Competency Mapping

UNIT 8 COMPETENCY MAPPING

Objectives
After completion of the unit, you should be able to:
l understand the concept of job analysis;
l explain the competency approach to job analysis;
l describe the meaning of competency mapping and various methods involved
in it; and
l appreciate the benefits of competency mapping.

Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Competency Approach to Job Analysis
8.3 Uses of Competency Approach in an Organisation
8.4 Benefits of the Competency Approach
8.5 Competency Mapping
8.6 Methods of Competency Mapping
8.7 Summary
8.8 Self Assessment Questions
8.9 Further Readings

8.1 INTRODUCTION
Job analysis refers to the process of examining a job to identify its component parts
and circumstances in which it is performed. The critical concern for you as a job
analyst should be to treat jobs as units of organisation. It acts as a tool which provides
the information base for a wide range of organisational and managerial functions. Job
analysis consists of two functions such as Job Description and Job Specification,
which are closely related to each other. Job description is a broad statement of the
purpose, duties and responsibilities of a job and job specification is a broad statement
which specifies about the job holder, i.e., his/her qualification, experience required etc.
The present unit discusses the competency approach to job analysis and the concept of
competency mapping.

8.2 COMPETENCY APPROACH TO JOB ANALYSIS

A skill is a task or activity required for competency on the job. Competency in a skill
requires knowledge, experience, attitude, and feedback. Performance assessment
criteria clearly define the acceptable level of competency for each skill required to
perform the job. The individual’s level of competency in each skill is measured against
a performance standard established by the organization. These competency skills are
grouped according to a major function of the occupation, and are presented in a two-
dimensional chart. Each skill has its own set of “learning outcomes”, which must be
mastered before a competency in the particular skill is acknowledged.

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Performance Management The competency based job analysis involves the following steps:
and Potential Assessment
a) Identification of major job functions;
b) Identification of skills performed within each of the major job functions;
c) Generation of several drafts to be reviewed by employers and employees and
modified to accurately reflect the skills performed on the job;
d) Development of an occupational analysis chart. The chart is a two-dimensional
spreadsheet chart displaying the major job functions and skills; and
e) Identification of performance standards for each skill using a competency-based
rating scale which describes various levels of performance.

8.3 USES OF COMPETENCY APPROACH IN AN

ORGANISATION
Competency approach is a foundation upon which to build a variety of human
resource development initiatives. This adaptable, flexible, and scalable tool has been
used for the following benefits to the organization:
a) provides a systematic approach to planning training
b) customizes training delivery to the individual or organization
c) evaluates suitability of training programs to promote job competence
d) provides employees with a detailed job description
e) develops job advertisements
f) helps in personnel selection
g) assists in performance appraisals
h) targets training to skills that require development
i) gives credit for prior knowledge and experience
j) focuses on performance improvement
k) promotes ongoing employee performance development
l) identifies employee readiness for promotion
m) guides career development of employees
n) develops modular training curriculum that can be clustered as needed
o) develops learning programmes

8.4 BENEFITS OF THE COMPETENCY APPROACH

There are different approaches to competency analysis.While some competency
studies take months to complete and result in vague statements that have little
relevance to people in the organization but if done well they provide the following
benefits to the organizations:
a) Increased productivity;
b) Improved work performance;
c) Training that is focused on organizational objectives;
d) Employees know up front what is expected of them;
e) Employees are empowered to become partners in their own performance
development; and
6 f) The approach builds trust between employees and managers
One of the strong points of this approach is that it requires interaction between the Competency Mapping
employer and the employee. The job analysis is a catalyst to meaningful discussion of
job performance because the employer and employee have a common understanding of
expectations. This is due to the explicit nature of the competency statements
pertaining to the job. The fact that the employee conducts a self-appraisal of
performance and the employer must confirm this assessment requires a counseling
type of interaction to take place. The growth plan requires input from the employer
and the employee for its development and follow-up.

