1.

0 Introduction

Geotechnical engineering is a discipline of civil engineering that deals with

soil, rock and ground water and their relation to design, construction and operation of
engineering projects. It also goes by the name of soil engineering, ground engineering
or geotechnics. The subject is closely related to engineering geology which deals with
the nature and formation of natural materials existing on or below the earth.

Most civil engineering structures are supported on or built in the ground, and
thus require major application of geotechnical engineering in their design and
construction. Soil conditions need to be known in advance in order to adequately
support structures during their life time so that no disaster occurs during their life
time.

Many disasters are related to geotechnical failure. Both for risk management
and for future research it is important to know what new knowledge is needed to
prevent these disasters. A defective construction that causes failure may be due to
numerous reasons that may not be easy to predict before or during the construction.
The major causes of structural failure are defective designs that have not determined
the actual loading conditions on the structural elements. Inferior construction
materials may also be the cause since the loads are calculated for materials of specific
characteristics.

Structure may fail even if the design is satisfactory, but the materials are not
able to withstand the loads. Employment of unskilled labour on construction work is
another reason for structural failures. Therefore, it is important that the owners,
designers, and builders are fully conscious of the reasons of failure, and undertake all
preventive measures.

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2.0 Background Of Disaster

A captive Power Station with a 1200 MW (Megawatt) at the Bharat

Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO) in the industrial town of Korba in
Chhattisgarh, India was under construction. One chimney was already constructed and
another one was about to be constructed next to it. On the morning of 23 December
2009, the chimney construction work was going as usual and had reached a height of
around 225 metres. On that day it was extremely hot and there was strong sunlight
throughout the day, however when there was heavy downpour, accompanied by
thunder and lightning but suddenly the chimney crashed to the ground and with a loud
sound the under-construction chimney broke into pieces and crashed to the ground.
The chimney did not fall towards left or right but came vertically crashing down.
Around 300 labourers were working when the chimney collapsed, killing 41 people.
A rescue attempt was initiated following the collapse. Ongoing rain obstructed efforts
to retrieve the trapped workers. Although natural causes might be the factors but an
investigation was done in order to identify the failure.

Figure 1 : Chimney II collapsed

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3.0 Identification Of Failure Mechanism

3.1 Foundation.

National Institute of Technology (NIT) team had done soil investigations and
excavated the pile and the pile caps and checked the levels of the foundation. National
Institute of Technology (NIT) team inspected the rubble, steel girders, debris of the
collapsed chimney and also inspected the already constructed chimney II which stands
nearby

Based on the investigations the existing Chimney II has a raft foundation

while the collapsed Chimney I which was under- construction had been built on pile
foundation. Raft foundation is always strong. But pile foundation is made strong only
by adhering strictly to the design requirements which in this case requirements was
not followed. No engineering reason is provided for constructing the two chimneys
with different types of foundation.

The chimney was planned where it was required that the pile foundation must
have been 44.1 metres depth, or one and half times the chimney diameter of 25
metres. However, examination of the pile foundation by the expert NIT Team found
that 19 completed holes showed that the maximum depth of piles did not exceed 21.4
metres which was much less than 44.1 metres required under Indian Standard
provisions. The pore records of the piles indicated that the minimum depths of piles
were 19.0 metres and maximum was 22.6 metres. Hence, the soil excavation was not
done to the recommended depth and was therefore in clear violation and severely
compromised the strength of the foundation.

3.2 Stabilization Of Holes

Bureau Veritas India Limited’s Safety Investigation Report Expressed

Concern That The Time Between The Digging And Refilling Of Pile No.157 Was 38
Hours And That Stabilization Of The Sides Of The Hole With Bentonite Was Not
Carried Out. Due To Which The Side Soil Entered The Pile Hole And Reduced Its
Depth By About 800 Mm. The Chimney Contractor Did Not Pay Any Attention To It
And Did Not Take Any Corrective Measures

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3.3 Gap Between Pile And Pile Cap

There were gaps of up to one metre between the pile rebars (reinforced steel
bars) when these should have been completely welded joint to joint in Chimney I.
This was one of the greatest flaws adversely affecting the strength and stability of the
chimney.

