From Figure 5-2a (Section 5, Book 2)
K = 0.24
Corrected K = 0.24 x 0.0155 = 0.13

0.028
(5) 2 (62.4) (0.13)(10) 2 (62.4) (10 2 )(62.4)

P2 = + 10 + − = 9.58 psig
9, 270 9, 270 9, 270
Note: From this calculation we see that there is an actual increase in pressure going
across the fitting but a check of the total energy at both points will show a
decrease in total energy to 0.087 psi due to friction loss.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 7
PROCESS MANUAL
Using Bernoulli's Equation from (2) to (4)
Z 2ρ V 22 ρ Z4ρ V 24 ρ KV 22 ρ
P2 + + = + + + P4
144 9, 270 144 9, 270 9, 270
Z4
= 0 By Definition
144
V4 = 20 ft/sec calculated
From Figure 5-2b (Section 5, Book 2)
K = 2.65
Corrected K = 2.65 x 0.0155 = 1.47

0.028
(0.5)(62.4) (10 2 )(62.4) (20 2 )(62.4) (1.47)(10 2 )(62.4)

P4 = 9.58 + + − 0 − − = 6.78 psig
144 9, 270 9, 270 9, 270
Note: In going from (2) to (4) 2.02 psi of static pressure was converted to kinetic
energy.
10.5 TWO-PHASE FLOW
Example Problem:
Determine ∆ P for the following system
System Sketch
This system is just a portion of the piping that may exist between 2 process units. It will
be broken up into the horizontal section, the fitting, and the vertical section. The
conditions are as follows:
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 8
PROCESS MANUAL
Pressure: 200 psi Temperature: 100 oF
Liquid Gas
Flowrate 4.0 lb/sec 6.0 lb/sec

Density 40 lb/ft3 3.0 lb/ft3
Viscosity 0.5 cP = 0.015 cP = 0.00001 lb/sec ft
0.000336 lb/sec ft
Surface Tension 25 dyne/cm
2
π  12
8 

The flow area is πD =
2
= 0.3491 ft2
4 4
For two-phase flow correlations, equations and maps used in this sample problem, refer
to Section 4 in Book 2 of this manual.
a. Calculate the erosion velocity
This to be checked before calculating ∆ P.
Ve = C
ρm
where:
C = 100 (for continuous service)
Basis: 1 second
Volume of liquid entering = 4 lb/ sec3 = 0.1 ft3/sec

40 lb/ft
Volume of gas entering = 6 lb/ sec = 2.0 ft3/sec

3 lb/ft 3
ρm = mixture density = 4 lb/ sec + 6 lb/ sec = 4.76 lb/fr3

0.1 ft 3 / sec + 2.0 ft 3 / sec
So Ve=100/4.76½ = 45.8 ft/sec
2.1 ft 3 / sec
No slip mixture velocity = = 6.02 ft/sec
0.3491 ft 2
Since the mixture velocity is less than the erosional velocity, we can continue.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 9
PROCESS MANUAL
b. Determine the flow regime using the recommended horizontal flow regime maps.
1. Dukler-Taitel Flow Regime Map
Calculate the kinematic viscosities:
ν L = µ L /ρ L = 0.000336/40 = 8.4(10)-6 ft2/sec
ν g = µ g /ρ g = 0.00001/3.0 = 3.3(10)-6 ft2/sec
Calculate superficial velocities:
WL 4
ULS = = = 0.286 ft/sec
ρ L A 40(0.3491)
WG 6
UGS = = = 5.73 ft/sec
ρ g A 3(0.3491)
Calculate superficial Reynolds numbers:
U LS D (0.286)  12
8 

