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    Walter Alvarado Ruiz
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    detalle de transporte de gas natural por tuberias

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    detalle de transporte de gas natural por tuberias

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    42 Ansichten31 Seiten

    Transporte GN

    Hochgeladen von

    Walter Alvarado Ruiz
    detalle de transporte de gas natural por tuberias

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    von 31
    7 GAS GATHERING AND TRANSPORTATION 7.1 INTRODUCTION ‘The transmission of ges to the consumer may be divided into four distinct units: the gathering system, the compression station, the main trunk line, and the distribution lines. Pipelines, which comprise the gathering system, main trunk line, and distri= bution lines, provide an economical method of transporting fluids over great distances, Aiter the initial capital investment required for their construction, they show low operating costs and unit costs that decline with large volumes of throughput. Many factors must be considered in the design of long-distance gas pipelines. These include the nature and volume of the gas to be transmitted, the length ofthe line, the type of terrain to be crossed. and the maximum elevation of the route, ‘After the compression station is located and its size is determined by the {quantity of gas to be handled, the gathering system is designed. This involves the location of the wells, the availability of right of way, the amount of gas to be handled, the distance to be transported, and the pressure difference between the field and the main transmission line. The gas wells ae generally located in groups around a geological structure or within the defined limits of a pool or gas reser voir. The problem isto get the gas to the compression station. In a new field, the gathering system must be large enough to handle the production of additional leases. The gathering system is made up of branches that lead into trunk lines. The trunk line is small atthe most distant well and, as more wells along the line are attached toi, the line must be larger to accommodate the greater volume of gas. Reynolds Number and Friction Factor 249 tn adiion othe gathering ystem and major trunk ppetnes. here isso a network af small-diameter feeder an transmission mains hat tact gst éesiers of consumption. In addition, complex systems of sl smalcrdnscter distribution piping ran to individual homes, shops, an factors ‘The design ofthe tarsnision sytem calls forthe series of a weltrined and experienced engineering and legal sa. Complex enginerny sues we needed t0 decide on the diameter, yield strength, and pumping horsepower required to give the optimum results for any particulr pipeline transniaion system. Computer programs that enable high pepe gas ransmissionnetworka &© be dynamically simulated ona dgtl computer hve been developed ad sve commonly used by gas pipeline companies Several designs ae etal made so thatthe mest economical one canbe seleted. The maximum caring capac of ppetine is limited byt nial parameters of constrtion, In eens he tendney sto use ihe trasmion restaes and Song macs consi Son, For economic operation, itis important fo preserve fl pipeneuleaon Stiles ofthe flow conditions of natural gues in pipelines have feo the evelopment of complex equations (the Weymoutequation, the Panbsndle ‘sation, andthe Modited-Pandhandle equation) for esting te volume tans Imited through gs pipeline to the varios factors involved this decdne tc optimum pressures and pipe dimensions obe use. From equations of tis te vatiou combinations of pipe diameter nd wall hcknesforsdesited rate ops throughout can be calculated. Am optimum Balance is sought Detwesn Pipe tonnage and purping horsepower. 7.2 REYNOLDS NUMBER AND FRICTION FACTOR Flow of natural gas in pipelines always results in some mechanical energy being converted into heat. The so-called “lost work,” lw, represents ail eneray losses resulting from irzeversbilties of the flowing stream. In the case of single-phase flow, such as flow of gas in pipe, these irreversibilities consist primarily of friction losses: internal losses duc to viscosity effects and losses due to the roughness of the wall of the confining flow string. ‘With the exception of completely laminar flow, the energy losses lwo actual systems cannot be predicted theoretically; they must be determined by actual experiment and then correlated as some function of the flow variables. The lost ‘work isusualy calculated using a friction factor, f. By dimensional analysis, itcan bbe shown that the frition factor is function of the Reynolds number, Nn and of the relative roughness, e/D. ‘The theoretical basis of most fluid flow equations is the general energy ‘equation. Considering a steady-state system, the energy balance may be written a¢ smut mgZ. mul mgZ, Oy avy + ee BE ee Un payy ME MERE Bee ge Pr ge OM) 250 Gas Gathering and Transportation where U = internal energy ‘p¥ = energy of expansion or compression wi = kinetic energy mei = potential energy & (Q = heat energy added to fluid w = shaft work done by the fu ‘on the surroundings Dividing Eq. 7.1 through by m to obtain an energy per unit mass balance and. ig the resulting equation in differential form yields p) udu | 2) HH Ea, 4dQ-dvm0 wee) ths bare ag 72) Equation 7.2 canbe converted to 4 mechanical energy balance wsing the following thermodynante relations: dh=Tds4 t @3) and (p' do () =tn—a(2) ora 2 a(2 wra-a{)-rasZ-a) gy where eathalpy Using Eq, 74 in Bq, 7.2 results in a udu +B ttt, 2a. a9 av n0 Peete ectie ge aeetite 5) CCnusisinequatity foram ireversibe process sats that a ae is (7.6) or Ts = ~40 + aw) on Reynolds Number and Friction Factor 251 usualy called lost work and represents losses due to irreversibiltcs, ion. Using Eq. 7.7 in Eq, 7.5 gives dp udu 2 +S az, + aw) - aw Pee ” 7) If no work is done by or on the fuid, div = 0, and we obtain dp ude g Byte Es mao pg gar os) We may eonsder a general cae where the pipe under consideration is insined at some angle © £0 the horizontal. Since dZ = dln the ence cmustion becomes ude g BMS a cna + any =0 ewe & ee 20) Equation 7.10 may be written in termsof pressure gradient by multiplying through