8.5 COMPETENCY MAPPING

Competency approach to job depends on competency mapping. Competency Mapping
is a process to identify key competencies for an organization and/or a job and
incorporating those competencies throughout the various processes (i.e. job
evaluation, training, recruitment) of the organization. A competency is defined as a
behavior (i.e. communication, leadership) rather than a skill or ability.
The steps involved in competency mapping are presented below:
a) Conduct a job analysis by asking incumbents to complete a position information
questionnaire(PIQ). This can be provided for incumbents to complete, or used as
a basis for conducting one-on-one interviews using the PIQ as a guide. The
primary goal is to gather from incumbents what they feel are the key behaviors
necessary to perform their respective jobs.
b) Using the results of the job analysis, a competency based job description
is developed. It is developed after carefully analyzing the input from
the represented group of incumbents and converting it to standard
competencies.
c) With a competency based job description, mapping the competencies can be
done. The competencies of the respective job description become factors for
assessment on the performance evaluation. Using competencies will help to
perform more objective evaluations based on displayed or not displayed
behaviors.
d) Taking the competency mapping one step further, one can use the results of one’s
evaluation to identify in what competencies individuals need additional
development or training. This will help in focusing on training needs required to
achieve the goals of the position and company and help the employees develop
toward the ultimate success of the organization.

Activity A
Prepare a Position Information Questionnaire for two jobs you are familiar with and
derive the outcome.
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Performance Management
and Potential Assessment 8.6 METHODS OF COMPETENCY MAPPING
It is not easy to identify all the competencies required to fulfill the job requirements.
However, a number of methods and approaches have been developed and successfully
tried out. These methods have helped managers to a large extent, to identify and
reinforce and/or develop these competencies both for the growth of the individual and
the growth of the organization. In the following section, some major approaches of
competency mapping have been presented.