N Re LS = νL = −6
= 2.3 x 10 4
8.4 x 10
U GS D (5.73)  12
8 

N ReGS = ν = = 1.2 x 10 6
G 3.3 x 10 −6
Obtain the pipe friction factor:
Since the flow of both phases are turbulent and the pipe is rough, use
the Moody friction factor diagram (see Perry's, 6th Ed., 1984, pp. 5-24)
Surface roughness for "commercial steel" is ε = 0.00015 ft. The relative

roughness, ε /D = 0.000225; and based on the liquid and gas Reynolds
numbers and relative roughness, from the Moody diagram, fLS = 0.0064
and fGS = 0.0037.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 10
PROCESS MANUAL
Calculate the pressure drop for each phase:
4f LS ρ L U LS
2
 dp  4(0.0064) (40)(0.286) 2
= =
 dx  LS D 2g c  8  (2)(32.2)
 12 
1b f /ft 2
= 0.00195
ft
4f GS ρ L U GS
2
 dp  4(0.0037) (3) (5.73) 2
= =
 dx  GS D 2g c  8  (2)(32.2)
 12 
1b/ f /ft 2
= 0.3395
ft
Calculate the dimensionless variables needed to use the Dukler-Taitel

map.
1/2
 0.00195  = 0.240
X =  
 0.03395 
1/2
F =  3  5.73 = 0.353
 40 − 3  1/2
 (1)(32.2)  8  
  12  
1/2
 3 (5.73) 2 (0.286) 
K =  −6
 = 53.1
 (40 − 3)(32.2)(8.4 x 10 ) 
1/2
 0.063 
T =   = 0.007
 ( 40 − 3)( 32.2)( 1) 
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 11
PROCESS MANUAL
Determine flow regime from Dukler-Taitel map:
Transition A: Given X = 0.240 and F = 0.353, one finds the point is

below the curve A, making it stratified.
Transition C: Given X = 0.240 and K = 53.1, one finds the point lies
above the C curve, making the flow regime stratified wavy.
2. Mandhane et. al Flow Regime Map
ULS = 0.286 ft/sec
UGS = 5.73 ft/sec
Based on these superficial velocities, the Mandhane map shows stratified flow is
present.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 12
PROCESS MANUAL
Since this is an acceptable flow regime (not intermittent), we continue.
c. Calculate the pressure drop in horizontal pipe
For this calculation, we choose to use the Dukler -Constant Slip method with the
Hughmark holdup.
1. Calculate,λ , the Feed Volume Holdup of Liquid
W L /ρ L 4/40
λ = = = 0.048
W L /ρ L + W G / ρ G 4/40 + 6/3
2. Calculate the Two-Phase Viscosity
µ TP = µ L λ + µ G (1 − λ)
= 0.000336(0.048) + 0.00001 (1 - 0.048)
= 2.56 x 10-5 lb/sec ft
3. Calculate the actual liquid holdup
RL, using the Hughmark correlation. This correlation requires a trial and
error calculation. The Reynolds number is first guessed and then it is
recalculated using the liquid holdup. When the assumed (guessed)
number is equal to the calculated number, the final value of RL is
obtained.
(a) Assume NRe = 210,000
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 13
PROCESS MANUAL
(b) Calculate the Z parameter
Z = (NRe)1/6 (NFr)1/8 (λ) −1/4
NFr = V 2 = (6.02) 2 = 1.69

gD 32.2(8/12)
Z = (210,000)1/6(1.69)1/8(0.048)-1/4 = 17.59
With this value of Z, calculate K, which is needed in the following

equation: RL = 1 - (1 - λ ) K
If Z <8
log (K) = -0.7405 + 1.99305 log (Z) - 0.20572(Z) + 0.0068Z2
If Z ≥ 8
log (K) = 0.08871 log Z - 0.19634
Since 17.59 > 8
log (K) = 0.08871 log (17.59) - 0.1934
⇒K = 0.8206
RL = 1 - (1 - 0.048)(0.8206) = 0.2188
4. Substitute this new value of RL into the following eq:
ρ ns V M D
NRe =
R Lµ L + RG µG
where:
ρ ns = No-slip density = ρ L λ + ρ G (1 - λ )
= 40(0.048) + 3 (1 - 0.048)
= 4.776 lb/ft3
(4.776)(6.02)  12
8 

NRe =
0.2188(0.000336) + (1 − 0.2188)(0.00001)
= 235,677 ≠ initial guess of 210,000
Guess NRe slightly lower than previously calculated value
NRe = 235,000
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 14
PROCESS MANUAL
⇒Z = 17.92
⇒K = 0.822
RL = 1 - (1 - 0.048)(0.822) = 0.2175
Calculate NRe
(4.776)(6.02)  12
8 