by b/d: ap, udu tw) 2 sin + » Mw) di ged x? nae aL ? ul) ‘Considering pressure drop as being positive in the direction of flow, Eq, 7.11 ean bbe writen as HL oines (@) mae ag? at}, ged. (7.12) where the pressure gradient due to viscous shear ot frictional losses has been expressed as ‘dp (iw) (7), a We can defn a ton factor i al shear see iiag.” Tete perinirvonme = 0.19 Equation 7.14 defines a dimensionless group, which reflects the relative impor: tance of wall shear stress to the total losses. The wall shear stress can be easily ‘evaluated from a force balance between pressure forces and viscous forces: 9 eS hat}, 7.15) 252, Gas Gathering and Transportation (£) eee aL}, ~~ gD 7.16) This is the Fanning equation and f"iscalled the Fanning friction factor. In terms of the Darcy—Weisbach or Moody friction factor, f = 4f', Eq, 7.16 becomes (éf),- is ean ‘The equation that relates lost work per unit length of pipe and the flow variables is Using this in Eq. 7.14 yields 0) fe a7 ied 8) where lw = mechanical energy converted to heat, ft-lbtibm u = flow velocity, flsec Ge = gravitational conversi D = pipe diameter, ft J = Moody friction factor Integration of Eq. 7.18 results in factor = 32.17 Ibm fulbt sec? td 7.19) {A similar equation, using the Fanning frection factor fis py = fk 8D 7.20) Figure 7.1 isa Moody fiction factor char. Iisa logtog graph of (lof) eral log Nay). Four general condos of low are exigent: lamar ite, Tramlion’ and tubulea 7.2.1 The Reynolds Number, Nec ‘The Reynois umber (Nn) i 8 mensionless group defined a nts) ay ‘The dimensionless group, Nae = Du p/w is the ratio of fluid momentum forces to vitcous shear forces. Its used as 2 parameter to distinguish between os is ta | ones 00001 eeeios F=aamgoor meet Wa seua Sou? eeu 2 4612 46:0 vse ssa a se ase a ee Fig. 7.1 Friction factors for any type of commercial pie. aminar and turbulent fluid flow. The change from laminar to turbulent flow is usually assumed to occur ata Reynolds number of 2100 for flow in a circular pipe. If units of ft, fsec, fom/cu ft, and centipoise are used, the Reynolds number equation becomes Nae = 1466 248 * 2) so me = [8] mu te If gas is flowing at q (Mcfd) measured at base conditions of 7, (°R) and pp (psia), [Ps] come (00)g Mps_ (3.128 x 10°2)7 6 pn (2)3600)20RT Tp De ayta4ay ‘Cross-sectional area of pipe = 254 Gas Gathering and Transportation Using these in Eq. 7.21 and noting th 2 128 x 10“*4y, ) 4x 1) zal =D Teen) x 67197 < 10-7} Lep = 6.7197 x 10 tbmitt see, 2 or 1 1pe(psia)a( Met), rsR)DCin.)ulep) (7.23) Consider some common base conditions: Prtpsia) TCR) me 4a 520 6h) 13.69 ws 520 (60rF) 20.03 473 520 (60°F) 2024 15.025 520 (60°F) 2054 Thus, for all practical purposes, the Reynolds number for natural gas flow prob- lems may be expressed as Ne = may 1D am where 4 = 825 flow rate at 60°F and 14.73 pia, Meta ay = B05 gravity(ait = 1) As viscosity at flow conditions (temperature and pressure), ep D = pipe diameter, in. 7.2.2 Relative Roughness, e/D ‘The inside wall of a pipe is not normally smooth. Wall roughness is a function of Pipe material, method of manufacture, and environment to which it has been exposed. From a microscopic sense, wall roughness is not uniform, and thus the distance from the peaks to valleys on the wall surface will vary greatly. The absolute roughness, ¢, ofa pipe wall is defined as the mean protruding height of relatively uniformly distributed and sized, tightly packed sand grains that would give the same pressure gradient behavior as the actual pipe wal Dimensional analysis suggests that the effect of roughness is not due to its absolute dimensions, but to its dimensions relative to the inside diameter of the Reynolds Number and Friction Factor 255 pipe. Relative roughness, ¢/D, is the ratio of the absolute roughness to the pipe imemnal diameter: 2) tin) Din) Din) 728) ‘The selection of value of pipe wall roughness is sometimes difficult since the absolute roughness is not a directly measurable property for a pipe. The way to evaluate the absolute roughness is to compare the pressure gradients obtained from the pipe of interest with a pipe that is sand-roughened. Typical results have been presented by Moody in Fig. 7.2. Thus, if measured pressure gradients are available, the frietion factor and Reynolds number can be calculated and an effective c/D obtained from the Moody diagram. This value of ¢/D should then be used for future predictions until updated, If no information is available on roughness, a value of ¢ = 0.0006 in. is recommended for tubing and line pipe. ‘Typical values of absolute roughness of interest in natural gas flow problems are: Relative roughness = Drawn wbing Wall tubing Line pipe Galvanized pipe ti 7.2.3 Equations for the Friction Factor,f(Nge, e/D) Fiuid flow ranges in nature between two extremes: laminar or streamline flow and turbulent flow (Fig. 7.1). Within this range are four distinct r ‘equation for the friction factor in terms of Reynolds number and relative rough- ness varies for each of the four regions Laminar Single-Phase Flow ‘The friction factor for laminar flow can be determined analytically. The Hagen= Poiseuille equation for laminar flow is (2) = me at) a 726) Equating the frictional pressure gradients given by Eqs. 7.17 and 7.26 gives 32 ue 3 286 Gas Gathering and Transportation Om i an 3688 om “Foo Joos a) eb Somns| oame| 20002} oie 000.1 oie Samos oom2 eae Deane Ta ‘900005 | —— xe 7 ocne Fig. 72 Relative roughness of pipe mat tence. ya 9 486 @10 a0 9 a0¥oe0a0ico 200 300 i and friction factors for complete g i verb 7.28) ‘Reynolds Number and Friction Factor 257 ‘Turbulent Single-Phase Flow Experimental studies of turbulent flow have shown that the velocity profile and Pressure gradient are very sensitive tothe characteristics ofthe pipe wall, that i, the smoothness of the wall. Only the most accurate empirical correlations for friction factors are presented. ‘Smooth Wall Pipe. Several correlations, each valid over different ranges of Reynolds number, are available. Drew, Koo, and McAdams presented the most ‘commonly used correlation in 1930: Ff = 0.0056 + 0.5N50 (7.29) Equation 7.29 is explicit in f and covers a wide range of Reynolds numbers, 310" < Npe <3 % 10. Biasius also developed a correlation that may be used for Nine up to 10" for smooth pipes: f= 