1) Assessment Centre
“Assessment Centre” is a mechanism to identify the potential for growth. It is a
procedure (not location) that uses a variety of techniques to evaluate employees for
manpower purpose and decisions. It was initiated by American Telephone and
Telegraph Company in 1960 for line personnel being considered for promotion to
supervisory positions. An essential feature of the assessment center is the use of
situational test to observe specific job behavior. Since it is with reference to a job,
elements related to the job are simulated through a variety of tests. The assessors
observe the behavior and make independent evaluation of what they have observed,
which results in identifying strengths and weaknesses of the attributes being studied.
It is, however, worth remembering that there is a large body of academic research
which suggests that the assessment centre is probably one of the most valid predictors
of performance in a job and, if correctly structured, is probably one of the fairest and
most objective means of gathering information upon which a selection decision can be
based. From the candidate’s perspective it is important to be natural and to be oneself
when faced with an assessment centre, remembering always that you can only be
assessed on what you have done and what the assessors can observe.
The International Personnel Management Association (IPMA) has identified the
following elements, essential for a process to be considered as assessment center:
a) A job analysis of relevant behavior to determine attributes skills, etc. for
effective job performance and what should be evaluated by assessment center.
b) Techniques used must be validated to assess the dimensions of skills and
abilities.
c) Multiple assessment techniques must be used.
d) Assessment techniques must include job related simulations.
e) Multiple assessors must be used for each assessed.
f) Assessors must be thoroughly trained.
g) Behavioral observations by assessors must be classified into some meaningful
and relevant categories of attributes, skills and abilities, etc.
h) Systematic procedures should be used to record observations.
i) Assessors must prepare a report.
j) All information thus generated must be integrated either by discussion or
application of statistical techniques.
Data thus generated can become extremely useful in identifying employees with
potential for growth. Following are some of the benefits of the assessment center:
a) It helps in identifying early the supervisory/ managerial potential and gives
sufficient lead time for training before the person occupies the new position.
b) It helps in identifying the training and development needs.
c) Assessors who are generally senior managers in the organization find the training
8 for assessor as a relevant experience to know their organization a little better.
d) The assessment center exercise provides an opportunity for the organization to Competency Mapping
review its HRM policies.
Assessment Centre is a complex process and requires investment in time. It should
safeguard itself from misunderstandings and deviations in its implementation. For this,
the following concerns should be ensured:
a) Assessment Centre for diagnosis is often converted as Assessment Centre for
prediction of long range potential.
b) The assessors’ judgment may reflect the perception of reality and not the reality
itself.
c) One is not sure if the benefits outweigh the cost.
Assessment Centre comprises a number of exercises or simulations which have been
designed to replicate the tasks and demands of the job. These exercises or simulations
will have been designed in such a way that candidates can undertake them both singly
and together and they will be observed by assessors while they are doing the exercises.
The main types of exercises are presented below. Most organizations use a
combination of them to assess the strengths, weaknesses and potential of employees.
a) Group Discussions: In these, candidates are brought together as a committee or
project team with one or a number of items to make a recommendation on. Candidates
may be assigned specific roles to play in the group or it may be structured in such a
way that all the candidates have the same basic information. Group discussion allows
them to exchange information and ideas and gives them the experience of working in a
team. In the work place, discussions enable management to draw on the ideas and
expertise of staff, and to acknowledge the staff as valued members of a team.
Some advantages of group discussion are:
l Ideas can be generated.
l Ideas can be shared.
l Ideas can be ‘tried out’.
l Ideas can be responded to by others.
l When the dynamics are right, groups provide a supportive and nurturing
environment for academic and professional endeavour.
l Group discussion skills have many professional applications.