Furthermore, inspection and investigation has noted that in the levelling, the
connection between pile and pile cap was not correct and that there were gaps of up to
500 mm in the level and this is a blunder in the construction procedure as there is a
gap of 300mm. between the piles and piles caps and the pile caps are not connected to
each other as required. It is the existence of many such piles that became the main
reason for the collapse of the Chimney down to the foundation.

3.4 Chimney Shell

The collapsed Chimney I rested on pile foundations, while all the other tall
Chimneys were built on raft foundations. Making a similar comparison, the shell of
the collapsed chimney at Korba was also the thinnest of all.

Hence, the lack of welding of the rebars (reinforced steel bars) to the required
length, poor quality of cement, lack of appropriate results in the slam test of the
concrete, deliberate absence of use of a vibrator in setting the concrete leading to a
20% reduction in strength of the concrete. In addition, in the construction of the
chimney shell where a vibrator was not used to improve honey-combing and no
attention was paid to improving the different depths.

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3.5 Inadequate Curing Time

In construction, concrete curing requires a certain amount of time. But no

attention was paid to the process of concrete curing. Curing protects the concrete
surfaces from sun and wind where the presence of water is essential to cause the
chemical action which accompanies the setting of concrete. Normally, there is an
adequate quantity of water at the time of mixing to cause the hardening of concrete.
However, it is necessary to retain water until the concrete has fully hardened.

The strength of concrete gradually increases with age, if curing is efficient.

This increase in strength is sudden and rapid in early stages and it continues slowly
for an indefinite period. By proper curing, the durability and impermeability of
concrete are increased and shrinkage is reduced. Thus, the resistance of concrete to
abrasion is considerably increased by proper curing.

3.6 Major Disadvantages Of Improper Curing Of Concrete

 The chances of ingress of chlorides and atmospheric chemicals are very high.
 The compressive and flexural strengths are lowered.
 The cracks are formed due to plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and thermal
effects.
 The durability decreases due to higher permeability.
 The frost and weathering resistances are decreased.
 The rate of carbonation increases.
 The surfaces are coated with sand and dust and it leads to lower the abrasion
resistance.

3.7 Construction Material In The Extreme Heat

During the extreme hot seasonal temperature of 40C, no precautions were taken
during construction activity. No attempt at all was made to cool the construction
material in the extreme heat or to follow the requirements of I.S. Code 7861 Part-
I, 1975.Effects of hot weather on concrete, in the absence of special precautions,
may be briefly described as follows:

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 Accelerated Setting
High temperature increases the rate or setting of the concrete. The duration of
time during which the concrete can be handled is reduced. Quick stiffening
may necessitate undesirable re-tempering by addition of water. It may also
result in cold joints.

 Reduction in Strength
High temperature results in the increase the quantity of mixing water to
maintain the workability with consequent reduction in strength.

 Increased Tendencies to Crack

Either before or after hardening plastic shrinkage cracks may form in the
partially hardened concrete due to rapid evaporation of water. Cracks may be
developed in hardened concrete either by increased drying shrinkage resulting
from greater mixing water used or by cooling of the concrete from its elevated
initial temperature.

 Rapid Evaporation of Water during Curing Period

It is difficult to retain moisture for hydration and maintain reasonably uniform
temperature conditions during the curing period.

 Difficulty in Control of Air Content Air-Entrained Concrete

It is more difficult to control air content in air-entrained concrete. This adds to
the difficulty of controlling workability. For a given amount of air-entraining
agent, hot concrete will entrain less air than concrete at normal temperatures.

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3.8 The Use Of Sub-Standard Construction Material

The mix of Ordinary Portland Cement was adversely impaired and was
instructed to use a different cement batching plant. In addition, clear instructions
regarding compressing of the cement was also given, but was ignored, on account of
which the strength of the concrete was severely compromised. Due to which the
concretization work and construction work was adversely affected, thereby severely
compromising the strength of the Chimney I.