0316Ng275 (730) Rough Wall Pipe. In turbulent flow, the effect of wall roughness on friction factor depends on the relative roughness and Reynolds number. When the thick: ‘ess of the laminar sublayer that exists within the boundary ayer islarge enough, the behavior approximates that of smooth pipe, The thickness of the laminar sublayer is a function of the Reynolds number. Nikuradse’s friction factor correlation is still the best one available for fully developed turbulent flow in rough pipes: 1 2 en 174 ~ 209 (* Vi : 6) os) His equation is valid for large values ofthe Reynolds number where the effect of relative roughness is dominant (Fig. 7.1) ‘The correlation thats used asthe basis for modern friction factor charts was proposed by Colebrook snd White in 1939: Spa - 2h ( =) VE END * ne Vi 7.32) Equation 7.32 is applicable to smooth pipes and to flow in wanstion and fully rough zones of turbulent lo. It degenstes to the Nikuradse creation (Ee 7131) at lnge values ofthe Reynoles number Equation 7.32isnot expt in f. However, values of fcan be obtained by an iterative procedure using the fllowing form ofthe equston Fotos [ 74 2 og (= | of * Ven 7.33) 258 Gas Gathering and Tanportstion An explicit correlation for tion facor was resented by Jain in 1976 1 e 2425 apr iso tee (5 + oe) 4) “This correlation is comparable to the Colebrook and White correlation. For relative roughness between 10°° and 10-* and Reynolds number between 5% 10° and 10" the errors were within 1.0% when compared with the Cole- ‘brook and White correlation. Equation 7.34 is recommended forall calculations requiring friction factor determination for turbulent flow 7.2.4 Total Pressure Drop ‘The pressure gradient equation for 2 pipeline at any angle of inclination can be ‘written as 8 ying 4 Lom , mud a 2g.D ” gedl (7.35) ‘The total pressure gradient is made up of three distinct components: ae (2) + (2 + (¢ a” Natl * Nat), * Nal) ae (7.36) p sin is the component due to elevation of potential & ‘change. Fo TEX is the component due to frictional lostes. 25D pe due “gr the component duc to convective acceleration or ged Kinetic energy change. ‘The elevation component applies for compressible and incompressible, steady-state and transient flows, in vertical and inclined systems. It is zero for horizontal flow. The friction loss component applies to any type of flow at any pipe angle and causes a pressure drop in the direction of flow. The acceleration ‘component causes a pressure drop in the direction of velocity increase in any flow condition in which velocity change occurs. Itis zero for constant-area, incompress- ible flow. Equation 7.35 applies for any fluid in steady-state, one-dimensional low for which p, f, and can be defined, Itisin differential equation form and would have to be integrated to yield pressure drop as a function of flow rate, pipe diameter, ‘and fluid properties. Pipeline Flow Calculations 259 7.3. PIPELINE-FLOW CALCULATIONS Engineering of long-distance transportation of natural gas by pipeline requires a knowledge of flow formulas for calculating capacity and pressure requirements ‘There are several equations in the petroleum industry for calculating the flow of gases in pipelines. In the early development of the natural gas transmission industry, pressures were low and the equations used for design purposes were simple and adequate. However, as pressure increased to meet higher capacity ‘demands, equations were developed to meet the new requirements. Probably the ‘most common pipeline flow equation is the Weymouth equation, which is gener- ally preferred for smaller-diameter lines (D = 15in. +). The Panhandle equation and the Modified Panhandle equation are usually better for larger-sized transmis- sion lines. 7.3.1 Pipeline Equation Consider steady-state low of dry gas in a constant-diameter, horizontal pipeline. The mechanical energy equation (Eq. 7.35) becomes fet pM fe aL” 2g.D~ ZRF 25.D 37), Many pipeline equations have been developed by integrating Eq, 7.37. The and ps): Tl (i sey Pol yelefl (7.40) Cis a constant with a numerical value that depends on the units used in the Pipeline equation. These are summarized in Table 7.1 ‘depends on pressure and the fri ‘The use of Eq. 7.40 involves an iterative proceduse. The gas deviation factor mn factor depends onflow rate or diameter, This problem prompted several investigators to develop pipeline flow equations that re or explicit. This has involved substitutions for the friction factor f. The specific substitution used may be diameter dependent only (Weymouth equation) or Reynolds number dependent only (Panhandle equations), The and elev 7.3.2 Weymouth Equation—Horizontal Flow basis for the Weymouth equation is the usual energy balance between points 1 2 (Fig. 7.3). Im the horizontal flow case, points 1 and 2 are at the same ration, but itis not necessary thatthe line connecting them be horizontal. The assumptions made in this flow situation are: ‘The kinetic-energy change is negligible and can be taken as zero. ‘The flow is steady state and isothermal Flow is horizontal Heat is not transferred to or from the gas to the surroundings. TABLE 7.1 Value of C for Various Units ? Tr > z 4 c sia “e mi seid 7754 pia R t seid 03a sia "® ® MMectd 5.634 x10 hea K m m lday 1.1483 x 10° oo a oz >a Fig. 7-3. othermal gas flow in horizontal lines. Pipeline-Flow Calculations 261 5. There is no work done by the gas during flow. With these assumptions, the energy balance is left with the expansion work and lost work terms. Thus, = specific volume, cu fulbm P= pressure, psia f= Moody friction factor, dimer u = velocity, fsec D = pipe diameter, ft L = length of pipe, ft 4c = conversion factor 2.17 lbm-funbr-sect ‘The velocity w in Eq. 7.42 can be expressed in terms of the volume flow rate and the cross-sectional area of the pipe: Let gy be the volume flow rate of gas, cf, measured at base conditions, Ty (°R) and ps (psia). Then, + (5) 7) G) Ge) (8) For real gases, 2RT 2 {eu feb) = 2&7 _, 10.7322 T PM Dp Using these in Eq. 7.42 10-73227) f ( santos ) a 144) heaton YP ae 00 (er) reales) B-8 or aT f nts)" 33.29 = ay + 1.9444 x 10-* oo Fee) a =0 262 Gas Gathering and Transportation Integrating and using an average value of 2, -» £ {auto :) fy aT x 19-9 £{ tate 2 = -sa2927 1.9444 x 10 ( a), a= 82950] Kase Bit = pi) Dey YeTHL 7.48) Equation 7.43 isthe general steady-flow equation for isothermal gas flow ‘over a pipeline. It is generally attributed to Weymouth. The terms are defined as follows: n= gas flow rate, cth at py and T, Ty = base temperature, °R Pp = base pressure, psia r= inlet pressure, psia Pa = outlet pressure, pia D = inside diameter of pipe, in. “Yg = gas specific gravity (sir = 2) pa T = average flowing temperature, °R. § = Moody frietion factor L = length of pipe, miles ‘gas deviation factor at average flowing temperature and average pressure Equation 7.43 may be written as 1)°5 [etn ) pg me i) al a aay = ue Pipeline-Flow Calculations 263 ‘The Moody friction factor, which occursin Eqs. 7.43 and7.44, may itself be a function of flow rate, q,, and pipe roughness, . If flow conditions are in the fully turbulent region, f can be calculated from the relationship Seats = - (tno 45) where f depends only on the relative roughness, e/D. When flow conditions are not completely turbulent, f depends on the Reynolds number, also: gg x 2AMCEED Ys _ 0.48059 . 2D uD (7.46) ‘Therefore, to make use of the Weymouth equation inthe form of Eq. 7.43 or Eq 7.44 requires a trial-and-error procedure to calculate qp, ‘To eliminate the trial-and-error procedure, Weymouth proposed that f vary as a function of diameter in inches as follows: pon D Gan) this simplification, Eq.7.43 reduces to Tel (PF = ph DI?) no ie oa ILE (7.48) Equation 7.48 is the form of Weymouth equation commonly used in industry. 7.3.3 Effects of Assumptions ‘The use of Eqs. 7.43, 7.44, 0r 7.48 to calculate transmission factors for an existing transmission line or for the design of a new transmission fine involves a few assumptions that were mentioned earlier. The effects of these assumptions on ‘work on long commercial pipelines under normal operating conditions are now discussed. Mechanical Work No mechanical work is done on the luid between the points at which the pressures are measured. In the study of an existing pipeline, the pressure-measuring stations should be placed so that no mechanical energy is added to the system between stations. Thus, the conditions of this assumption can be fulfilled. Steady How ‘The flow is steady; that is, the same mass of gas passes each cross section of the pipe in a given interval of time. Steady flow in pipeline operation seldom, if ever, 264 Gas Gathering and Transportation ‘existsin actual practice because pulsations, liquid in the pipeline, and variationsin input or outlet gas volumes cause deviations from steady-state conditions. Devia- tions from steady-state flow are the major cause of difficulties experienced Pipeline flow studies. Isothermal Flow ‘The flow is isothermal or can be considered isothermal at an average effective temperature, The heat of compression is usually dissipated into the ground along 1 pipeline within a few miles downstream from the compressor station. Other- wise, the temperature of the gas is very near that of the containing pipe and, as pipelines usually are buried, the temperature of the flowing gas is not influenced appreciably by rapid changes in atmospheric temperature. Constant Compressibility ‘The compressibility of the fluid can be considered constant, and an average effective gas deviation factor may be used. Equations 7.43, 7.48, and 7.48 contain, ‘an average gas deviation factor, Z. This comes about because the equation that ‘was integrated was Pp nom [Ee om was elected to take Z outside the integral sign, Consider Fig. 7.4. When the (wo pressures p, and plein a region where =i essentially linear with pressure, then ieisaccurate enough to evaluate ¥ atthe average pressure p ~ (p, + p:)/2. One can also use the arithmetic average of the 2's with the same result: 7 = (ey + [)/2. On the other hand, should py and ps lie in the range illustrated by the double-hatched ies, the proper average would result from determining the area under the z-curve and dividing it by the diference in pressure: (7.50) ‘Also, Z may be evaluated at an average pressure given by {2 = Bi \ei — PB asi) Horizontal Pipeline ‘The pipeline is horizontal In aetual practice, transmission lines seldom, ifever are horizontal, so that factors are needed in Eqs. 7.43, 744, and 7.48 to compensate for changes in elevation. With the trend to higher operating pressures in transmis- sion lines, the need for these factors is greater than is generally realized. This ‘correction for change in elevation is discussed in the next section. Pipeline-Flow Calculations 265 y>0 For all practical purposes, ps/ps = 1.08. Thus, all but the fist term may be neglected, leaving e 1) 208 Sig SZ : 736) 0.018, 754 22) o-r)-a=n( 7 sn) Plpeline-Flow Calculations 269 Equation 7.57 may be writen in terms of ges formation volume factor, B,(cu fusef), as Ap = 2.000520 By (7.58) Incorporating Eq. 7.55 into the Weymouth equation, Eq. 7.43, gives naan Bilge pol hte (739) here ¢ = base of natural logarithm = 2.718 5 = 008734 A2/TE AZ = outlet elevation minus init elevation (note that AZ is pos ‘when outlet is higher than inlet). Consider the configuration in Fig. 7.Sc. Here the correction is made on py and Eq. 7.15 becomes = 3.23 nuve - pele Pel ylflz 7.60) Equations 7.59 and7.60 are adequate for most purposes. A general and more rigorous form of Weymouth equation with compensation for elevation is naan h(i)” [@aem oy where L, isthe effective length of the pipeline. The effective length ofthe pipeline is based on the profile ofthe line between ressure-measuting stations. For a uniform slope, =» (7.61) (7.62) For a nonuniform slope (where elevation change cannot be simplified toa single section of constant gradient), an approach in steps to any numberof sections, , will yield @-» 7.63) 210 Gas Gathering and Transportation where $1 = 00375 y_AZ,/TE 53 = 0.03159,8Z2/T2 34 = QOBTS gh Zq/ TE Note: Bq = 5, + 52 + 55 + +++ + 5, The numerical subscripts refer to the in- dividual sections ofthe overall line, whichis operating under pressure differential (G1 ~ pa). For example, if the line is divided into four seetions, n would equal 4 and subscript 2 would pertain to the properties of the second section. 