NRe =
0.2175(0.000336) + (1 − 0.2175)(0.00001)
= 236,911
Guess NRe = 237,000 (guess is slightly higher since calculated values are
increasing).
⇒Z = 17.95
⇒K = 0.8221
⇒ RL = 0.2174
(4.776)(6.02)  12
8 

NRe =
0.2174(0.000336) + (1 − 0.2174)(0.00001)
= 237,011 ≈ 237,000
Since the guessed and calculated NRe #'s are similar, we continue, using
the final RL value of 0.2174.
5. Calculate the 2 Phase Density
ρ L (λ) 2 ρ (1 − λ) 2 40(0.48) 2 3(1 − 0.048) 2

ρ TF = + G = +
RL RG 0.2174 (1 − 0.2174)
= 3.898 lb/ft3
µTP = 2.56 x 10-5 lb/sec ft (calculated previously)
DV m ρ TP
NReTP = µ TP
 8  (6.02)(3.898)
 12 
= = 611,093
2.56 x 10 −5
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 15
PROCESS MANUAL
6. Determine the single phase friction factor
f, using the newly calculated NReTP and the following equation.
f = 0.0014 + 0.125 (from Dukler, Wicks, Cleveland)

(N Re TP ) 0.32
= 0.0014 + 0.125 = 0.0032

(611, 093) 0.32
The 2 phase friction factor, fTP is related to f by the following equation:
fTP = fα
where:
α = 1+ − Inλ
1.281 − 0.478( − Inλ) + 0.444( − Inλ) 2 − 0.094( − Inλ) 3 − 0.00843( − Inλ) 4
and:
- Inλ = - In (0.048) = 3.0366
α = 1 + 3.0366
2.008
= 1 + 1.512 = 2.512
fTP = fα = (0.0032)(2.512)
= 0.008
7. Calculate The Frictional Incremental Pressure Drop
 ∆P  = 2f TP ρTP V 2m
 
 ∆Z  f gcD
2(0.008)(3.898)(6.02) 2
=
32.2  12
8 

1b f /ft 2
= 0.1053 = 0.073 psi per 100 ft
ft
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 16
PROCESS MANUAL
8. Calculate the Kinetic Energy Effect (Acceleration Term)
∆ Ps = ρ TP V NS V SG /g c P
= 3.898 x 6.02 x 5.73 = 0.000135

32.2 x (200 + 14.7) x 144
9. Calculate the Total Incremental Pressure Drop
 ∆P  [∆P/∆Z]
  =
 ∆Z  total 1 − ∆P s
= 0.073
1 − 0.000135
= 0.073 psi per 100 ft in horizontal line
The horizontal pipe in the first part of the system is connected to the
vertical pipe section by means of a 90o elbow.
d. Calculate pressure drop in fitting
We must determine the pressure loss due to the fitting and will use the Chisholm
method.
1. Calculate the Martinelli parameter X
1/2
  W L  1/8  ρ V   µ L  0.2 
For smooth tubes, X =   ρL   µ G   , however our pipe
  WG  
is rough so we use the X we calculated earlier in this example.
X = 0.240
2. Calculate C2
 307.2 lb  1 sec
C2 =   x x 0.3491 ft 2
 sec ft 2  10 lb
= 10.7
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 17
PROCESS MANUAL
3. Calculate the mass vapor quality
WG 6 0.6
X = =
W G + WL 6 + 4
4. Calculate parameter Tc
2− n/2 µ
 X   L   ρG 
n/2 1/2
Tc = 1 − X  µ G   ρL 
n = 0 for rough tubes, 0.2 for smooth tubes