Thus, the ingredients and quality was not as per the requirements of concrete
design. According to the NIT’s report, the construction was characterized by weak,
substandard, construction materials, defective construction procedures, poor quality
storage of materials, and lack of quality control along with poor construction
supervision and management.

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4.0 Effect of soil properties to soil failure

4.1 Soil Fertility Parameters of The Soils Sample Under Study

Based on Assessment of Soil Sample by Analysing Chemical Properties of Soil in Korba

District of Chhattisgarh, India by Research Journal of Chemical and Environmental
Sciences, the soil properties can be classify by value of Soil reaction (pH), Electrical
Conductivity (EC dSm-1), Organic carbon (OC %) and Available macronutrients status of
soils.

E David Tirkey, T Thomas, August 2017,Assessment of Soil Sample by Analysising

Chemical Properties of Soil in Korba District of Chhattisgarh, India. Res. J. Chem.
Env. Sci. Vol 5 [4][T1],76-8, 2321-1040

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4.2 Interpretation of Soil Properties

E David Tirkey, T Thomas, August 2017,Assessment of Soil Sample by Analysising

Chemical Properties of Soil in Korba District of Chhattisgarh, India. Res. J. Chem.
Env. Sci. Vol 5 [4][T2],76-8, 2321-1040

4.3 Permissible Limit Of The Chemical Properties

E David Tirkey, T Thomas, August 2017,Assessment of Soil Sample by Analysising

Chemical Properties of Soil in Korba District of Chhattisgarh, India. Res. J. Chem.
Env. Sci. Vol 5 [4][T3],76-8, 2321-1040

The conclusion from the results under study of chemical parameters of soil
samples in different villages of Korba district of Chhattisgarh was characterized under
moderately acidic to moderately alkaline in reaction and salt free in electrical
conductivity. The organic carbon level exhibited under medium range. The soil
samples of that area showed low to medium level in available N, very low to low
status of P content and medium to high level of K status. Therefore, attention and
regular monitoring required for the soil to yield high crop production.

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4.4 External Factors Analysis

4.4.1 Analysis of Thunder Stroke Factors

Indian IPLN Company provided thunder & lightning records information

[20091021 Lightning Report IPLN] on the date of September 23rd. This data
showed to analyse the environmental condition of the incident.

Sheet 1: Provided thunder & lightning records sheet

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 The lightning report provided by IPLN Company showed that there were nine
times of thunder strokes within 6km around #2 chimney when the accident
occurred, and the occurring time of the lightning record conformed to the
collapse time of chimney; although there was slight difference between the
coordinate of measured thunder stroke and the coordinate of #2 chimney
(22°23′50″ north latitude and 82°44′23″ east longitude), in view of the
working principle and inherent error of lightning locator, it could be confirmed
that chimney collapsed accident conformed to thunder stroke record
information.

Sheet 2: Lightning records showed on Google Map

4.4.2 Local Weather Conditions (Wind and Rainfall) When Accident Occurred

Due to equipment failure, the meteorological station did not preserve weather
information on September 23rd. According to witnessed testimony, when the
accident occurred that day, there was furious storm with strong thunder and
lightning at construction site at that time “fierce wind” at site, difficult for
persons to advance and even the office doors could not be closed”, “the wind
was too strong, although #2 turbine hall roof had already been enclosed there’s
no place to shelter from wind & rain”, “fierce wind, lightning flashes and

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 thunder rumbles and rainstorm pouring”, “accompanied strong lightning from
the sky to the ground and the situation was quite shocking”, “the strong wind
made the windows sound heavily and I had never experienced so strong
wind”. Generally speaking, wind velocity of gust is 50% or even stronger than
average wind velocity. The stronger the average wind velocity is, the rougher
the ground surface is, and the wind velocity of gust is more percentage than
average wind velocity.

