Desk Fan Engineering Materials Report

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CELSIUS DESK FAN

Engineering Products – Home Appliance
Engineering Report
11EGG1
Jessica Nguyen
Mr. B.Monger
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ 3
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Exploded view of desk fan .............................................................................................................. 5
Identifying materials ....................................................................................................................... 6
Steel ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Aluminium ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Synthetic Rubber ............................................................................................................................ 8
Polypropylene Terephthalate (PET)................................................................................................. 9
Copper ......................................................................................................................................... 10
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)................................................................................................................ 11
Evidence and Method Used to identify materials .......................................................................12

Production Method Of Component & Reason Of Use ................................................................14
(BOS) Basic Oxygen Steelmaking, Cold Drawing, Bending, Welding & surface Treatment .............. 14
Cold Heading & Thread Rolling ..................................................................................................... 16
Bayer process, Hall-Heroult Process Casting Rolling, & Powder Injection Moulding ....................... 18
Concentrating, Smelting, Refining, Casting and Drawing .............................................................. 20
Addition Polymerisation & Extrusion ............................................................................................ 23
Emulsion Polymerisation, vulcanisation & Compression Molding .................................................. 25
Condensation Polymerisation and injection moulding ................................................................... 27
Alternative Materials For Components ........................................................................................28

Fiber Reinforced Plastics............................................................................................................... 28
Magnesium Alloy ......................................................................................................................... 28
Silicone Rubber............................................................................................................................. 29
Polylactic Acid (PLA) ..................................................................................................................... 29
Aluminum .................................................................................................................................... 30
Polysulfone (PSU) ......................................................................................................................... 30
Social & Environmental Implications Of Material And Production Method ..............................31

Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................35
Works Cited ...................................................................................................................................36
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ABSTRACT
The purpose of writing this report was to allow students to learn to identify materials, and explain the relationship
between properties, structures, uses and application of materials in engineering. A desk fan was dismantled for the report
to explore the purpose of the report. The report has been split into 6 key sections an exploded view, identifying materials,
evidence and method used to identify materials, production methods & reason of use, alternative materials, and the social
and environmental implications of material and production methods.
Exploded view
The exploded view, is a graphical display of all the components in the desk fan each component was listed/labelled within
the image. The components that were identified in the exploded view includes, screws and bolts, fan guard, fan blade,
motor mounts, rotor, stator, spade connectors, back wire guard, switch, rubber bumpers, leg stand, and a 3-pinned plug.
Identifying materials
Each component’s material was identified from the components; each material was correctly identified, these materials
includes steel, aluminum, synthetic rubber, polypropylene terephthalate, copper, and polyvinyl chloride; its properties and
characteristics including mechanical, chemical, physical and thermal are mentioned within this section along with a
justification to why each material is used for each component. The reasons for identification is also mentioned.
Evidence and Method Used to identify materials
The methods in which the materials where identified from are mentioned within this section, there is also photographic
evidence of how material identification was obtained. The metals such as steel, aluminum and copper where identified
using a magnetic test and a filing surface test, a table of the filing surface test was shown. The plastics PVC, PET, and
synthetic rubber were identified through a flow chart of methods, from burning and/or floating.
Production Method of Component & Reason of Use
The components’ production methods were explored in this section, as well as a statement to why the production method
was used; the production methods start from the extracting/obtaining of the virgin material to the final end product.
Components; Back and front fan guards, and leg stand was produced through, (BOS) Basic Oxygen Steelmaking, Cold
Drawing, Bending, Welding & surface Treatment; the screw and bolt also start from BOS, but only cold drawing and thread
rolling are mentioned as all these components use steel. The Fan blade and motor mounts production methods included
Bayer process, Hall-Heroult Process Casting Rolling, & Powder Injection Moulding. Concentrating, Smelting, Refining,
Casting and Drawing were production methods used for copper wires; Addition Polymerisation & Extrusion was used to
produce the wire insulators; Emulsion Polymerisation, Vulcanisation & Compression Moulding was used to produce the
rubber bumpers and Condensation Polymerisation and injection moulding was used to make the switch.
Alternative materials
Alternative materials were discussed within this section, mentioning their properties as well as some reasons for and
against the alternative material. Fibre reinforced plastic was an alternative for steel, magnesium alloy was an alternative
for aluminium, silicone rubber was an alternative for synthetic rubber, polylactic acid was an alternative for PET,
aluminium was an alternative to copper and polysulfone was an alternative to PVC.
Social and Environmental implications
Social and environmental implications of the components’ materials and production methods were mentioned in this
section. Most of the materials were recyclable, it only depended on the level of difficultly and energy consumption of
recycling the material. Most production methods emitted a lot of greenhouse gases as well as toxic chemicals for the
environment, and on human health. How we use the material in society is also mentioned as a social implication.
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INTRODUCTION
The engineering report required students to identify components from an ‘everyday house
appliance’ of their choice. Students were then to dismantle the appliance and identify and
label each component within the appliance. The components will then be displayed as an
exploded view, presenting all the components they have found within their chosen
appliance. Students were also required to investigate the materials identified used as well as
demonstrating how they identified the materials. In addition to this, students will then have to
further investigate the production, characteristics, features, environmental and social
implications of each component and alternative materials.
The purpose of the ‘Engineering report' is to allow students to learn to identify materials, and
explain the relationship between properties, structures, uses and application of materials in
engineering.
For my report I have taken apart a desk fan.

