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Solution:
a) In order to prove that two matrices are equal, one has to show that they have the
same dimensions and their corresponding elements are the same. Now
!∗
X X
[(AB)† ]ij = (AB)∗ij = Ajk Bki = A∗jk Bki
∗
k k
X X
† †
= (A )kj (B )ik = (B )ik (A† )kj = (B † A† )ij .
†
k k
Actually, this result holds for all square matrices. For a proof, see e.g. Linear
Algebra and its Applications, Lay, David C.
2. Calculate the expectation values hα|σi |αi , i = 1, 2, for Pauli spin matrices σ1 and σ2 with
respect to an arbitrary state |αi = α1 |1i + α2 |2i. Here |1i and |2i are the eigenvectors of
σ3 .
1
Solution:
To get the bra-vector hα| we take the hermitian conjugate of the above and obtain
and
0 −i α1 −iα2
α1∗ α2∗ ∗ ∗
hα|σ2 |αi = = α1 α2
i 0 α2 iα1
= −iα1∗ α2 + iα2∗ α1 = −2=(α1∗ α2 )
This problem can also be solved more elegantly by using the braket-notation. Let us do
that. We start by calculating the expectation value for σi :
Next we have to find out how σ1 and σ2 operate on the states |1i and |2i. We can do this
by straight calculation:
0 1 1 0
σ1 |1i = = = |2i
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
σ1 |2i = = = |1i
1 0 1 0
0 −i 1 0
σ2 |1i = = = i|2i
i 0 0 i
0 −i 0 −i
σ2 |2i = = = −i|1i
i 0 1 0
2
Using the fact that the states |1i and |2i are orthonormal we are left with
We then obtain
and
3. Consider a three-dimensional vector space spanned by an orthonormal basis |1i, |2i, |3i.
Kets |αi and |βi are given by
Find all nine matrix elements of the operator  = |αihβ|, in this basis, and construct the
matrix representing Â. Is it hermitian?
Solution:
Let us first construct the operator  using the given states. The bra-vector corresponding
to |βi is
hβ| = −ih1| + 2h3|
The operator  is then
3
Clearly  is NOT hermitian.
Solution:
The matrix form for the Hamiltonian is:
1 1
Ĥ =
1 −1
The eigenvalues of the Hamiltonian are obtained from the characteristic equation:
√
− λ
det |H − λI| = = 0 → λ2 − 2 = 0 → λ = ± 2
− − λ
The corresponding eigenvectors are then:
1 1 x λx
=
1 −1 y λy
√ x
x+y
→ =± 2
x−y y
√
For λ = + 2 we obtain √
x = (1 + 2)y, y ∈ C
√
and for λ = − 2 √
x = (1 − 2)y, y ∈ C
The (non-normalized) eigenvectors are then
h √ i
|λ+ i = y (1 + 2)|1i + |2i
h √ i
|λ− i = y (1 − 2)|1i + |2i
4
Now we can calculate the Hamiltonian matrix elements in the basis {|+i, |−i}:
2 2
Ĥ++ = h+|Ĥ|+i = A a h1|Ĥ|1i + ah1|Ĥ|2i + ah2|Ĥ|1i + h2|Ĥ|2i
√ √ i √
= A2 (a2 + 2a − 1) = √ (1 + 2)2 + 2(1 + 2) − 1 = 2
2(2 + 2)
Ĥ+− = h+|Ĥ|−i = AB abh1|Ĥ|1i + ah1|Ĥ|2i + bh2|Ĥ|1i + h2|Ĥ|2i
= AB(ab + a + b − 1) = 0 = Ĥ−+
2 2
Ĥ−− = h−|Ĥ|−i = B b h1|Ĥ|1i + bh1|Ĥ|2i + bh2|Ĥ|1i + h2|Ĥ|2i
√ √ i √
= B 2 (b2 + 2b − 1) = √ (1 − 2)2 + 2(1 − 2) − 1 = − 2
2(2 − 2)
In this basis the Hamiltonian is then
√ √
√
2 √0 1 0
Ĥ = = 2 = 2σ3
0 − 2 0 −1
5. Let us consider a two-state system. Let us say that the Hamiltonian operator H and an
observable A are represented in an orthonormal basis {|1i, |2i} by the matrices
1 0 0 1
H=λ , A= .