l Working in groups is fun!
A useful strategy for developing an effective group discussion is to identify task and
maintenance roles that members can take up. Following roles, and the dialogue that
might accompany them in a group discussion have been identified.
1) Positive Task Roles: These roles help in reaching the goals more effectively:
l Initiator: Recommends novel ideas about the problem at hand, new ways to
approach the problem, or possible solutions not yet considered.
l Information seeker: Emphasises “getting the facts” by calling for
background information from others.
l Information giver: Provides data for forming decisions, including facts that
derive from expertise.
l Opinion seeker: Asks for more qualitative types of data, such as attitudes,
values, and feelings.
l Opinion giver: Provides opinions, values, and feelings.
l Clarifier: Gives additional information- examples, rephrasing, applications
about points being made by others.
l Summariser: Provides a secretarial function. 9
Performance Management 2) Positive Maintenance Roles : These become particularly important as the
and Potential Assessment discussion develops and opposing points of view begin to emerge:
l Social Supporter: Rewards others through agreement, warmth , and praise.
l Harmonizer: Mediates conflicts among group members.
l Tension Reliever: Informally points out the positive and negative aspects of
the group’s dynamics and calls for change, if necessary.
l Energiser: Stimulates the group to continue working when the discussion
flags.
l Compromiser: Shifts her/his own position on an issue in order to reduce
conflict in the group.
l Gatekeeper: Smoothes communication by setting up procedures and
ensuring equal participation from members.
During an effective group discussion each participant may take up a number of task
and maintenance roles to keep the discussion moving productively.
In addition, there are a number of negative roles which are often taken up in group
discussion. They should be avoided during group discussions. The discussion group
may adopt the ground rule that negative role behaviour will be censured by members
of the group. Described below are some of the negative roles to be avoided:
l Disgruntled non-participant: someone who does not contribute and whose
presence inhibits the participation of other group members.
l Attacker: someone who acts aggressively by expressing disapproval of
other members and their contributions to the discussion.
l Dominator: someone who takes control of the discussion by talking too
much, interrupting other members, or behaving in a patronising way.
l Clown: someone who ‘shows off’, refuses to take the discussion seriously,
or disrupts it with inappropriate humour.
b) In Tray: This type of exercise is normally undertaken by candidates individually.
The materials comprise a bundle of correspondence and the candidate is placed
in the role of somebody, generally, which assumed a new position or replaced
their predecessor at short notice and has been asked to deal with their
accumulated correspondence. Generally the only evidence that the assessors have
to work with is the annotations which the candidates have made on the articles of
mail. It is important when undertaking such an exercise to make sure that the
items are not just dealt with, but are clearly marked on the items any thoughts
that candidates have about them or any other actions that they would wish to
undertake.
c) Interview Simulations/Role Plays: In these exercises candidates meet
individually with a role player or resource person. Their brief is either to gather
information to form a view and make a decision, or alternatively, to engage in
discussion with the resource person to come to a resolution on an aspect or issue
of dispute. Typically, candidates will be allowed 15 -30 minutes to prepare for
such a meeting and will be given a short, general brief on the objective of the
meeting. Although the assessment is made mainly on the conduct of the meeting
itself, consideration are also be given to preparatory notes.
d) Case Studies / Analysis Exercises: In this type of exercise the candidate is
presented with the task of making a decision about a particular business case.
They are provided with a large amount of factual information which is generally
ambiguous and, in some cases, contradictory. Candidates generally work
independently on such an exercise and their recommendation or decision is
1 0 usually to be communicated in the form of a brief written report and/or a
 presentation made to the assessors. As with the other exercises it is important Competency Mapping
with this kind of exercise to ensure that their thought processes are clearly
articulated and available for the scrutiny of the assessors. Of paramount
importance, if the brief requires a decision to be made, ensure that a decision is
made and articulated.