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EXPLODED VIEW OF DESK FAN
Front cover/wire guard
All components are labelled below :

Fan blade
Motor Mount
Screws
Tamper-
Switch
proof
Rotor screw
and bolt
Stator
Spade Connectors
Back cover/ wire guard
Rubber bumpers
3 pined - plug
Leg Stand
Rubber Bumper for

stand
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IDENTIFYING MATERIALS
The identification and classification of component's materials are shown below, each material identified will be
defined with specific characteristics and features which includes mechanical, chemical, physical and thermal
properties. A description of how the material was tested and identified will be included as well as a justification to
why the material was used for the components will be included.
STEEL
Identification and classification of component’s materials

Components where steel was present and identified: Back and front fan guards, leg stand, bolts and screws including
the tamper proof screws, the rotor and the body of the stator.
There are a variety of steel types, most steels are primarily made from two alloys iron (Fe) and carbon (C) in a two-
step process; adding more carbon to steel will make it harder and stronger (Burnett, 2014). The variety of steel types
comes from the addition of other alloying elements such as chromium (Cr) (generally containing 10-20% of
chromium as a main alloying element), nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo). The addition of other alloying elements
allow steel to have various mechanical benefits such as strength that ranges from 350MPa-420MPa, hardness (121
Brinell), toughness and corrosion resistance; due to its tensile strength and durability steel is a ferrous metal. An
advantage that comes from steel is its ability to be recycled effectively without its physical property being destroyed.
Because of the various characteristics of steel, is used commonly in everyday applications (e.g. utensils, medical
instruments etc.), making it an ideal material.
The main feature that determined the classification of the material was its magnetism; most ferrous metals are
magnetic due to the presence of iron. So, a simple magnetic test allowed the material to be determined as steel, it
presented a strong magnetic pull suggesting the high presence of iron. Another way that this material can be
identified is through the spark test, it is useful for when ferrous metals are being identified; by using a grinding wheel
sparks will appear as small metal particles are being torn off quickly creating ‘sparks'. Spark length, colour, activity
and shape will relate to characteristics of the material; steel would give off white/yellow sparks and depending on
the carbon content the spark length will vary. When filing the surface, the material was a bright silvery grey colour.
Justification to why the material is used in the construction of identified components

Back & Front Fan Guards + Leg stand: The purpose of the back and front is to form a protective physical barrier
around the spinning blades, as it can easily injure people when accidentally contacted with, the blade will easily slice
into objects (even body parts) (IEEE GlobalSpec, 2018). It also forms a frame/body for the electronic components to
go inside, whilst the stand allows the fan itself to stand upright, and at a preferred angle when in use. Steel has been
used to make these components due to its durability, tensile strength and hardness. Steel can be easily fabricated into
the desired shape of the manufacturers for when creating the fan guards, and leg stand as it is a ductile material it can
also be easily welded together to form bars on the guards. Steel has excellent tensile strength ranging from 350-
420MPa and hardness 121 Brinell, the material has been used for the listed components to prevent damage to the
protective barrier, whilst also providing the fan with more hardiness. The material is also corrosion resistance, which
prevents the components from oxidization.
Bolts & Screws: Bolts and Screws are used to ‘fasten’ materials together, so it is important that the material used for
these ‘fasteners’ is strong, corrosion resistant and not brittle. This is why steel and its alloys are used in the
production of bolts and screws, steel is usually galvanized or plated unless it’s alloyed with chromium to resist
oxidization. Its strength will keep the screws tight together, so that other components won’t fall apart without the
fasteners.
Rotor & stator body: The rotor and the stator is what allows the blade to spin, it works as the two components
consists of a group of individual electro-magnets; Rotation will occur as the polarity of the stator is progressively
changing, combining their magnetic fields causing it to rotate (Galco Industrial Electronics, 2018). The magnetism of
steel as it is a ferrous metal strengthens the magnetic field as energy is lost through heat because of the constant
change of poles (Thyssenkrupp, 2018).
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ALUMINIUM