0 2 1 0
Solution:
a) Because the matrix representation of Ĥ is diagonal in the basis {|1i, |2i}, the
states |1i and |2i are the eigenstates of Ĥ. To be more precise, |1i is an eigenstate
5
corresponding to eigenvalue λ and |2i is an eigenstate corresponding to eigenvalue
2λ. For the sake of exercise, let us examine this point in greater detail. By definition
of matrix representation, the matrix representation of Ĥ in the orthonormal basis
{|1i, |2i} is
h1|Ĥ|1i h1|Ĥ|2i
Ĥ = .
h2|Ĥ|1i h2|Ĥ|2i
b) According to the measurement postulate, the possible outcomes are the eigenvalues
of the Hamiltonian operator Ĥ. The probability to obtain λ is
2
1 1 1
2
P (λ) = |h1|ψ(0)i| = √ h1|1i + √ h2|2i =
2 2 2
and 2λ is
1
P (2λ) = 1 − P (λ) =
2
c) Again, according to the measurement postulate, the possible outcomes are the
eigenvalues oh Â. Right after the measurement the system is in the eigenstate
corresponding to the obtained eigenvalue.
We note that  = σˆ1 , so the eigenvalues and eigenvectors are
1
a1 = 1 : |a1 i = (|1i + |2i)
2
1
a2 = −1 : |a2 i = (|1i − |2i)
2
√
We note that ψ(0) = (|1i + |2i)/ 2 = |a1 i. That is, at t = 0 the system is in the
state |a1 i. Consequently, the measurement of  at t = 0 yields a1 = 1. Right after
the measurement the system is in the state |a1 i, i.e. in this case the measurement
does not change the state of the system.
d) The time evolution of the system is governed by the familiar Schroedinger equation
d
Ĥ|ψ(t)i = i~ |ψ(t)i.
dt
We write |ψ(t)i as a superposition of the Hamiltonian eigenstates |1i and |2i:
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Since the Hamiltonian is time-independent, its eigenstates |1i and |2i are time-
independent. Consequently, the differentiation with respect to t affects only on the
coefficients c1 (t) and c2 (t). We obtain
c1 (t)λ|1i + c2 (t)2λ|2i = i~ċ1 (t)|1i + i~ċ2 (t)|2i
taking the innerproducts with |1i and |2i separately we obtain
c1 (t)λ = i~ċ1 (t)
c2 (t)2λ = i~ċ2 (t)
Solving for c1 (t) and c2 (t) we obtain
c1 (t) = c1 (0)e−iλt/~
c2 (t) = c2 (0)e−i2λt/~
Thus the state is
|ψ(t)i = c1 (0)e−iλt/~ |1i + c2 (0)e−i2λt/~ |2i
Coefficients c1 (0) and c2 (0) are determined by the initial condition |ψ(0)i = √1 (|1i+
2
|2i. Therefore we have
1
|ψ(t)i = √ e−iλt/~ |1i + e−i2λt/~ |2i
2
e) By employing the matrix representation , we obtain
!
0 1 √1 e−iλt/~
hψ(t)|Â|ψ(t)i = √12 eiλt/~ √12 ei2λt/~ 2
√1 e−i2λt/~
1 0 2
!
1 1 λ
= e−iλt/~ + eiλt/~ = cos t .
2 2 ~
We see that the expectation value oscillates in time between values 1 and −1 with
angular frequency λ/~.
f) The possible outcomes are the eigenvalues of Â, i.e. 1 and −1. The probability to
obtain 1 at time t is
P (a = 1) = |ha1 |ψ(t)i|2
1 1 2
= ha1 | e−iλt/~ |1i + e−2iλt/~ |2i
2 2
1
−iλt/~ 1 −i2λt/~ 2
= e + e
2 2
1 1
= + e−iλt/~ + eiλt/~
2 4
1 λ
= 1 + cos t
2 ~
λ
= cos2 t .
2~
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The probability to obtain −1 at time t is then
λ
P (a = −1) = 1 − P (a = 1) = sin2 t .
2~