2) Critical Incidents Technique

It is difficult to define critical incident except to say that it can contribute to the
growth and decay of a system. Perhaps one way to understand the concept would be to
examine what it does. Despite numerous variations in procedures for gathering and
analyzing critical incidents researchers and practitioners agree the critical incidents
technique can be described as a set of procedures for systematically identifying
behaviours that contribute to success or failure of individuals or organisations in
specific situations. First of all, a list of good and bad on the job behaviour is prepared
for each job. A few judges are asked to rate how good and how bad is good and bad
behaviour, respectively. Based on these ratings a check-list of good and bad behaviour
is prepared.
The next task is to train supervisors in taking notes on critical incidents or outstanding
examples of success or failure of the subordinates in meeting the job requirements.
The incidents are immediately noted down by the supervisor as he observes them. Very
often, the employee concerned is also involved in discussions with his supervisor
before the incidents are recorded, particularly when an unfavourable incident is being
recorded, thus facilitating the employee to come out with his side of the story.
The objective of immediately recording the critical incidents is to improve the
supervisor’s ability as an observer and also to reduce the common tendency to rely on
recall and hence attendant distortions in the incidents. Thus, a balance-sheet for each
employee is generated which can be used at the end of the year to see how well the
employee has performed. Besides being objective a definite advantage of this
technique is that it identifies areas where counseling may be useful.
In real world of task performance, users are perhaps in the best position to recognise
critical incidents caused by usability problems and design flaws in the user interface.
Critical incident identification is arguably the single most important kind of
information associated with task performance in usability -oriented context.
Following are the criteria for a successful use of critical incident technique:
a) Data are centred around real critical incidents that occur during a task
performance.
b) Tasks are performed by real users.
c) Users are located in their normal working environment.
d) Data are captured in normal task situations, not contrived laboratory settings.
e) Users self report their own critical incidents after they have happened.
f) No direct interaction takes place between user and evaluator during the
description of the incident(s).
g) Quality data can be captured at low cost to the user.
Critical Incidents Technique is useful for obtaining in-depth data about a particular
role or set of tasks. It is extremely useful to obtain detailed feedback on a design
option. It involves the following three steps:
Step 1:Gathering facts: The methodology usually employed through an open-ended
questionnaire, gathering retrospective data. The events should have happened fairly
recently: the longer the time period between the events and their gathering, the greater
the danger that the users may reply with imagined stereotypical responses. Interviews 1 1
Performance Management can also be used, but these must be handled with extreme care not to bias the user.
and Potential Assessment There are two kinds of approaches to gather information:
1) Unstructured approach: where the individual is asked to write down two good
things and two bad things that happened when one was carrying out an activity.
2) Moderate structured approach: where the individual is asked to respond to
following questions relating to what happened when he/she was carrying out an
activity.
1) What lead up to the situation?
2) What was done that was especially effective or non- effective?
3) What was the result( outcome)?
Step 2: Content analysis: Second step consists of identifying the contents or themes
represented by the clusters of incidents and conducting “retranslation” exercises
during which the analyst or other respondents sort the incidents into content
dimensions or categories. These steps help to identify incidents that are judged to
represent dimensions of the behaviour being considered. This can be done using a
simple spreadsheet. Every item is entered as a separate incident to start with, and then
each of the incidents is compiled into categories. Category membership is marked as
identical , quite similar and could be similar. This continues until each item is assigned
to a category on at least a “quite similar” basis.Each category is then given a name
and the number of the responses in the category are counted. These are in turn
converted into percentages (of total number of responses) and a report is formulated.
Step 3: Creating feedback: It is important to consider that both positive and negative
feedback be provided. The poor features should be arranged in order of frequency,
using the number of responses per category. Same should be done with the good
features. At this point it is necessary to go back to the software and examine the
circumstances that led up to each category of critical incident. Identify what aspect of
the interface was responsible for the incident. Sometimes one finds that there is not
one, but several aspects of an interaction that lead to a critical incident; it is their
conjunction together that makes it critical and it would be an error to focus on one
salient aspect .
Some of the advantages of critical incident technique are presented below:
a) Some of the human errors that are unconsciously committed can be traced and
rectified by these methods. For example, a case study on pilots obtained detailed
factual information about pilot error experiences in reading and interpreting
aircraft instruments from people not trained in the critical incident technique (i.e.,
eyewitness or the pilot who made the error)
b) Users with no background in software engineering or human computer
interaction, and with the barest minimum of training in critical incident
identification, can identify, report, and rate the severity level of their own critical
incidents. This result is important because successful use of the reported critical
incident method depends on the ability of typical users to recognise and report
critical incidents effectively.
Some of the disadvantages of critical incidents method are presented below:
a) It focuses on critical incidents therefore routine incidents will not be reported. It
is therefore poor as a tool for routine task analysis.
b) Respondents may still reply with stereotypes, not actual events. Using more
structure in the form improves this but not always.
c) Success of the user reported critical incident method depends on the ability of
typical end users to recognise and report critical incidents effectively, but there is
1 2 no reason to believe that all users have this ability naturally.
3) Interview Techniques Competency Mapping