Components where aluminum was present and identified include Fan Blade, motor mounts.
Aluminum (Al) is a chemical element and it is one of the world’s most abundant metal. Aluminum can be added with
other alloying elements to enhance its properties, especially when increasing the strength (Normally 310 MPa)
(Aluminum Association, 2018); Pure Aluminum (itself) already has a combination of unique properties allowing it to
be an extremely versatile and economical material (Davis, 2001). Aluminum is soft and ductile nonferrous metal with
a hardness of only 15 Vickers allowing it to be fabricated into any form or shape, it is not limited to different profiles
allowing it to be used in many different application; its density is only 2.7 g/cm3 making the material extremely
lightweight, this aspect of the aluminium is what give it, its weight to strength value (Davis, 2001). Like most non-
ferrous metals aluminium is able to resist oxidisation (corrosion), as is very reactive; so, the exposed surface of
aluminium reacts with oxygen to form a protective barrier that blocks further oxidisation (Aluminium Norf GmbH,
2018). Aluminium also displays good electrical resistivity (0.00000270 ohm-cm) and thermal conductivity of
210W/m-K which is only second to copper this is especially beneficial for electronics (Davis, 2001).
The material was identified through the magnetic test since it's a non-ferrous metal it was non-magnetic combined
with its lightweightedness the material was assumed to be aluminium. When filing the surface of the material
Justification to why the material is used in the construction

Fan Blade: The fan blade is what spins around to circulate the air and cools you down. Aluminum is used as it is a
durable material, which is resistant to corrosion and light weight. Aluminum can resist oxidization by forming a
protective barrier block further oxidization to the metal, this means that this material can last for many years and can
be easily cleaned. The lightweightedness of aluminum may use less power from the stator as it is not a heavy material
that will cause resistant as the blade moves, less heat will be created if the stator is not working too hard.
Motor Mounts: The motor mounts are placed at the back and front of the stator secure everything (rotor & fan blade)
together. The mounts are produced with aluminum through powder metal injection moulding within this process the
oxide layer that protects aluminum from rusting is increased as smaller particles of metal react with oxygen before it
is binded allowing the aluminum to have even better protection from further oxidization. This process also enables
the mounts to do become stronger in the process as the grains of the metal are following the same line. The motor
mounts are extremely durable when made from aluminum, absorbing the vibrations created by the stator without
loosening whilst not taking up more weight in the fan.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER

Components where synthetic was present and identified: rubber bumpers and rubber bumper for the stand.
Synthetic rubber is a made rubber that is produced by synthesizing plants with petroleum and another minerals
making it an artificial polymer (or Elastomer). It is a thermoset polymer that melts at 160-200 degrees Celsius and
hardens when cooled; it irreversibly cues (Innovate us, 2013). They are typically used for seals, wires and cable
insulators, and hoses, as they have outstanding resistance to weathering and chemicals (Precision Polymer
Engineering, 2018). Synthetic rubbers usually offer excellent thermal resistance as it can be used at temperatures up
to 150-175 degrees Celsius (Precision Polymer Engineering, 2018) which is why they can be used as an insulator, it
also has good elasticity, being able to be deformed only when a force is applied. The material's elasticity makes it a
good shock absorber; synthetic rubber will gain most of its strength after vulcanization (crosslinking) (James Walker,
2017). Synthetic rubber has a density of only 1.2g/cm3 which is quite lightweight.
The main features that helped determine this material was its inability to reshape or deform when heating the
material up with a lighter, the material burned but kept its shape.

Rubber bumpers: The rubber bumpers where placed on the stand and on the connecting sides of the stand, they are
positioned so to protect and prevent surface to surface contact with the metal (Steel). The material’s elasticity which
makes it shock absorbent and durability is why it’s used for rubber bumpers. It can absorb some of the vibration
created by the stator as the rotates rapidly.
POLYPROPYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

Components where polypropylene terephthalate (PET) was present and identified include: Switch
Polypropylene terephthalate is a thermoplastic polyester, meaning it can become pliable and moldable at a certain
temperature and can be returned to a solid state; its melting points us roughly 260 degrees Celsius. Its
thermosoftening abilities allow the material to be easily extruded or molded into any shape. Polypropylene
terephthalate is a strong and lightweight plastic that is mainly used in packaging foods and beverages, in textiles, and
as well as in some electronic parts (PETRA, 2015). It is produced by synthesizing ethylene glycil and terephthalic
acid, creating a semi-crystalline plastic that has a highly ordered molecular structure with sharp melting points (RTP
co. , 1995) and it gives the material the ability to be water resistant. It has a high strength to weight ratio with a
tensile strength of 20-110 MPa and density only being 1.38g/cm3 allowing it to be shatterproof, recyclable, strong
and flexible; PET has a low thermal conductivity of only 0.15-0.24 W/m-K which is useful in electrical applications
(Creative Mechanisms , 2017).
The main feature that allowed this material to be identified was its ability to be shaped and hardened after being
heated with a flame. The flame test also showed the plastic material bubbling as it was being burnt. A sink or float test
also determined the identified material as Polypropylene terephthalate sinks; the material sunk instantly when
placed in water.

Switch: The Switch is what turns the circuit of the fan on and off allowing the fan to work, polypropylene
terephthalate is used to make the switch as it is lightweight, durable, recyclable and has poor thermal conductivity.
PET is lightweight giving the switch an overall weight reduction, like other plastics PET will not corrode when
exposed to oxygen, allowing the switch to exposed without additions of other chemicals. As PET is a thermoplastic it
is able to be recycled over and over again once at the end of its lifetime. Poor thermal conductivity of PET is
important especially as the switch needs to be turned on and off by a person, it reduces our contact with heat created
by the circuit.