7.3.5 Panhandle A Equation—Horizontal Flow ‘The Panhandle A pipeline flow equation assumes that f varies as follows: 0.085 Na? (7.64) f Po peccie nna orn Fe Yay qs the gas flow rate, cfd measured at Ty and pp, ‘Other terms are as in Weymouth equation. where 7.3.6 Modified Panhandle (Panhandle B) Equation—Horizontal Flow ‘This is probably the most widely used equation for fong lines (transmission and delivery). The modified Panhandle equation assumes that f varies as ois I> Ngo 7.66) co where the units are the same as in Eq. 7.65. and results in «61) 7.3.7 Climedinst Equation—Horizontal Flow in siders the devi ‘The pipeline flow equation of Clinedinst rigorously consid natural gas from ideal behavior. This equation is a rigorous integration of Eq. Pipeline Flow Calcolations 271 7.42. The only assumptions are those made in arriving at Eq. 742. The equations D i t WILt\Io "1 sy a snag Ble Ps where = volumetric flow rate, Mefd Pp = pseudocritical pressure, psia D = pipe internal diameter, in, L = pipe length, ft = pseudoreduced pressure werage flowing temperature, Ye = Bas gravity %5 = gas deviation factor at T, and ps, normally accepted as 1.0 Vetus ofthe nara tons (” are auld in Tele 6 of Kut ot Handook of Marl Gas Bieri 7.3.8 Pipeline Efficiency Al the pipeline flow equations developed above are for 100% efficient condi- tions, In actual pipelines, water, condensates, and sometimes crude oil accumu. late in low spots inthe line. There arc often scales and “junk” (dead rabbits, etc.) Teftin the line. The net results thatthe flow rates calculated for the 100% efficient cases are often modified by multiplying them by an efficiency factor E. The efficiency factor expresses the actual flow rate as a fraction ofthe theoretical flo tate. An efficiency factor ranging from 0.85 to 0.95 would represent a “clean” line. A few values of efficiency factors are given below. PEEP EEE eee eee eee eee Liquid Content Type of Line of Gas (galt) E sO On EE SEE Ee Diy-gas ela 04 092 Casing-head gas 72 0x7 Gasand condensate 200 0.60 peters conteneata EEEEEEEE Ete oer Ot 7.3.9 Transmission Factors ‘The transmission factor is defined as (1/f)"*, Of the many factors in Eq. 7.44, the ‘transmission factor has long been the most difficult to evaluate. Thus, he litera. ture contains many different empirical transmission factors that have been used to ‘meet the needs of pipeline engineers. Table 7.2 presents some transmission factors that are the most significant and have either best stood the test of usage or have strong foundations in basic low theories. 272 Gas Gathering and Transportation TABLE 7.2 Transmission Factors for Pipeline Flow Equations (for Use in £4,748) Flow fquaton Remarks Smooth pipe ~~ Toga) + 0.3 Seldom applicable to age amine Giameter natural gas tans mission nes Rough pipe 2 ogu0.70% Characterizes mostrar Gry trbulent {E anemistion operating Eonditions. Table 73 ges SThumber of solutions most sar x 560° Reasonably good appro! bata mation of preceding (rough pipe formulafor D= T0in nd e = 0.002 in. Panhandle sa x aang? } Large-iametertranemission cif pankandle a BEBME™ | pplngeeevaes om eee : 5 x 10 to 20 x 108, “average ste! pipeline eiclency; aluminum varies trom 0392 t0 0.6 TABLE 7.3. Selected Rough Pipe Transmission Factors (UN = 1 og B70) ‘where e = 0.0007 in nes 945 3.70 saz so. 10.18 1025 1038 “average elfectve roughness for clean ste! pipe transmission sec. 7.3.10 Summary of Pipeline Equations ative may be written as A general pipeline fow equation that is no well FREES ow (Gas Flow in Series, Parallel, and Looped Pipelines 273 where E is the efficiency factor. The units to be used in Eq. 7.69 are 4 = cfd measured at Ty and pp, D = inches ‘The values of the constants a are given below for the different pipeline flow equations Equation a * = Weymouth 35 10 05. 05 2.667 Panhandle 425.871.0788 a3 asd 2616 Panhandles 737.0 1.02 0510 0.450 2530 7.4 GAS FLOW IN SERIES, PARALLEL, AND LOOPED PIPELINES Itisoften desirable to increase the throughput ofa pipeline while maintaining the same pressure drop and level. This need may occur when new gas wells are developed in an area serviced by an existing pipeline. A similar type of problem may arise when an existing pipeline must be “pressure derated” because of age (Corrosion, etc.) but itis desired to maintain the same throughput, ‘A commion economical solution to the above problems is to place one of ‘more lines in parallel, either partially or throughout the whole length, or to replace a portion of the line witha larger one. This requires calculations involving flow in series, pacallel, and series-parallel (looped) lines, ‘The philosophy involved in deriving the special relationships used in the solution of complex transmission systems is to express the various lengihs and diameters of the pipe in the system as equivalent lengths ofa common diameter oF equivalent diameters of a common length—equivalent meaning that both will have the same capacity with the same total pressure drop. Allthe examples that follow will be based on the Weymouth equation, Atthe end ofthe discussion, a summary of the relationships based on the Panhandle and Clinedinst equations will be given. 7.4.1 Series Pipelines Consider an L-mile long, D,-in. internal diameter pipeline operating with a total pressure drop of p ~ pz psi. This pipeline is altered by replacing the first Ly miles with a Dg-in. internal diameter line (Figs. 7.64 and 7.6b). If the total Pressure drop in the new system is p; ~ pa, what is the capacity of the new series Pipeline? Also, what isthe pressure ps atthe junction of the Dyin. line and the Dain. line? 274 Gas Gathering and Transportation ro asain a rs I 1 bs Seep ee ar EE ne Drea 8 OyuaR oh iz | I ten) te tant af a 2 me a o 2 3 oe am tao Fig. 7.6 Pipes in series. Using Eq. 7.48, tr as one | Sine py ~ piconet, Eq, 748 ca be mien panes on (7) KD ae 7.48) (7.70) an) (Gas Flow in Series, Parallel, and Looped Pipelines 275 ‘Thus, for transporting a given quantity of gas at a given pressure drop, length is proportional to diameter raised to the power 16/3. Therefore, the equivalent length of a Din. line, L4, that would have the same pressure drop as the Ly miles of Din. line is La (2s ) wa Ly \Dpi or D.