CGE535

ELECTRICAL AND
INSTRUMENTATION TECHNOLOGY

Faculty of Chemical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam

1
Chapter 2: Electronic Devices and
Transducers

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/index.html
http://ecee.colorado.edu/~bart/book/contents.htm
 Lesson Outcome

At the end of class, students should be able to:

 Describe the concept of semiconductors and its application

 Explain the principle of diode, bipolar and field effect
transistors, thyristors and triacs operation and identify their
function in various applications.
 Describe Transducer application in electric circuit

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 TOPIC 1: Semiconductors

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/index.html
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 Semiconductors

 What is Semiconductor?
Conductivity

Glass: Copper: Silicon:

10-16 and 10-13 S/cm 0.59 x 106 S/cm 10-8 x 10-1 S/cm

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 Semiconductors
 Definition:
 Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties lie
between Conductors and Insulators.
 Semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound that can conduct electricity.

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 Why Semiconductors?

 If you use conductors instead, you will have no control over the
voltage/electrical properties of your power source. We use semiconductors to
limit the properties of your power source to the desired output power. It’s also
used for logical circuits on your computer.
 The main reason semiconductor materials are so useful is that the behaviour of
a semiconductor can be easily manipulated by the addition of impurities,
known as doping.
 Semiconductor conductivity can be controlled by introduction of an electric or
magnetic field, by exposure to light or heat, or by mechanical deformation of a
doped mono-crystalline grid; thus, semiconductors can make excellent
sensors.
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Semiconductors in our Daily Life

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Examples of Semiconductors

Diodes
Transistor
Thyristors
9
Semiconductors

 Common elements such as carbon,

silicon, and germanium are
semiconductors.
 Silicon is the best and most widely
used semiconductor.

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Semiconductors

 The main characteristic of a

semiconductor element is that it has
four electrons in its outer or valence
orbit.

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 Semiconductors

 The unique capability of

semiconductor atoms is their
ability to link together to form a
physical structure called a crystal
lattice.
 The atoms link together with one
another sharing their outer
electrons.
 These links are called covalent
bonds.

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3D Crystal Lattice Structure

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 Doping

 A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator - very little electricity will

flow through it
 To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called
impurities must be added.
 “Impurities” are different elements.
 This process is called doping.
 Intrinsic Semiconductor – based on temperature increment (no
doping).
 Extrinsic Semiconductor – based on doping with impurities.

14 http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/50.html
 Doping
 An impurity, or element like
arsenic, has 5 valence
electrons.
 Adding arsenic (doping) will
allow four of the arsenic
valence electrons to bond
with the neighboring silicon
atoms.
 The one electron left over for
each arsenic atom becomes
available to conduct current
flow. 15
 Doping: Different Approach
 You can also dope a semiconductor
material with an atom such as boron
that has only 3 valence electrons.
 The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do
form covalent bonds with its
neighboring semiconductor atoms
as before. But one electron is
missing from the bond.
 This place where a fourth electron
should be is referred to as a hole.
 The hole assumes a positive charge
so it can attract electrons from some
other source.
 Holes become a type of current
carrier like the electron to support
current flow. 16
 Doping Effect

 If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be

lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material
will be low and current will flow freely.
 If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer
free electrons so the resistance will be high and less
current will flow.
 By controlling the doping amount, virtually any
resistance can be achieved.
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Types of Semiconductor

N P
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 N

 The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type” semiconductor.

 “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
 In N-type doping, phosphorus or arsenic is added to the silicon in small
quantities.
 Phosphorus and arsenic each have five outer electrons, so they're out of
place when they get into the silicon lattice. The fifth electron has nothing to
bond to, so it's free to move around.
 It takes only a very small quantity of the impurity to create enough free
electrons to allow an electric current to flow through the silicon.
 N-type silicon is a good conductor. Electrons have a negative charge, hence
the name N-type. 19
 P

 Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called
holes is called “P type” semiconductor.
 “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
 In P-type doping, boron or gallium is the dopant. Boron and gallium each have
only three outer electrons.
 When mixed into the silicon lattice, they form "holes" in the lattice where a
silicon electron has nothing to bond to.
 The absence of an electron creates the effect of a positive charge, hence the
name P-type. Holes can conduct current.
 A hole happily accepts an electron from a neighbor, moving the hole over a
space. P-type silicon is a good conductor.
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 END OF TOPIC 1

21
Video 1
TOPIC 2: Diodes

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/54.html
 Diodes

 The diode is the simplest and most fundamental nonlinear

circuit element.
 Just like resistor, it has two terminals.
 Unlike resistor, it has a nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics.
 Its use in rectifiers is the most common application.
 Ideal and practical diodes.
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Diodes

 The most important

region, which is called p-n
junction, is the boundary
between n-type and p-
type semiconductor.