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COPPER

Components where copper was present and identified: Stator and inside the 3-pinned plug and spade connector.
Copper (Cu) is a non-ferrous metal element that is well known due to its excellent electrical conductivity which is
only second to silver, the element’s main uses are based on this property. Copper itself is very soft, ductile and
malleable with a hardness of only 37 Rockwell, this comes from its low number of electrons on the outer shell
(Klazema, 2014), this also enables copper to easily form alloys such as brass, which is a combination of copper and
zinc; The physical properties are what makes copper one of the most popular metal in wire production (Klazema,
2014). The melting point of pure copper is 1083 degrees Celsius which allows it to have high thermal conductivity
(385 W/m-K) it can transfer heat at a higher rate than some metals. Like most non-ferrous metals, copper oxides
when exposed to air, which forms a protective layer, preventing the material from further oxidizing. It has a low
electrical resistivity 0.00000170 ohm-cm which means it has better electrical conductivity, allowing the material to
transfer electricity with ease.
The main feature that helped determine the material was its distinctive physical appearance of a yellowish red
colour, drawn out into thin wires. The material was also put through a flame test, copper burns green, when lighting
the copper wires, the flame indeed turned green.

3 pinned plug & spade connectors: The plug is used to connect the fan to a power source whilst the spade connectors
connects the stator with the switch. Copper is used due to its low electrical resistivity 0.00000170 ohm-cm making it
an excellent conductor of electricity, this enables electric currents to travel fast (Electrical Services Group, 2016).
Sator: The stator is what rotates the fan blades; the body of the stator and the rotor provides the stator with
permanent magnets the coils of copper wire present provide the magnetic field to allow the blade to rotate. Again,
copper is used due to its low electrical resistivity and excellent electrical conductivity, currents can flow much more
easily in copper therefore making it easier to transfer/make energy.

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POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

Components where polyvinyl chloride was present and identified: Material was used as the insulator for components
such as the plug, and spade connector.
Polyvinyl chloride is a commonly used thermoplastic, it is used in a variety of different applications especially in
construction. It is made from the polymerization of ethylene and chlorine forming, vinyl chloride monomers which
combines in long chains of polyvinyl chloride (Bitesize Science, 2014); a plasticizer is usually added to make the
material softer and flexible, the components where PVC was present were all flexible and soft as they acted as
insulators. Polyvinyl Chloride's thermosetting abilities allow it to be shaped, formed, and harden repeatedly without
significant degradation, it is an extremely durable material (Creative Mechanisms, 2016), PVC will melt at around
100-260 degrees Celsius. Rigid PVC will have a tensile strength of 34-62 MPa which is an extremely good tensile
strength, beneficial in construction, whilst flexible PVC will only have a 6.9-25 MPa (Material Property Data, 2018).
PVC has a density of 1.38g/cm3, which makes it a light weight material, so ridged PVCs have a high strength to weight
value. Flexible PVC has a high electrical resistivity making it an extremely good electrical insulator with a resistance
of 10hi ohm-cm (Sevenster, 2016)
One of the main features that allowed this material to be identified was its flexibility, and the manufacturer has
stamped the type of material on to the material. The material was also put through a flame test which showed the tip
in contact with the flame turns a greenish colour when lit and it did not drip.

Wire Insulators for plug and spade connectors: Wire insulators are used to cover and protect you from electrical
shock, stopping current flow from escaping. Polyvinyl chloride has high electrical resistivity of 10hi ohm-cm ,
stopping any electrical current from transferring elsewhere as well as absorbing the heat energy created by the
current. PVC’s flexibility is also why it has been used for these components, this ability allows it to be manipulated
and placed on curves or bends (essentially anywhere) (Leonardo Energy, 2016).
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EVIDENCE AND METHOD USED TO IDENTIFY MATERIALS
The main features and the means of how the material was identified was explained in the
‘Identification and classification of component’s materials’; in this section of the report the
evidence (photographs) of the method will be shown as well as the methodology of
identifying metals and plastics.
Magnetic test & Filing surface test
(Fig 1.1 shows the metal surface colour identifier (WcWelding, 2018))
Steel was identified using a simple magnetic test, it presented with a strong magnetic pull, when filing
off the surface the colour was bright and silvery suggesting it was some type of steel.
Aluminum was identified as there was no magnetism, when the surface was scratched it gave a faint
white scratched colour.
Copper was also nonmagnetic, and the colour of the surface was a yellowish red; an extra flame test
was used to confirm that the material was copper, as copper burns green.
Steel Copper
Aluminum
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Sink/Float test & Burn Test
(Fig 1.2 Shows a plastic identification flow chart (Ramirez, 2011)
PVC did not soften when it was burnt meaning it was thermosetting, and there was a greenish flame at
the tip when lit. It was very easily identified as the type of material was also printed onto the wire insula-
tor.
PET was able to be moulded and shaped after it burnt as it is thermoplastic, during the sink or float test
PET sunk.
Synthetic rubber gave off a burnt smell but it was self-extinguishing and It kept it shape before and after
being burnt.
PVC PET (burnt and had sunken when in water)
Synthetic rubber after burn