\ "#9 La (F* to) om ‘Therefore, the series line shown has a total equivalent length of baeg = ha + Him ba + La (PA) PE Dy (1.73) ‘The volume flow rate g,of gas that will flow forgiven values of ps p>, —, T.and Z ‘can be calculated using Eq. 7.48 with DgLsqq. However, from Ea. 7.70, the flow rate is proportional to (1/L)°>. Thus, percent change in flow rate is (eye @ (7.74) Example 7.2 (J =035m (" and factor fa, ‘The calculation of the pressure atthe junction point of the D4 ~ Da line is accomplished by noting that the flow rates in the two sections are equal and ‘calculating in terms of the equivalent Din. system. Using lengths of Ls miles for the B-section and 1.4 miles for the A-section, Eq. 7.48 is or i (pt ~ p3) Lata = (08 ~ 9B) LAZn any La, Lis py and pz are known. Equation 7.79 contains three unknowns: ps. Za. and Zp Itis best solved by trial and error using p3 asthe variable. To start, assume Equation 7.75 may be extended to three or more pipes in series (Fig. 7.6¢). ‘The flow rates are same in all sections: HR UE 4s (Gas Flow in Series, Paral, and Looped Pipelines 277 Total pressure drop equals sum of pressure drops Apr= Bp. + Ape + dps or = eT Hip Le f= ply = evi i P= Gee) TD = 22t? [art Gaony7e Phe, goths Dim* pyw* pas Therefore, Ly Dye (7.80) Using the Weymouth equation, which contains f, She fils Do De De (7.8) 742 Parallel Pipelines Consider once more the L-mile, D,-in. internal diameter pipeline. Suppose the full length is paralleled with a new Dyin. internal diameter line (Fig. 77a), What | 1 +m —___} [=o ue ob aa Fig. 7.7 Pipes in paral 218 Gas Gathering and Transportation ‘would be the resulting increase in capacity? The old flow rate using only Din. line is qq. The new flow rate with both lines is g, = 94 + ga. The length, L, is ‘constant. Using the Weymouth equation (without f),, a4 = const (DW) 7.82) ‘The ratio of new to old flow rates is Haat uw 783) Percent increase in capacity is 3 Ds\? s woone ng, = 8 19 = 10 (24) Oe y 784) Example 7.3 Equations 7.82 to 7.84 are for equal lengths of parallel pipelines. Where the lengths of the two paralle! lines are not equal, use — aE] om se oneeine «0 f(2)(4)"] a The above expressions fortwo parallel lines may be extended to three or sore lines in parallel (Fig. 778). antares Sp. = pa = Ops Gas Flom in Series, Parle, an Looped Pipelines 79 18.062 of VazTE po Sonnet EY EP PLY] ea a ee ec Therefore, If the Weymouth equation, which contains the friction factor, f, ie used, Eq. 7.88 becomes Gey GEeY ED REY oo ED” oan 74.3 Looped Pipelines Mos often in the design of complex transmission systems, only @ par ofthe line is parallel This is known as looping, Ia the looped pipeline illustrated (Fig. 7.8e), the original line consisted of segments A and C, of the same diameter. In the system, a looping segment (B) has been added to increase the capacity of the pipeline system ‘The looped pipeline system (Fig. 7.82) may be represented by ascris system (Fig. 7.80). To obtain the total flow rate, the looped section and unlooped section are solved a8 a series flow situation, a 4 & c & tote lng fe ood sens AmB Digg coreoardng ule denser ct A and B o Fig. 78 Looped pipelines. 280 Gas Gathering and Transportation Consider the parallel flow situation in the looped section, using the Wey- ‘mouth equation (without f) ‘) 78s From Ea. 78, ios” pt*, os" (Law)? oA? Le 7.90) Solving Ea. 7.90 forthe equivalent length ofthe looped segment yeks Bia) (is) * (aia) (cy os Ifthe equivalent diameter ofthe looped segment D'xg is selected to be the same as the diameter of the unlooped segment, Dip = De= Da Equation 7.91 reduces 10 Lin = 1 7 “Pe a) UC on oe oon sieane= 1m (2=2) Ae where al flow rate before looping, jow rate after looping riginal length of pipeline L’ = equivalent of pipeline after looping = Lisp + Le Gas Flow in Series, Pralel, and Looped Pipelines 281 Example 7.4 Section Diameter D, in. Length mi A 410 3 a 61D 3 c 410 7 eral Li = Lag + Le = TAS2 mi 192 mi 4 a)" = a \7.192, erat to \os increase in gy = 100 |(2°-)* _ ae G 2) | ‘The above equations and calculational procedure can be generalized to yield several useful equations anda looping chart. These equations help determine pipe size for completely or partially paralleling an original line in order to increase the system capacity by a fixed amiount, The equations are derived on the basis that. after a line has been paralleled, the temperature, pas gravity, mean z-factor, and pressures at the inlet and outlet of the original lines are as they were before paralleling. ‘The following expression gives the fraction ofthe total ength of original line that must be paralleled (looped) in order to increase the flow rate by a fixed amount. It assumes that the lengths of the lines inthe looped section are equal: 1 = ola va + WP 7.96) where ¥ = fraction of original line paralleled (looped), starting downstream do = original flow rate before looping flow rate after looping De/D.)"" (Weymouth without f) W = (Dp/Do)** (fol fa)** (Weymouth with f) Da = diameter of original fine Dy = diameter of added parallel line fe = friction factor of original line Jo = friction factor of added parallel line 282 Gas Gathering and Transportation Equation 7.96 can be rearranged in several different ways, for example, a 1 Waa wy os or Ul erceres | e (qo/q¥ — 1 + ¥} (7.98) When Y = 1 and the entire length of the original line has been paralleled, (7.99) gee) If the diameter and friction factor ofthe parallel line are the same as those of the original line, then W = 1, and . 2) 50 ar 7.101) and Hee 0 Ga 7.10) “The chart of Fig. 7.9 yields rapid solutions.for these equations 7.44 Extensions to Other Pipeline Equations ‘The equivalent lengths may be calulated by the following expressions: byt a ) Bt 7.103) where 1, = equivalent of selected pipe size (¢-8., Table 7.8) B L, = length of actual pipe of size Dy Dy = ID of actal pipe section exponent which depends on pipeline equation used (Table 7.5).. Pereant nein eo lo 100) 20 20] 29 80 50 40 20 20 Ey © rc cy econ tie para, Fig. 79 Design of parallel lines, (After Kets et al.) 284 Gas Gathering and Tronsportation TABLE 7.4 Miles of Pipe of Various Diameters Having Delivery Capacity Equivalent to ‘One Mile of a Diameter Given in Extreme Left Column Internal Diameter, 2067 3.060 4.026 6.065 8071 10.025 12425 2067 —«.000 8 aI SOA 3.068 0.1217 1.000 4.250 3789 173.92 4025 01286 0.2347 1.000 88954083 ot 357.8 6.065 0.0032 L024 0124 1.000 4.590 1.42 40.28 sar 0.0285 02178 4.00 «35778763 10.250 9.0603 02795 1.000 2.450, wns 0.0289 © otat soe 1.000 3375 dow 0.067 0.2419 