2−0
0/2 1/2
Tc =  0.6  2  0.000336   3 
 1 − 0.6   0.00001   40 
= 0.411
5. Calculate parameter C1
 ρL  ρ 0.5
0.5
C1 =  ρG  +  ρG 
L
0.5 0.5
=  40  +  3  = 3.925
 3  40
6. Calculate parameter C3
 ρ g 0.5 
C3 =  λ + (C 2 − λ)  ρFG   C 1
 
where:
ρ FG = ρ F - ρG
λ = 0.5(22-n - 2) = 0.5 (22 - 2) = 1
  3   3.925
0.5
C3 =  1 + (10.7 − 1)  
 40 − 3  
= 14.77
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 18
PROCESS MANUAL
7. Calculate Chisholm ratio, ψ
C3
1 + Tc
+ 1
2
Tc
ψ = C1
1 + Tc
+ 1
T 2c
2
1 + 14.77
0.411
+  0.411
1 

= 2
= 2.6
1+ 3.925
0.411
+  0.411
1 

8. Calculate φf2
 C1 
φf 2 = 1 + + 12  Ψ
 X X 
 3.925 + 1  x 2.6
= 1 + 
 0.24 0.24 2 
= 90.26
This value of φ f can be used to calculate the pressure drop:
KG 2T φ2f
∆P =
2g c ρL
where:
K = 1.265 for 90o elbow (rough pipe)
GT = total mass velocity = 10 lb 1

sec x 0.3491 ft 2
= 28.645 lb
sec ft 2
1.265 (28.645 lb m / sec ft 2 ) 2 (90.26)

∆P = = 36.4 lbf/ft2
2 (32.2 lb m ft/ sec 2 lb f )(40 lb m /ft 3 )
∆P = 0.25 psi pressure loss in fitting
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 19
PROCESS MANUAL
The 2 phase flow mixture is now traveling upward and must be

reevaluated to determine the vertical flow regime and pressure drop.
For the pressure drop, we will use the recommended correlation, Beggs
& Brill.
e. Determine the flow regime using the recommended vehicle flow regime maps
First the Beggs & Brill map will be used and then the other vertical maps.
The Beggs and Brill flow regimes can be determined with or without the map
present.
without: calculate L1 and L2 (flow regime criteria)
L1 = exp ( - 4.62 - 3.757X - 0.481X2 - 0.0207X3)

L2 = exp (1.061 - 4.602X - 1.609X2 - 0.179X3 + 0.635 x 10-3X5)
where:
X = ln(λ ) = ln(0.048) = -3.0366
calculated L1 = exp (2.933) = 18.78

calculated L2 = exp (5.047) = 155.6
NFR, the Froude number, = 1.69 (previously calculated). The flow pattern can be
determined as follows:
(a) If NFR < L1, segregated

(b) If NFR > L1 and L2, distributed
(c) If L1 < NFR < L2, intermittent
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 20
PROCESS MANUAL
Since Rule 1 (NFR < L1) applies here, the flow pattern is segregated. This is
confirmed by looking at the Beggs & Brill map.
On the Griffith-Wallis map, the coordinates are QL/(QL + Q G) = = 0.048 and

NFR = 1.69.
This point occurs in the bubble region of the map, however, its flow regime areas
are very broad and don't include stratified or wavy.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 21
PROCESS MANUAL
For Govier et. al's map, the modified superficial liquid velocity:
  ρ L   72.4   V
1/4
y = YVSL=    σ  
 62.4  SL
1/4
  40   72.4   (0.286) = 0.33 ft
=  
 62.4   25   sec
The modified superficial gas velocity is
ρ G  1/3  ρL 72.4  1/4