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PRODUCTION METHOD OF COMPONENT & REASON OF USE
This section of the report will explore the manufacturing process and method of each component or components (as
some may use the same method). The production method will be listed as well as the components what the
production method is used for; graphical representation of the method will also be included, the reason of use for
the manufacturing process will be shown in a different colour.
(BOS) BASIC OXYGEN STEELMAKING, COLD DRAWING, BENDING, WELDING

& SURFACE TREATMENT
Components that required these production methods include: Back and front fan guards, and leg stand
The back and front fan guards and leg stand are made from the material ‘steel’ (see Page 6); iron is the main
component of steel, it needs to be made before primary steel making (MetroSteel, 2016). Raw materials such as iron
ore, coke (coal), limestone and sinter it is placed in a blast furnace; hot air at 1,200 degrees Celsius is blown into the
furnace to melt the iron ore (POSCO, 2017), liquid iron is formed at the bottom of the blast furnace, underneath a
layer of slag (Brian, 2000). The molten iron will then be flowed through a channel onto a bed of sand to be cooled
creating ‘pig iron’.
Pig iron itself is hard and brittle which is almost useless, the basic oxygen steelmaking (BOS) process will combine
melted pig iron and scrap iron to smelt out impurities the process is carried out at approximately 1,600 degrees
Celsius whilst oxygen is forced through the liquid causing impurities to quickly oxide (POSCO, 2017) (University of
York, 2016). The basic oxygen steelmaking process can remove 0.5%-1.5% of impurities, leaving a small amount of
carbon (only 0.04%) (University of York, 2016). The Process of BOS is important in the production of steel as it
removes any impurities such as silica, alumina, phosphorous and Sulphur as these impurities can cause the steel
metal to be poor quality with serious strength defects and imperfections (magnetite mines, 2018). BOS is most
preferred in manufacturing process as it needs raw materials and big companies producing steel find it more
economically viable to vertically integrate its production process backwards into coal and mining; allowing for cheap
sourcing of steel inputs (Rhynew, 2016) The newly formed molten steel can then be manipulated through secondary
steelmaking where alloying elements can be added and some elements can be removed, or manipulating temperature
and production environment (Bell, 2017). Secondary steelmaking is used to give the steel extra treatments to refine
the steel enhancing its properties and to create the perfect grade of steel for the manufacturer; the grade of steel
made depending on its application (e.g. construction) (Steel Works, 2018)
(Fig 1.1, shows the graphical representation of how steel is made, from raw materials to the oxidization of the molten
iron (University of Kentucky, 2018))
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After the process of making steel is done, the molten steel can then be cooled and casted into semi-finished forms;
such as blooms (rectangular shapes), billets (round shapes), slabs, rods and tube rounds (Madehow, 2018). The
process that was used to form the fan guard and leg was ‘Cold Drawing’ to make steel bars and wire. Steel is drawn
pass through a series of dies which presses on the steel to create a desired shape (Capital Steel & Wire, 2018), the
tensile and compressive stress from the pressure of the die deforms the metal as it passes through; it reduces the
cross section area of the wire to the desired shape/size for the manufacturer (Praveen, 2013). ‘Cold’ refers to the
steel being drawn out/manufactured at room temperature, this process was used when shaping steel as it allows the
steel to have a nice surface finish as well as enabling the manufacturer to closely control the dimensions of the cross
section of the drawn out steel allowing improved cost effectiveness, optimising machinability (Praveen, 2013). No
heat is required in the process meaning the manufacturer saves energy whilst producing the wire at high rates.
( Fig 1.2, shows the process of cold drawing, a hot rolled bar (of steel) is fed through a die as it is elongated through
the pressure of the die. Fig 2 also shows that the process ends in a smooth & bright finish (Precision Kidd, 2010)
The finished steel then goes through the process of secondary forming where steel gets its final shape and properties
(Bell, 2017). The steel wire is bent and fabricated to the desired shape of the fan, and as some parts need to be
joined/welded together to create the multiple bars on the fan guard and attaching them all to the middle hub. Steel is
malleable so it is able to fabricated into any shape this allows the freedom for the manufacturer to apply a range of
secondary forming, such as shaping, bending and welding. The surface of the fan guards and leg stand is then coated
with paint (two coats of primmer then a top coat of paint) to protect the steel from oxidization. Steel is coated with
paint to protect the steel from oxidistion as well as adding colour to the steel for the aesthetics of the product;
painting is also a much cheaper alternative for the manufacturer to use as the metal can simply be quickly dipped or
painted with pain rather than other techniques such as galvanizing which requires melting zinc.
(Fig 1.3, shows the final product produced resulted from the manufacting process of (BOS) Basic Oxygen
Steelmaking, Cold Drawing, Bending, Welding & Surface Treatment)