0.5925 15.375 dos ost 0.2818 W378 0.0599 0.1468 Feample: Capacty of mile of 8.7140. pipe is equivalent 19 0.028 miles 0f4.026-n oF 3.577, miles of 1002547. pipe for same pressure condiions Source: Covey AGA. TABLE 7.5 Exponents for Equations 7.103, 7.104, and 7.105 A as € Weymouth equation 5388 050 2.667 Panhandle equation ast 05394 2618 4961 ost 258 Modified Panhandle equation For series flow, the equivalent lengths the sum ofthe individual equivalent lengths, When the lines ate connected in parallel, their combined equivalent length is derived from 1 rae (wor + ial + Wha + @.10 If each of the parallel lines is of a single pipe size and of equal length, Eq. 7.104 may be expressed as i ue Terms are defied under a, 7.15 and exponen ae gn in Table 7 ‘Other relationships equivalent to those derived using Weymouth equations fare summarized in Table 7.6 for Pantandle and Clinedinst equations. L DAL (7.105) TABLE 7.6 Comparison of Complex Flow Formulas Panhandle “Clnedinst Lines in Series Weymouth Quantity Gas Flow in Series, Parallel, and Looped Piplines quivalent diameter Equivalent length Lines in Parafel diameter Looping requirementst ine looped? 285 Diameter of Source: After Campi "Assumes that the length of ines in loop section are the same 286 Gas Gathering and Transportation 7.5 GAS-LIQUID FLOW IN PIPELINES The use of a single pipeline for simultaneous fiow of natural gas and oil i increasing. Such systems frequently offer substantial economic advantages for ‘offshore applications as well as for many onland installations. In some cases. simultaneous flow of gas and oil occurs naturally in gathering systems of oil with ‘associated solution gas or in gas-condensate flow to central processing equipment. ‘Multiphase flow conditions cover a broad spectrum of operating situations. ‘On the one hand isthe condition of gas flow in a pipeline accompanied by small, amounts of liquid due either to carryover from separators or due to condensation in the pipeline. At the other extreme is the flow of crude or condensate, which ‘enters the pipe as one phase but, because of the drop in pressure along the line, releases small amounts of gas, which then travel with the liquid in multiphase flow. These extremes of gas-liquid ratios and all conditions in between are situations of two-phase flow. Common to als the fact thatthe pressure drop is. "usually substantially greater than in single-phase flow and, in some cases, the flow can be quite unsteady. ‘This condition of two-phase flow is exceedingly complex. Early attempts 10 use design methods equivalent to those used for single-phase flow frequently resulted ina line that was either inadequate or highly overdesigned. In wwo-phase flow, an overdesigned line draws a penalty not only in excessive cost but in very unstable operation with slugging of liquid and fluctuating pressures. ‘Three methods for hancling pipeline flowing both liguid and gas will be discussed. Dukler Cate lis considered one of the most accurate correlations for horizontal flow. Flanigan correlation accounts for the added pressure drop caused by lifting the liquid up hills in a hilly terrain pipeline. It ignores any pressure recovery in the downhill section and the angle of the bill is not taken into consideration. Beggs and Brill correlation takes angle of inclination into account. Tt can be used for downward two-phase flow such as might occur in offshore gathering lines. 7.5.1 Dukler Case It Correlation “This correlation published by Dukler in 1969 isthe most widely used method fora wide range of conditions in horizontal low. The AGA-API Design Manual by Baker et al gives full details about this procedure and example calculations Further examples may be found in Brown, The Tecknology of Arificial Lift Methods, Volume 1. The procedure for calculating pressure loss in a horizontal flow line from ‘known upstream pressure by method of Dukler, Case Ili outlined below. 1. Assume a downstream pressure and ealclate an arithmetic average pres- sure, B = (pi + p2)/2 2 Obtain average values of solution ges-oil ratio, R, oil formation volume factor, B,, and gas deviation factor, 2 2 10. a (Gas-Liguid Flow in Pipelines 287 Caleulate the volumetric low rates of liquid and gas in the pipetine in fs: @BAS.615) ae 86,400, (7.106) a6GOR-R) mT, a 86,400, BT (7.107), Calculate , the volumetie liquid fraction input to the pipeline. This isthe ro-slip holdup, tere Wl dere + Gere Wel + Wel Py (7.108) CCateulate the liquid density in pipeline: = Yel624) + rel 0.0764)R,/5.615 By (7.109) be Caleulate the gas density: (7.110) Calculate the velocity of the mixture, in fet per second: y= dt Hort mS DESIG a ‘Ds pipetine ID in inches. CCalulate the viscosity of a two-phase mixture: tare = Had + wy(l ~ 9) (12) Estimate a value ofthe lgui holdup inthe pipetine (i). CCatculate the two-phase density qn) Calculate an approximate value of the two-phase Reynolds number: Diy pre ure craig) With the no slip holdup 2 from step 4 and the approximate Reynolds umber, (Nge)rp, from step 11, go to Fig, 7.10 and read a value of He. (Nadre = cr 18. 16. 7. 18. 288. Gas Gathering and Transportation ears 10° tom to ro rc 710 Dukler liquid boldup co Fig. tion. (After Baker eta.) Check the value of Fl of step 12 with the assumed value of step 9. If they agree within 5%, the accuracy sufficient. Ithey donot agree, repeat steps 9't0 13 until they agree within 3%. ‘When the assumed value and calculated value of Fi agree within 56, use the calculated value of H, to determine the two-phase Reynolds number. Determine the value frp/fo from Fig. 71 Calculate fy the single-phase friction factor. There are several correlations available forcaleulating the friction factor of a smooth pipe. The equation ted for developing the coreelation shown in Fig. 7.11 is 0.125 Fo 0000+ RF 115) Calulate Fre, the two-phase fiction factor: foe, fan = FE x fo Gao Caleulate the pressure drop due to friction: aay Gas-Liquid Flow in Pipelines 289 fo n 10 Cc 4 ict aor ‘oon ‘007 or 40 Fig. 7.41 Normalized fiton facor curve. (After Baker et al.) where L=f uy = fsec pry = tbnven ft D= in. 19. Acceleration pressure drop may also be calculated. This is usually very small 2. in pipelines but may be significant in process piping. ‘ rn ae — [tee Pere 1-H. He pcan ‘where 0 is the angle of pipe bend. For a