Almost every organisation uses an interview in some shape or form, as part of

competency mapping. Enormous amounts of research have been conducted into
interviews and numerous books have been written on the subject. There are, however,
a few general guidelines, the observation of which should aid the use of an interview
for competency mapping.
The interview consists of interaction between interviewer and applicant. If handled
properly, it can be a powerful technique in achieving accurate information and getting
access to material otherwise unavailable. If the interview is not handled carefully, it
can be a source of bias, restricting or distorting the flow of communication.
Since the interview is one of the most commonly used personal contact methods, great
care has to be taken before, during and after the interview. Following steps are
suggested:
a) Before the actual interviews begins, the critical areas in which questions will be
asked must be identified for judging ability and skills. It is advisable to write
down these critical areas, define them with examples, and form a scale to rate
responses. If there is more than one interviewer, some practice and mock
interviews will help calibrate variations in individual interviewers’ ratings.
b) The second step is to scrutinize the information provided to identify skills,
incidents and experiences in the career of the candidate, which may answer
questions raised around the critical areas. This procedure will make interviews
less removed from reality and the applicant will be more comfortable because the
discussion will focus on his experiences.
c) An interview is a face-to-face situation. The applicant is “on guard” and careful
to present the best face possible. At the same time he is tense, nervous and
possibly frightened. Therefore, during the interview, tact and sensitivity can be
very useful. The interviewer can get a better response if he creates a sense of
ease and informality and hence uncover clues to the interviewee’s motivation,
attitudes, feelings, temperament, etc., which are otherwise difficult to
comprehend.
d) The fundamental step is establishing “rapport”, putting the interviewee at ease;
conveying the impression that the interview is a conversation between two
friends, and not a confrontation of employer and employee. One way to achieve
this is by initially asking questions not directly related to the job, that is, chatting
casually about the weather, journey and so on.
e) Once the interviewee is put at ease the interviewer starts asking questions, or
seeking information related to the job. Here again it is extremely important to
lead up to complex questions gradually. Asking a difficult, complex question in
the beginning can affect subsequent interaction, particularly if the interviewee is
not able to answer the question. Thus it is advisable for the pattern to follow the
simple-to-complex sequence.
f) Showing surprise or disapproval of speech, clothes, or answers to questions can
also inhibit the candidate. The interviewee is over-sensitive to such reactions.
Hence, an effort to try and understand the interviewee’s point of view and
orientation can go a long way in getting to know the applicant.
g) Leading questions should be avoided because they give the impression that the
interviewer is seeking certain kinds of answers. This may create a conflict in the
interviewee, if he has strong views on the subject. Nor should the interviewer
allow the interview to get out of hand. He should be alert and check the
interviewee if he tries to lead the discussion in areas where he feels extremely
competent, if it is likely to stray from relevant areas. 1 3
Performance Management h) The interviewer should be prepared with precise questions, and not take too
and Potential Assessment much time in framing them.
Once this phase is over, the interviewers should discuss the interviewee, identify areas
of agreement and disagreement, and make a tentative decision about the candidate. It
will be helpful if, in addition to rating the applicant, interviewers made short notes on
their impression of candidates’ behavior responses; which can then be discussed later.
If the interview is to continue for many days, an evaluation of the day’s work, content
of questions and general pattern of response should be made for possible mid-course
correction.
In addition, a large number of methods have been developed to measure and map
competencies. Most of them are of recent origin and are designed to identify those
skills, attitudes and knowledge that are suited most for specific jobs. Some of these
techniques are briefly presented below:

Activity B
Assume that you are conducting interview for the post of “Marketing Executive” of a
company. Describe how you will perform this job by considering the guidelines
provided in the above section.
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4) Questionnaires
Questionnaires are written lists of questions that users fill out questionnaire and
return. You begin by formulating questions about your product based on the type of
information you want to know. The questionnaire sources below provide more
information on designing effective questions. This technique can be used at any stage
of development, depending on the questions that are asked in the questionnaire. Often,
questionnaires are used after products are shipped to assess customer satisfaction with
the product. Such questionnaires often identify usability issues that should have been
caught in-house before the product was released to the market.

a) Common Metric Questionnaire (CMQ): They examine some of the competencies

to work performance and have five sections: Background, Contacts with People,
Decision Making, Physical and Mechanical Activities, and Work Setting.
The background section asks 41 general questions about work requirements such as
travel, seasonality, and license requirements. The Contacts with People section asks
62 questions targeting level of supervision, degree of internal and external contacts,
and meeting requirements. The 80 Decision Making items in the CMQ focus on
relevant occupational knowledge and skill, language and sensory requirements, and
managerial and business decision making. The Physical and Mechanical Activities
section contains 53 items about physical activities and equipment, machinery, and
tools. Work Setting contains 47 items that focus on environmental conditions and
other job characteristics. The CMQ is a relatively new instrument.

b) Functional Job Analysis: The most recent version of Functional Job Analysis uses
seven scales to describe what workers do in jobs. These are:Things, Data, People,
Worker Instructions, Reasoning, Maths, and Language.
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Each scale has several levels that are anchored with specific behavioral statements and Competency Mapping
illustrative tasks and are used to collect job information.