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COLD HEADING & THREAD ROLLING
Components that required these production methods include: Tamper proof screws and bolts, other screws & bolts.
Thread rolling is used to produce the screws and bolts used to secure the components of the desk fan. Thread rolling
is the fastest, most economical method for producing strong, smooth, accurate threads; this process is a cold forging
process usually performed on any ductile metal (Horst Engineering, 2018). The tread rolling method starts with
‘cold heading/forming’ where the blanks are made for later threading.
Cool heading is a process where metal is shaped and forged in cool temperature, it generally has 3 different steps
which includes forward extrusion, backward extrusion and upset; they are each used for specific purposes (Jr., 2014).
Forward extrusion is used to reduce the overall diameter of the metal, this will allow the resultant product to have
the desired cross-section; extrusion of the metal uses a great amount of hydrostatic stress pushing it through a cavity
that has a smaller diameter than itself, the compression causes the metal to compress down upon itself (Jr., 2014).
Backward extrusion is the process in which hollow metal parts a formed by a metal billet or disk, the metal is
confined in a die, as it is forced upward into the space between the punch and die; it penetrates the metal without
cutting it out it only forces the current metal out (Lefteri, 2013).
The final process of cold heading is the ‘upset’, it is used to increase the cross-sectional area of the metal; the metal
piece is placed near an opening or trap with a specific shape, the impression in the head is forged by a punch, this
allows the manufacturer to create the exact shape for the desired application (The Libary Of Manufacturing , 2018).
Theses method create blanks for screws or bold that can be later threaded.
Cold heading is mainly used by manufacturers as cold forming equipment can produce complex components at high
speeds, it can operate faster than machining with much accuracy , it also creates very minimal waste and shortens
cleanup times this results in reduced labor requirements and overall lower cost; the by shaping the metal at a cooler
temperature it improves the metal’s tensile strength and hardness by refining its grain structure, less energy is used
as no heat is needed through cold heading.
(Fig2.1, shows the three method/steps used in the process of cold heading, forward extrusion, backward extrusion &
upset)

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Once the blanks are created, either a reciprocal or cylindrical method of threading will create thread impressions into
the screw blanks; blanks are automatically or manually fed into the dies. The reciprocal method involves two dies,
one die remains stationary whilst the other die moves in a reciprocating manner; the blank is placed in between
these two dies as it forms a threaded impression (Dickson, 2016). The cylindrical method is used by feeding a screw
blank in-between two or three round dies creating threads on the blanks. (Dickson, 2016). Threading rolling is used
in manufacturing bolts and screws as it is a fast, precise and strong (strengthen the material); thread rolling won’t
remove the material to create threads instead the material is displaced by the harden steel dies, the material grains
will move into the shape of the thread and the grains become denser at critical parts of the thread (Horst
Engineering, 2018). This process increases the tensile strength by 30% or more and increased the fatigue strength by
50%-75%. Like cold heading thread rolling is a very efficient process producing accurate threads at high rates, as
well as limited waste created (Koepfer, 2003)
(Fig2.2, shows the two methods used in thread rolling; Left – Reciprocal; Right – Cylindrical)
(Fig 2.3 These are the end products/component of the manufacturing process of cold heading and thread rolling)

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BAYER PROCESS, HALL-HEROULT PROCESS CASTING ROLLING, & POWDER

INJECTION MOULDING
Components that required these production methods include: Fan blade and motor mounts.
The fan blades and the motor mounts are made of aluminum, the production of these components start with the
making of aluminum. The Bayer process is used to produce alumina which is extracted from bauxite ore, this process
takes place over four main stages digestion, clarification, precipitation and calcination (boyne smelters, 2018). The
digestion stage of the Bayer process forms the raw aluminous minerals from bauxite to form a saturated solution of
sodium aluminate; it does this by subjecting bauxite ore as well as a solution of sodium hydroxide to steam heat and
pressure, within large pressure tanks called ‘digesters’ (Redmud, 2015) this process is usually carried out at 140-260
degrees Celsius.
After digestion the mixture will then be passed through a series of pressure reducing tanks (Redmud, 2015),
pressure is reduced back to atmospheric and is cooled to 105 degrees. The clarification stage separates any insoluble
materials within the sodium aluminate solution such as red mud, chemical additives are added in to assist the
sedimentation process (The International Aluminium Institute, 2018). The insoluble materials sinks to the bottom of
the settling tanks as it will then be transferred to washing tanks to recover caustic soda, further separation through
security filters will then be needed from the sodium aluminate solution to ensure there are no impurities in the final
product (The International Aluminium Institute, 2018).
The liquid solution of sodium aluminate is then further cooled in the precipitation stage to around 80-60 degrees
Celsius for alumina crystals to form, this may take several says, alumina will precipitate as alumina tri-
hydrate (Bauxite Index, 2018). The last stage of the Bayer is calcination, alumina tri-hydrate is heated up to 1100
degrees Celsius to drive off any moisture (chemically bounded water), the remaining product is alumina, a fine
powder (boyne smelters, 2018).
The Bayer process is used in the production of aluminium as it separates and refines bauxite extracting the alumina
or aluminium oxide from bauxite. The fine powdered alumina can then be used to make aluminium. The technique is
used as it is at the moment the most efficient way to extract alumina, this method has little change since its invention
by Austrian chemist Karl Josef Bayer (Seecharran, 2010). This process is the older smelting process it is extremely
expensive due to its significant energy consumption.
(Fig 3.1, is a simplistic diagram of the four stages of the Bayer process, digestion, clarification, precipitation and
calcination)
The Hall-Heroult process is what smelts’ aluminum, it is done through an electrolysis process driven by electrical
current. Molten salts called Cyolite is an electrolyte (capable of dissolving alumina) is placed in a bath with alumina
and carbon anodes immersed in the Cyolite and alumina solution (Aluminum production, 2009). A strong electrical
current (100,000amps +) carried in the positive carbon anode and a negative cathode flows into molten Cryolite
containing dissolved alumina, causing an electrolytic reduction reaction; this reaction causes the oxygen in alumina
to react with the carbon anodes creating carbon dioxide; molten aluminum then sinks to the bottom of the reduction
cell (Boyne Smelters, 2018).