horizontal pipe 6 = O and cosine ont Elevation pressure drop—if any elevation changes take place, the pressure Le ‘The liquid holdup depends on flow regime and is given by Hie = Hugo ‘where Fos the holdup that would exist at the same conditions in a horizontal pipe and Wis a correction factor for pipe inclination. ant, M00 Fie with the constraint, Ho > Az. The values of the constants a, , and c for each flow regime are given below. FowReime abe Segregated 0.98 0.4845 0.0868 Intermittent 0.845 0.5351 0.0173, Distributed 1.065 05824 0.0609, 300 Gas Gathering and Transportation When the flow falls in the transition regime, the liquid holdup is a weighted average of the segregated and intermittent values: Hz (transition) = A x Hy, (Segregated) + B x H, (intermittent) where “The pipe inclination correction factor is given by Y= 1+ Clsin (1.80) ~ 0.333 sin? (1.889) ‘where 0 isthe pipe inclination angle to horizontal, and C= (1= AL) In GAMER) with the constraint C= 0, The liquid velocity number is calculated using nose (2) ‘where 0, is the liquid surface tension in dynes per centimeter. The liquid surface tension may be calculated from the values for oil and water: w= ele bene (tage) + 9 (WOR) ‘The constants d, ¢, f, and g are given for each flow regime below. 4 o r = oor rT) oma 2.96 Das = 0473 oars ‘No courection CHO #8) 470 “ns692 ota" 0.056 Once Hi, is determined, the two-phase density is calculated from Pre = pull, + py(l ~ Hi) ‘The pressure gradient due to elevation change is then 0) 8 asin Gas-Ligud Flow in Pipelines 301 “The pressure gradient due to friction is given by (2 ) Sire Bo fine aL}, 2D where the no-slip density is calculated from Po = Pode + py(l = Ne) and the two-phase frition factor is given by from F% fo ‘The single-phase or no-slip friction factor fis determined by the Moody diagram ‘or Jain’s correlation (Eq. 7.34), using the following Reynolds number: Di He Nae = where pe is a norsip viscosity He = Bue + Hy(l — Aa) ‘The ratio frp/fo is calculated from fre fo were 45 = {In (N1/A-0.0523 + 3.182 in) ~ 0.8725 tn GOP + 0.018,53 [in (y)}*) and Hae 7” Hel ‘The value of sis unbounded inthe interval | < y < 1,2 andshould be calculated, in this interval, from 5 = In(2.2y ~ 1.2) ‘The acceleration pressure gradient is (2) - ale) Where i, is the superficial gas velocity in feet per second. |e (2) (2) we) ela, AL} ora l= Ey where £ is an acceleration term: Prekig Ey ae Detailed procedure and example calculations on the use of Beggs and Brill correlation are given in Brown, The Technology of Anificial Lift Methods, Vol- ume | 7.5.4 Application of Multiphase Flow Correlations “The correlations previously described caa be programmed for computer calcula tion, When such programs are available, pressure traverses can be calculated accurately by computer because the pipeline or lowlin can be divided into small increments. Also the exact conditions of pressure, temperature, and fluid proper- tics for cach case can be used. If time permits, computer calculations are recom mended. Pressure traverse curves or “working curves” have been prepared usingsome ofthe correlations. Although computer solutions are more accurate, a computer isnot always readily available. A se of working curves becomes a necessity ifthe acticing engineer should have immediate access to multiphate flow correla tions,, When using these working curves one has no contol over pressure, temperature, and Mid properties. However, prepared pressure traverse curves ‘ay be calculated using conditions in particular fel if time permits. Solutions derived from working curves are sufficiently accurate for most field problems. Pressure traverse curves are available from Kermit E. Brown, The Technol- ogy of Anifcial Lift Methods, Volumes 3A and 3B. Figure 718 is ast of curves from Brown's book and will be used to illustrate the use of pressure traverse Example 7.6 Gien Pipeline size = 8.00 in. ID Liquid flow rate = 20,000 bbiday Gas liquid ratio = $000 scfiSTB Gas specific gravity = 0.65, il gravity = 35°API ‘Average flowing temperature = 120°F | Length of flowline = 10,000 ft ‘Outlet pressure ~ 500 psig ‘ ® vow eee T t Fontnesie 00m 10, | oll deeebles Fig, 7.418 Horizontal loving pressure gradients. (After Browa). Required Find the pipeline inlet pressure, Solution (® Select a set of curves for the correct line size, liquid flow rate, lowing temperature, and fluid properties. Figure 7.18 is selected. (b)_ Select a curve for the gas-liquid ratio of 5000 scfSTB. (©) Locate the known 500-psig pressure on the pressure axis and select a length ‘equivalent to this pressure by proceeding vertically downward from S00 psig, 304 Gas Gathering and Transportation at zero length until intersecting the 5000 se/STB gas-oll ratio line. This is found to be 1800 ft. (@)_ Correct the length for pipeline length. If knowa the pressure is the outlet pressure, add the pipeline length to the valne found in step (c). Ifthe known pressure is the inlet pressure, subtract the pipeline length from the value ound in step (¢). Thus, the corrected graph length is 10,000 + 1800 = 11,800 ft (e) The unknown pressures the pressure corresponding to the corrected length. tersection of the 11,800-ft-length line and the 000 sc{/STB gas-oil iraw a vertical line to intersect the pressure exis at 1220 psig. This is the pipeline inlet pressure. 7.6 PIPELINE ECONOMICS In planning a pipeline system, bearin mind thatthe scale of operation ofa pipeline hhas considerable effect on the unit costs. By doubling the diameter of the pipe, other factors remaining constant, the capacity incresses more than sixfold. On the other hand, the cost approximately doubles, so that cost per unit delivered. decreases to one-third of the original unit cost. It is this scale effect that justifies, multiproduct lines. Whether it is, in fact, economical to install a large-diameter pipeline at the outset depends on scale and the following factors: 1. Rate of growth in demand (it may be uneconomical to operate at low-capacity factors during intial years). (Capacity factor is the ratio of actual average discharge to design capacity.) 2. Operating factor (the ratio of average throughput at any time to maximum, ‘throughput during the same time period), which will depend on the rate of

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