c) Multipurpose Occupational System Analysis Inventory (MOSAIC): In this

method each job analysis inventory collects data from the office of personnel
management system through a variety of descriptors. Two major descriptors in each
questionnaire are tasks and competencies. Tasks are rated on importance and
competencies are rated on several scales including importance and requirements for
performing the task. This is mostly used for US government jobs.

d) Occupational Analysis Inventory: It contains 617 “work elements.” designed to

yield more specific job information while still capturing work requirements for
virtually all occupations. The major categories of items are five-fold: Information
Received, Mental Activities, Work Behavior, Work Goals, and Work Context.
Respondents rate each job element on one of four rating scales: part-of-job, extent,
applicability, or a special scale designed for the element. Afterwards , the matching is
done between competencies and work requirements.

e) Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ): It is a structured job analysis instrument

to measure job characteristics and relate them to human characteristics. It consists of
195 job elements that represent in a comprehensive manner the domain of human
behavior involved in work activities. These items fall into following five categories:
a) Information input (where and how the worker gets information),
b) Mental processes (reasoning and other processes that workers use),
c) Work output (physical activities and tools used on the job),
d) Relationships with other persons, and
e) Job context (the physical and social contexts of work).

f) Work Profiling System(WPS): It is designed to help employers accomplish human

resource functions. The competency approach is designed to yield reports targeted
toward various human resource functions such as individual development planning,
employee selection, and job description. There are three versions of the WPS tied to
types of occupations: managerial, service, and technical occupations. It contains a
structured questionaire which measures ability and personality attributes.

Activity C
Prepare a questionnaire to analyse a particular job with which you are familiar with.
Refer back to the types of questionnaires discussed in the section while structuring
your questions.
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5) Psychometric Tests

Many organizations use some form of psychometric assessment as a part of their

selection process. For some people this is a prospect about which there is a natural
and understandable wariness of the unknown. 1 5
Performance Management A psychometric test is a standardized objective measure of a sample of behavior. It is
and Potential Assessment standardized because the procedure of administering the test, the environment in which
the test is taken, and the method of calculating individual scores are uniformly
applied. It is objective because a good test measures the individual differences in an
unbiased scientific method without the interference of human factors. Most of these
tests are time bound and have a correct answer. A person’s score is calculated on the
basis of correct answers. Most tests could be classified in two broad categories:
a) Aptitude Tests: They refer to the potentiality that a person has to profit from
training. It predicts how well a person would be able to perform after training and not
what he has done in the past. They are developed to identify individuals with special
inclinations in given abilities. Hence they cover more concrete, clearly defined or
practical abilities like mechanical aptitude, clinical aptitude and artistic aptitude etc.
b) Achievement Tests: These tests measure the level of proficiency that a person has
been able to achieve. They measure what a person has done. Most of these tests
measure such things as language usage, arithmetic computation and reasoning etc.

8.7 SUMMARY
An effective manager is one who is able to assign jobs to the correct personnel, which
requires perfect job analysis. Job analysis is also useful to make decisions relating to
organisational planning and design, recruitment and selection of personnel, their
training, appraisal and development and other managerial functions. For all these to
happen smoothly there is a requirement of competency approach to job analysis.

8.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Discuss the concept of “Competency Mapping”.
2) Describe the roles that are necessary in group discussion citing suitable
examples.
3) Write short notes on:
a) Assessment Centre
b) Psychometric Tests
c) Interview Techniques

8.9 FURTHER READINGS

Flippo, E.B.(1994) Principles of Personnel Management. New Delhi : Tata McGraw
Hill.
Saiyadain, M.S.(2003) Human Resources Management .New Delhi : Tata McGraw
Hill.
Saiyadain, M.S.(2003) Organisational Behaviour .New Delhi : Tata McGraw Hill.
Sanghi, S.(2004) The Handbook of Competency Mapping. New Delhi: Sage
Publications.

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