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 Diodes

 Even though N-type silicon by itself is a

conductor, and P-type silicon by itself is also a
conductor, the combination shown in the
diagram does not conduct any electricity
 The negative electrons in the N-type silicon get
attracted to the positive terminal of the battery.
The positive holes in the P-type silicon get
attracted to the negative terminal of the battery
 No current flows across the junction because
the holes and the electrons are each moving in
the wrong direction

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 Types of Diodes

PN Junction
Diodes: A K
Are used to allow
current to flow in one Schematic Symbol for a PN
Junction Diode
direction while blocking
current flow in the
opposite direction. The P N
pn junction diode is the
typical diode that has Representative Structure for a
PN Junction Diode
been used in the
previous circuits.
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 Types of Diodes

Zener Diodes: A K

Schematic Symbol for a Zener

Are specifically designed to operate Diode
under reverse breakdown conditions.
These diodes have a very accurate and
specific reverse breakdown voltage.

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 Types of Diodes
Schottky Diodes:

A K These diodes are designed to have a very

fast switching time which makes them a
Schematic Symbol for a great diode for digital circuit applications.
Schottky Diode
They are very common in computers
because of their ability to be switched on
and off so quickly.

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 Types of Diodes
Shockley Diodes:
A K
Schematic Symbol for a four-
layer Shockley Diode
The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode
while other diodes are normally made
with only two layers. These types of
diodes are generally used to control the
average power delivered to a load.
The “Traitorous Eight”
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 Types of Diodes
Light-Emitting
Diodes: The arrows in the LED
representation indicate
emitted light.
Light-emitting diodes are designed with a
very large bandgap so movement of carriers
A K across their depletion region emits photons
of light energy. Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-
Schematic Symbol for a Light-
Emitting Diodes) emit infrared radiation,
Emitting Diode while LEDs with higher bandgap energy emit
visible light. Many stop lights are now
starting to use LEDs because they are
extremely bright and last longer than regular
bulbs for a relatively low cost.

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 Types of Diodes
Photodiodes:

-While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are

A K
 current increases in proportion to the
A K
Schematic Symbols for
Photodiodes
sensitive to received light. They are
constructed so their pn junction can be
exposed to the outside through a clear
window or lens.
-In Photoconductive mode the saturation
intensity of the received light. This type of
diode is used in CD players.
-In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction
is exposed to a certain wavelength of light,
the diode generates voltage and can be used
as an energy source. This type of diode is
used in the production of solar power.
 Application of Diodes

 Radio demodulation
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude
modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery
is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal
consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage,
whose amplitude or “envelope” is proportional to the original
audio signal. The diode rectifies the AM radio frequency signal,
leaving an audio signal which is the original audio signal, minus
atmospheric noise. The audio is extracted using a simple filter
and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates
sound waves.
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 Application of Diodes

 Power conversion
We can construct rectifiers from diodes. They are used to
convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct
current (DC).
Example : Automotive alternators, where the diode, which
convert AC into DC, provides better performance than the
commutator of earlier dynamo.

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 Application of Diodes

 Over-voltage protection
Diodes are used to conduct damaging high voltages away from
sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-
conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises, the
diodes become forward-biased (conducting).
For example, diodes are used in motor controller and relay circuits to
de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that
would otherwise occur. Many integrated circuits also incorporate
diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from
damaging their sensitive transistors. Diodes are used to protect from
over-voltages at higher power.

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 Application of Diodes

 Logic gates
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND and OR
logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic
 Temperature measurements
A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward
voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a Silicon
bandgap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode, it appears the
voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant current) but
depends on doping concentration and operating temperature. The
temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or positive
for temperature sense diodes down to about 20 kelvins. Typically, silicon
diodes have approximately −2 mV/˚C temperature coefficient at room
temperature.
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 END OF TOPIC 2

36
Video 2
TOPIC 3: Transistors

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 Transistors

“The Transistor was probably the most important invention

of the 20th Century and the story behind the invention is
one of clashing egos and top secret research.”

Ira Flatow
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 Transistors

 Transistor is a 3 terminal electronic device made of semiconductor

material.
 It is a controllable current source.
 enables the device switch or amplify.
 Other uses including voltage regulation and the modulation of signals.

