BONE
minerals to and from the bones go on
Bone (osseous) is specialized connective tissue that
has the strength of cast iron and lightness of
pinewood. Living bone is not dry, brittle or dead. It
is a moist changing, productive tissue that is
continually resorbed, reformed and remodeled.
The 206 named bones of the human skeleton are
divided into two groups: axial and appendicular.
 axial skeleton
 forms the long axis of the body and includes
the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and
rib cage
 Generally speaking these bones protect,
support, or carry other body parts.
 appendicular skeleton
 consists of the bones of the upper and lower
limbs and the girdles (shoulder bones and
hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial.
Functions of Bones
Our bones perform seven important functions:
 Support. Bones provide a framework that
supports the body and cradles its soft
organs. For example, bones of lower limbs
act as pillars to support the body trunk
when we stand, and the rib cage supports
the thoracic wall.
 Protection. The fused bones of the skull
protect the brain. The vertebrae surround
the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps
protect the vital organs of the thorax.
 Movement. Skeletal muscles, which attach
to bones by tendons, use bones as levers
to move the body and its parts. As a result,
we can walk, grasp objects, and breathe.
The design of joints determines the types
of movement possible.
 Mineral and growth factor storage. Bone
is a reservoir for minerals, most
importantly calcium and phosphate. The
stored minerals are released into the
bloodstream in their ionic form as needed
for distribution to all parts of the body.
Indeed, “deposits” and “withdrawals” of
almost continuously. Additionally,
mineralized bone matrix stores important
growth factors.
 Blood cell formation. Most blood cell
formation, or hematopoiesis (hem0ah-to-
poi-e9sis), occurs in the red marrow
cavities of certain bones.
 Triglyceride (fat) storage. Fat, a source of
energy for the body, is stored in bone
cavities.
 Hormone production. Bones produce
osteocalcin, a hormone which not only
helps regulate bone formation, but also
protects against obesity, glucose
intolerance, and diabetes mellitus.
Shapes of bone
 Long bone
 are called long as its length is greater than
its width. The most obvious long bones
are in the arm and leg. They act as levers
that pulled by contraction of muscles.
 Short bones
 are about equal in length, width and
thickness, which are shaped with regular
orientation. They occur in the wrist and
ankle.
 Flat bones
 are thin or curved more often they are
flat. This includes ribs, scapulae, sternum
and bone of cranium.
 Irregular bones
 they do not fit neatly into any other
category. Examples are the vertebral,
facial, and hipbone.
 Sesamoid bone
 are small bones embedded with in
certain tendons, the fibrous cord that
connects muscle to bones. Typical
sesamoid bones are patella and pisiform
carpal bone, which are in the tendon of
quadriceps femuris and flexor carp
ulnaris muscle respectively.
 Accessory bones
  are most commonly found in the feet. nutrients and wastes can pass to and from central
They usually occur in the developing canal.
bone and do not fuse completely. They  Spongy (cancellous)
look like extra bones or broken on X-ray.  Bone tissue Is in the form of an open interlaced
pattern that withstands maximum stress and
Sutural (wormian) bones are examples of
supports in shifting stress.
accessory bones.
 Trabeculae are tiny spikes of bone tissue
surrounded by bone matrix that has calcified.

Gross anatomy of a typical long bone

In adults it have:

 Diaphysis
 the tubular shaft, hallow cylindrical with
walls of compact bone tissue. The center of the
cylinder is the medullary cavity, which is filled with
marrow.
 Epiphysis
Types of bones (Source: Elaine n. MARIEB,  is roughly spherical end of the bone. It is wider
(2000), Essentials of human anatomy and than the shaft. Flat and irregular bones of the
physiology, Addison welsey longman inc., trunk and limbs have many epiphysis and the long
San Francisco, 6th Ed) bones of the finger and toe have only one
epiphysis.
Types of bone
 Metaphysis
 Compact bone  is the part separating diaphysis from
 tissue forms the outer sheet of a bone. It is very epiphysis. It is made up of epiphyseal plate
hard and dense. It appears to naked eye to be and adjacent bony trabeculae of
solid but not. cancellous bone tissue.
 Compact bone tissue contains cylinders of calcified  Epiphyseal plate
bone known as osteons (Haversion system).  is a thick plate of hyaline cartilage, which
 Osteons are made up of concentric layers called provides the framework of synthesis of the
lamellae, which are arranged seemingly in wider cancellous bone tissue within metaphysis.
and wider drinking straws.  The medullary cavity running through the
 In the center of the osteons are central canals length of the diaphysis contains Yellow
(haversion canal) , which are longitudinal canals marrow
that contains blood vessels, nerves
and lymphatic vessels.
 Central canals, usually have
branches called perforating canals
/valkmann’s canal that run at right
angle to central canal extending the
system of nerves and vessels out
ward to periosteum and to
endosteum.
 Lacunae (Little spaces) that houses
osteocytes (bone cells) are
contained in lamella.
 Radiating from each lacuna are tiny
canaliculi containing the slender
extensions of the osteocytes where
  The porous latticework of the spongy
epiphyses is filled with red bone marrow. The 
red marrow also known as myeloid tissue
 Endosteum is the lining the medullary cavity
of compact bone tissue and covering the
trabeculae of spongy bone tissue.
 Periosteum: it is covering the outer surface of  Osteocytes
the bone. It is absent at joints and replaced by
articular cartilage.
Cells of Bone Tissue
Bone contain five types of cells
 Osteogenic (osteoprogenitor) cells
 these are small spindle shaped cell. They found
mostly in the deepest layer of periosteum and
endosteum. They have high mitotic potential
and can be transformed into bone forming cells
(osteoblasts).
Osteoblasts
 are found in the growing portion of bone
including periosteum. They are able to
synthesize and secrete un-mineralized ground
substance, act as pump cell to move calcium and
phosphate in and out of bone tissue.
 are the main cell of fully developed bones. They
have a cell body that occupies a lacuna.
Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts. They
together with osteoclasts play an important role
of homeostasis by helping to release calcium.
 Osteoclasts
 are multinuclear giant cell, which are found
where bone is resorbed during its normal
growth. Osteoclasts are derived from white
blood cells called monocytes.
 Bone - lining cells
 are found on the surface of most bones in the
adult skeleton. They are believed to be derived
from osteoblast that ceases their physiological
activity.