x = XV SG =    V SG
0.0764   62.4 σ 
1/3 1/4
 3   40 72.4  (5.73)
=  0.0764   62.4 25 
= 22.3 ft/sec
These values, plotted on the Govier map, indicate froth flow is present.
All three maps indicate suitable flow regimes, so the calculations are continued.
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 22
PROCESS MANUAL
f. Calculate pressure drop in vertical pipe
Since we determined the flow regime to be segregated on the Beggs & Brill map,
we use the recommended correlation, Beggs & Brill to calculate holdup.
1. Calculate Holdup
0.98(0.48) 0.486
R L (0) = 0.98λ0.868 =
0.846
= 0.215
N FR 1.69 0.0868
(This is the horizontal holdup which will be corrected for the angle of
inclination, 90o).
2. Calculate C
 0.011N LV3.539 
C = (1 − λ) In  
 λ 3.768 N 1.614 
 Fr 
where:
NLV = 1.938 USL (ρ L /σ L ) 1/4
1/4
= 1.938(0.286)  40  = 0.6234
25
C = 4.2
3. Calculate φ and Ψ
φ = 1.8 Θ = 1.8 (90) = 162
Ψ = 1 + C (sin φ -1/3 sin3 φ)
= 1 + 4.2 (sin 162 - 1/3 sin3 162)
= 1 + 4.2 (0.3) = 2.26
4. Calculate Holdup for Angle of Inclination
RL(90) = RL(0)ψ = (0.215)(2.26) = 0.4859
5. Calculate the 2 Phase Density
ρ TP = ρ LRL + ρ G (1 - RL)
= 40(0.4859) + 3(1 - 0.4859) = 20.98 lb/ft3
D FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 23
PROCESS MANUAL
6. Calculate fTP/fns
f TP  In y 
= exp  
f ns  −0.0523 + 3.182 (In y) − 0.8725 (In y) − 0.01853 (In y) 
2 4
where:
y = λ = 0.048 2 = 0.20322
[R L (θ)] 2 0.4859
f TP
ln y = -1.59 ⇒ = 1.247
f ns
−2
  N Re ns 
=  2 log
 
fns
  4.5223 log N Re − 3.8215
where:
[ρ L λ + ρ G (1 − λ)] V m D
NRe ns =
µ L λ + µ G (1 − λ)
[40 (0.048) + 3 (1 − 0.048)] (6.02) 12

8
=
0.000336(0).048) + 0.00001 (1 − 0.048)
= 747,336
−2
 2 log  747, 336 
fns =   4.5223 log (747, 336) − 3.8215  

= 0.01225
fTP = fns x 1.247 = (0.01225)(1.247) = 0.0153
7. Calculate the Frictional Incremental Pressure Drop
 ∆P  = f TP G T V m
 ∆Z  f 2g c D
0.015(28.645)(6.02)
=
8 
2(32.2)  12 
D FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 10.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 24
PROCESS MANUAL
lb f ft 2
= 0.0602 = 0.042 psi per 100 ft
ft
8. Calculate the Elevation Pressure Drop
 ∆P  = g sin θ[ρ L R L + ρ G (1 − R L )] g
= g sin θ ρ TP
 ∆Z  el gc c
lb m lb f lb f /ft 2
= 20.98 = 20.98
ft 3 lb m ft
= 14.57 psi per 100 ft.
But, when designing for uphill flow, the elevation term should be
evaluated as liquid-full and, therefore, the liquid density would be used
instead of the 2 phase density.
The correct result is, therefore,
2
 ∆P  = 20.98 40 = 40 lb f /ft = 27.8 psi per 100 ft
 ∆P  e1 20.98 ft
9. Calculate the Acceleration Term ACC
ρ TP V m V SG 20.98 lb m /ft 3 (6.02 ft/ sec)(5.73 ft/ sec)

ACC = =
gcP 32.2 lb m ft/ sec 2 lb f (214.7 lb f /in 2 )
2 1 ft 2
= 0.1047 in2 x = 0.00073
ft 144 in 2
10. Calculate the total Incremental Pressure Drop
 ∆P  +  ∆P 
 ∆P  =  ∆Z  el  ∆Z  f
 ∆Z  T 1 − ACC
40 lb f ft 3 + 0.0602 lb f /ft 3
=
1 − 0.00073
lb f /ft 2
= 40.09 = 27.84 psi per 100 ft in vertical line
ft
` FLUOR DANIEL
SECTION 11.0
BOOK 1 PAGE 1 of 1
PROCESS MANUAL
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY DATE 11-94
1.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
11.1 Piping Design Handbook, John J. McKetta, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1992.
11.2 Hydraulic Institute, Engineering Data Book, Second Edition, 1990.
11.3 Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings and Pipe, Crane Technical Paper No. 410, latest
edition.
11.4 Cameron Hydraulic Data, latest edition.
11.5 GPSA Engineering Data Book, Volume II, Section 17 - Fluid Flow and Piping, latest
edition.
11.6 Two-Phase (Gas-Liquid) Flow Articles, Volumes I and II, compiled by A.R. Smith, Irvine
Process Library.
11.7 Process Engineering Practices:
000.225.1130 Hydraulics - Single Phase Flow - Liquid
000.225.1131 Hydraulics - Single Phase Flow - Gas
000.225.1132 Hydraulics - Non-Newtonian Fluids
000.225.1140 Hydraulics - Two Phase Flow
000.225.1141 Hydraulics - Line Surge
000.225.1142 Hydraulics - Pneumatic Conveying
000.225.1143 Hydraulics - Slurries