19
This technique is used to smelt aluminum because aluminum oxide (alumina) has a high melting point, so it was
impractical to smelt by heat alone. The electrochemical process is much more efficient to reduce the oxide in the
aluminum. Before this technique was invented smelting aluminum was extremely expensive, more expensive than
steel (Physics Today, 2015).
(Fig 3.2, shows the Hall-Heroult process, labelling the reactants and products of this process; this diagram does not
show the production of carbon dioxide being released. (Climate Tech Wiki, 2011))
The newly formed molted aluminum can now be casted into extrusion ingots, sheet ingots or foundry alloys
depending on its application. The fan blade was made through sheet ingots, aluminum is rolled out to produce sheets
of aluminum the manufacturer can control the thickness of the aluminum (hydro, 2017); the sheet can then be cut
from a template for the fan blade and bent on angles for the curvature of the blades; the middle of the fan blade was
made through extrusion ingots, a hole is drilled in the middle this part of the fan blade was welded on by brazing.
Rolling is used as aluminum is very ductile, it is able to manipulated; the sheets produced by rolling can also be easily
fabricated into many components (e.g. car parts, cans etc.).
(Fig 3.3, Showing aluminum being rolled)
The motor mounts for the stator where produced through powder metal injection molding of aluminum. Polymeric
binders are mixed with metal or ceramic powders the mixture is heated in a screw fed barrel and forced under
pressure though a die to the manufacturer’s desired shape; it then cools and gets ejected. The polymer is removed
through debinding and the component is sintered to required density (AZO materials, 2000). Powder metal injection
molding is used as it creates less material waste, it has a higher shape complexity/capability making it very cost
effective, and it gives the material improved mechanical properties such as tensile strength as it does not break grain
boundaries (NetShape Technologies, 2018).