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Transistors’ Evolution

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Transistors’ Evolution

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 Types of Transistor

Bipolar Junction Junction Field Effect

Transistor(BJT) Transistor(JFET)

Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor Field Effect
FET(MOSFET) Transistor
(FET)
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43
o
o
o
o





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 45

o
o
o
o
o
o
46
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Collector
Base

Emitter

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Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

 BJT is constructed with 3 doped semiconductor

regions separated by 2 P-N junctions.
 The 3 regions called emitter, base and collector.
 2 P-N Junctions:
 Emitter-base junction (EBJ)
 Collector-base junction (CBJ)
 The term Bipolar refers to the use of both holes and
electrons as charge carriers
48
in the structure.
 Junction Field-Effect Transistor
(JFET)

BJT JFET
Collector Drain
Base Gate
Emitter Source
N/A Body

http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/66.html 49
Junction Field-Effect Transistor
(JFET)

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 Junction Field-Effect Transistor
(JFET)

 Field Effect Transistors, or FET's are unipolar rather than

bipolar devices.
 It means that the main current through them is comprised
either of electrons through an N-type semiconductor or holes
through a P-type semiconductor.
 FET can be divided into two main types: Junction-gate
devices called JFET's and Insulated-gate devices called
IGFET´s or more commonly known as MOSFET's (metal oxide-
semiconductor FET)
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 Junction Field-Effect Transistor
(JFET)

When the gate is negative ,it repels the When the negative voltage is removed from
electron in the N-channel. So there is no way Gate ,the electrons can flow freely from
for electrons to flow from source to drain. source to drain. So the transistor is on.
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 Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET
(MOSFET)

 The device terminals are the drain (D), GATE (G), source (S) and body
(B)
 It can be divided into two types: Depletion and Enhancement (D and E-
MOFSET). It differs in terms of the construction of the MOSFET.
 The MOSFET operates when a positive gate-to-source voltage is
applied for n channel MOSFET. So the current will flow in this
condition.

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http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/videos/68.html
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET
(MOSFET)-D-MOSFET

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Metal-Oxide Semiconductor FET
(MOSFET)-E-MOSFET

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 



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END OF TOPIC 3

57
TOPIC 4: Thyristors

58
 Thyristors

 It is a solid-state semiconductor device. Once turned on, it will keep

conducting as long as current flows through it.
 When the current flow falls to zero, the thyristor is switched off.
 Thyristors are used as triggering and control switching devices. They
are important in controlling electrical motor speed in appliances,
heaters and motors.
 Compared to transistors, thyristors have lower on-state conduction
losses and higher power handling capability.
 On the other hand, transistors generally have superior switching
performances in terms of faster switching speed and lower
switching losses.

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 Thyristors-Construction

 The thyristor is a four-layer, three

terminal semiconducting device, with
each layer consisting of alternately N-
type or P-type material, for example P-N-
P-N.
 The main terminals, labeled anode and
cathode, are across the full four layers,
and the control terminal, called the gate,
is attached to p-type material near to the
cathode

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 Thyristors-Operation

 If a supply is connected across the device, and a small

amount of current is injected into the gate, then the
device will "fire" and conduct.
 It will remain in the conducting state until the supply
is removed.
 Special techniques are employed to turn it off 
commutation.
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END OF TOPIC 4

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TOPIC 5: Triacs

63
 Triacs

 Triode for Alternating Current can conduct current

in either direction when it is triggered (turned on).
 It is formally called a bidirectional triode thyristor or
bilateral triode thyristor.
 Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until
the current through it drops below a certain
threshold value, the holding current, such as at the Operation
end of a half-cycle of alternating current (AC) mains
power.

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 Triacs-Construction

 A TRIAC is approximately
equivalent to two
complementary unilateral
thyristors (one is anode
triggered and another is
cathode triggered) joined in
inverse parallel (paralleled
but with the polarity
reversed) and with their
gates connected together.

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 Triacs-Application

 TRIACs are usually seen in simple, low power

applications like household dimmer switches.
 Low power TRIACs also are used in many applications
such as speed controls for electric fans and other
electric motors, and in the modern computerized
control circuits of many household small and major
appliances.
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END OF TOPIC 5

67
TOPIC 6: Transducer

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 Transducers

 A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy

to another
 The conversion can be to/from electrical, electro-
mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, photovoltaic, or
any other form of energy
 In electric circuit, transducer are used to produce a voltage
( or sometimes a current) that is proportional to physical
quantity of interest, such as distance, pressure or
temperature

69
 Transducers-Application
 Example: microphones, loudspeaker
 Microphones
Microphones are transducers which detect sound signals and produce
an electrical image of the sound, i.e., they produce a voltage or
a current which is proportional to the sound signal
 Loudspeaker
Electrical signal from any source e.g microphones makes loudspeaker a
transducers which detect the electric signal and produce the sound (in
contrast with microphones)
 Actuator (e.g. valve)
Receive signal from controller to perform mechanical task
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 Conclusion

 Semiconductor?
 Diode?
 Transistors?
 Thyristors and triacs?
 Transducer?

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