4.5 Estimation of Shear Wave Velocity from Soil Indices

Based on Indian Geotechnical Journal by Ch. Subba Rao published on September

2013, Volume 43, Issue 3, pp 267–273 , type of soil in Korba, Chattisgarh are fine
sand and clay. Information on shear wave velocities (Vs) of soil deposits is required
for solution of design earthquake motions, soil-structure interaction and wave
amplification. Cross-hole logging technique gives reliable measure of in situ shear
wave velocity. However, this test is expensive, requiring two closely spaced
boreholes, special recording equipment and skill in identifying shear wave arrivals
on a seismic record.

Many empirical relations were proposed connecting Vs and soil indices.

Most of these equations are based on the relation between Vs and N-value.
Empirical relations for estimating the low-strain Vs using different combinations of
soil indices such as N-value, depth, geological age and soil type are available. Of
these, the relationship connecting Vs and all soil indices having highest correlation
coefficient of 0.86 was tested for six sites with varied soil types. At these sites, in
situ shear wave velocities using cross-hole technique have also been measured and
SPT conducted. A modified relationship is proposed to predict Vs from soil indices
and is found to give better estimates of shear wave velocity.

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 Figure 2 : Relationship between Vs and N

It is seen from the figure that the velocities estimates are generally lower than those
obtained in situ. It is also observed from these relations that the shear wave velocity
depends more on ‘N’ value. Therefore, to have better matching between the
estimated and measured in situ velocities

It is seen from the figure that the modified empirical equation estimates Vs closer to
those measured in situ by cross-hole seismic test.

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 Shear wave velocities of soil deposits for small shear strain levels in the
range of 10−5 to 10−4percent are required for response analysis of soil deposits
during an earthquake. The dynamic shear moduli of soil deposits generally are
measured in situ by seismic exploration and sometimes by the dynamic triaxial
compression test or the resonant column test of undisturbed samples in the
laboratory. Of the available seismic techniques, cross-hole technique gives better
results but is expensive, time consuming and requires experienced geophysicists to
get the correct data.

On the other hand, standard penetration test is a simple and rapid means of
soil exploration. Many empirical relations connecting Vs and soil indices are
available. These were tested for predicting shear wave velocities at six sites in India
where Vs from cross-hole test were measured. Substantial differences were
observed between measured and estimated data sets. Of the relations tested, one
particular relation with four soil indices was modified to predict Vs closer to the
measured Vs. The moderate value of R 2, and the need to use different weightage
factors for various soil types for estimating shear velocities are the limitations of the
newly proposed equation. The modified empirical relation has been tested at the six
sites and is found to be better suited for Indian sites. It is always preferable to carry
out field measurements using cross-hole technique at least at a location whenever
Vs is needed. Then it is better to establish a site specific correlation between soil
indices and the shear wave velocities to be used for the whole site

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7.0 Discussion

6.0 Recommendation

To help tragedy like this does not happen again, the recommendations are proposed
are before signing any Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with a local or foreign
private organization, the government must make special mention of some Rules and Laws
and before permitting the construction of any major structure by any private party. It is
must make it mandatory to seek approval for the design from a national institution, so that
such tragedy does not happen again.

An agency should be established and is made up of specialists and experts from

different experts of construction and they must think specific and clear provisions
regarding implementation of quality and safety in construction work. The provisions to be
made that any permission or approval for construction to be given under the Municipal
Corporation Act or Town & Country Planning be given only after the approval by the
mentioned agency.

Furthermore, there must be provision that, to ensure the quality of the construction
work, at the interval of every 15 days, the constituted agency must conduct inspection of
the construction work for its quality and also ensure that and check whether the
construction work is carried out according to the approved drawings and design.

The MOU must include the provision that the company will comply with all the
labour laws and will file weekly reports regarding the same to the Labour Department.
Furthermore, it also include the provision that the company which intends to get the work
done through a contractor and provide all the details of such contractor to the Labour
Department. The ‘Black Listed’ companies cannot be awarded the contract.

There must be extreme precaution taken in constructions involving civil engineering.

It is necessary that every precaution must be taken to ensure correct size and quality of

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construction materials such as cement, pebbles, sand, steel bars, etc. If the material is
good quality and durable, the building can be strong and stable.

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