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` FLUOR DANIEL

2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES

3.0 SINGLE PHASE FLOW

4.0 TWO-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID) FLOW

5.0 THREE-PHASE (GAS-LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

6.0 NON-NEWTONIAN FLUID FLOW

7.0 SLURRY (LIQUID-SOLID) FLOW

7.2 TEST DATA REQUIRED

8.0 PNEUMATIC CONVEYING - SEPARATE COVER

8.5.3 Sizing of Vents - Basic Methods

9.0 COMPUTER PROGRAMS

10.0 SAMPLE HAND CALCULATIONS

11.0 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

2.0 PIPE SIZING AND SPECIFICATION GUIDELINES

2.1 PIPE SIZING

2.1.1 Pressure Drop Criteria

When a given pressure or static head is available, it is relatively simple to size a

A safety margin of 20 %, or a safety margin specified by the specific project or

2.1.2 Velocity Limitations

PRESSURE DROP AND VELOCITY RANGES

Pressure Drop Velocity

Table 2-1 (Continued)

PRESSURE DROP AND VELOCITY RANGES

Erosional velocity is the velocity at which erosion or excessive wear on

One possible solution to the effects of velocity of a corrosive fluid in

Erosional velocity effects in two-phase systems is discussed in

The maximum velocity that a compressible fluid flowing in a pipe of

Flow is considered to be "choked" when the fluid velocity is sonic. If the

Supersonic velocities in pipe can be attained by a reduction in pressure

A convenient graphical method for solving flow problems for systems

Noise that occurs in piping systems can be attributed to high operating

maximum of 90 decibels from any single noise source. Examples of

For intermittent services, such as plant evacuation or reactor heat-up,

2.1.3 Economic Pipe Diameter

A detailed economic study is usually made when appreciable incremental costs

In the above cases, savings in pumping or compression costs must be balanced

2.1.4 Acceptable Line Sizes

2.1.5 Design Criteria Considerations

Hydraulic contingency considerations are incorporated into process designs in a

Control Valves (see Sub-section 2.3)

Equipment Sizing and Operation. Multistage compressor operating

Piping Roughness Factor; Used Condition Fouling Factor. Roughness

Fouling allowances are pretty well dictated by experience with specific

Valves and Fittings. Variations in dimensions among fabricators and

Overall Capacity Considerations/Client Input.

2.1.6 General Pipe data

RELATIVE ROUGHNESS FACTORS FOR NEW CLEAN PIPES

Table 2-3 (Continued)

Table 2-3 (Continued)

RUGOSITY FACTORS FOR LARGE CONDUITS FLOWING FULL

Unusually rough 0.002-0.003

CONTINUOUS INTERIOR BUTT-WELDED STEEL PIPE

Severe tuberculation 0.008-0.02

2.1.7 Special Cases

a. Relief Device Line Sizing

The simplest solution to preventing vortex formation is to install a vortex

RECOMMENDED VELOCITIES FOR COLUMN DRAWOFF NOZZLES(a)

Liquid Falling Liquid from

c. Fractionating Column Feed

The feed to fractionating columns should not enter the column at a

d. Condensate from Steam Traps

The condensate line from a steam reboiler to a continuous drainer

e. Steam Lines to Exhaust Heads

It is frequently necessary to size exhaust steam lines to exhaust heads.