(Fig 3.3, shows the process of powder metal injection (Fig 3.4, these are the end products of the
molding (AZO materials, 2000)) manufacturing process the motor mounts and the fan
blade)
20
CONCENTRATING, SMELTING, REFINING, CASTING AND DRAWING
Components that required these production methods include: Stator & rotor, spade connectors and plug (as inside
wiring)
Copper wiring is present in the stator, spade connectors and plug, to create the wire, copper needs to first be
obtained from copper ore. Copper ore usually contains large amounts of dirt, clay and other non-copper bearing
minerals, these waste materials must be removed; this is done through a process called concentrating. Concentrating
is usually processed by using hydrometallurgy, the process uses aqueous solutions to extract and purify copper from
the copper ore, this is usually done at room temperature in three steps heap leaching, solvent extraction and
electrowinning (The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018).
The heap leaching process uses percolating chemical solutions to leach out metals (in this case Copper from Copper
Ore) (The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018). Copper ore is crushed in order to make copper (the target metal) to be more
accessible, the finely crushed copper ore will then be put into an agglomeration drum to improve percolation of
leachate (leaching agent) though the heap (Capitaine, 2017). The tumbling action within the drum coats the ore with
leachate allowing the copper ores’ particles to form consistent shapes and sizes, this will dissolve copper from the
copper ore resulting in a ‘pregnant’ leach solution of sulfuric acid and copper sulfate, copper compound
concentrations are of between 60-70% (The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018). Heap leaching process is used as it is a
quicker process which only takes a few months compared to other methods such as dump leaching that may takes
years due to particle size, other advantages and reasons for use for producing copper through heap leaching include
reduced energy and water requirements, simplicity of design and equipment needed and good pH control (Basov,
2015).
(Fig 4.1, showing the process of heap leaching (Basov, 2015))
The second step of concentrating is solvent extraction, this process is for the extraction and separation of copper
from other base metal ions present within the pregnant solution/concentration of sulfuric acid and copper sulfate
(The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018). The pregnant solution is mixed with a solvent (solvent is a bifunctional ionic liquid
trioctylmethylammonium and trimethylpentyl phosphinate) (Devi, 2016). They are both immiscible liquids, which
will allow them to separate, as copper moves from the pregnant solution to the bifunctional ionic solvent, once
copper is separated only impurities remains in the pregnant solution; this solution will be recycled with the addition
of acid and it can be reused for the heap leaching process (The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018). Solvent extraction is
used to extract copper due to its availability of inexpensive and effective reagent; this method is very popular for the
extraction of non-ferrous metals from hydrometallurgical leach solutions (Roy, 2015).
Lastly the electrowinning process is used to recovers pure copper from the bifunctional ionic solvent; cathodes (-)
and anodes (+) are placed in a tank filled with an electrolytic solution combined with the copper and bifunctional
ionic solvent. Once an electric current is provided by a rectifier to the cathodes and anodes, the electrical potential
will create a movement of cations towards the cathode (Bashai, 2016); Copper will build up on the cathode and the
pure copper (99.99% of copper) can be deposited and harvested (Bashai, 2016). Electrowinning is used to recover
copper as it is the most efficient way to extract non-ferrous metals, it also ensures sustainability though reusing
components (such as the cathodes and anodes) and recovering raw materials left over (Rosebrock, 2017).
21
(Fig 4.2 Shows the process of solvent extraction as the two (Fig 4.3 shows the electrowinning process as copper
immicible liquids are combined to sparate copper from pure is being harvested (Aus-e-Tute, 2018))
the pregnant solution (The Univerity Of Arizona , 2018))
The pure copper remaining from concentrating, copper is then smelted to remove iron and sulfur; this involves two
furnaces, the first furnace ‘roasts’ the copper concentrate. Roasting charges the material of copper concentrate in the
furnace mixed with a siliceous flux and heated in air to about 650 degrees Celsius; the roasting process will reduce
the impurities with in the copper concentrate including sulfur, antimony, arsenic and lead; this eliminates sulfur
dioxide to 20-50% whilst driving off other impurities forming a slag with the fluxes on top of the molten bath, which
is discarded (Broman, 1994). What remains from the roasting process is a Copper Matte with around 35-65% of
copper; the molten matte is then drawn into the second furnace called a converter where additional siliceous flux is
added as oxygen is blown though the molten material at 1000-degree Celsius, siliceous flux reacts with the remaining
iron forming another slag as oxygen oxides sulfur into sulfur oxide; the slag is then removed, and any remaining
sulfur is removed through a final injection of oxygen. The final product left from smelting is a molten material called
the blister which contains 99% of pure copper (Cavette, 2018). Smelting is an important process of copper
production as it further separates copper from other elements/impurities that may ruin the quality and properties of
copper, producing a much more refined metal (The Gale Group Inc., 2004).
(Fig4.4, Showing the process of smelting copper (Total Materia, 2016))
The copper blister now needs further refining as it still contains high levels of sulfur, oxygen and other impurities;
fire refining and electrolytic refining is used to further purify the copper blister (Cavette, 2018). The copper blister is
heated in a refining furnace and maintained at 1100 degrees Celsius with an addition of sodium carbonate flux
(removes traces of arsenic and antimony), air (oxygen) is blown through the molten mixture oxidising copper and
any other impurities; this forms a slag and is removed (Broman, 1994). A copper oxide will then undergo reduced
pressure to form a purer copper; and casted into anodes for even further purification through electrolytic refining
(Broman, 1994). The copper anode is placed in a electrolysis solution containing copper sulfate and sulfuric acid,
with a thin strip of pure copper acting as the cathode; within this process the copper anode will dissolve and
deposited at the cathode as the impurities precipitates and forms a sludge; leaving the cathode with 99.95-99.99% of
pure copper (Broman, 1994) (Oxford University Press, 2018). The process of refining is used when manufacturing
copper as it further removes any residual impurities, almost completely abolishing them, if this technique was not
used in manufacturing copper it can cause detrimental effects to copper’s properties which will render it to become
useless; if impurities remained it can reduce electrical and thermal conductivity as well as increases annealing
22
temperature (recrystallization) (Continuus Properzi, 2014), at the moment this method is most updated way to smelt
rubber. .
(Fig 4.5 shows electrolytic refining process)
After refining the copper cathodes are melted and casted into bars, billets, ingots or slabs; to make copper wiring
copper is casted into cylindrical logs known as billets with a diameter of 20cm which is several meters long, this can
be further casted into long lengths which are coiled known as ‘wire rod’ (Cavette, 2018). The wire rod is drawn out
and it gradually reduces the diameter of the copper wire until its final diameter is met; once copper wire is drawn out
all the wires are subjected to annealing (steamshed, 2011). Annealing is the process in which the copper wires
undergo heat treatment, which involves heating the copper wire at a high temperature but not past melting point
typically at 400 degrees Celsius; the newly annealed copper is then stranded (combined/grouped) together to make
conductors which varies in cross sections (Stoebe, 2007). Copper is casted and drawn into long thin wires to later on
be stranded together this allows the copper to have a bigger surface area/circumference dimension allowing a higher
rated current capacity; by grouping the strands it also offers more mechanical strength to the wires (Udayaprakash,
2015). By drawing out the copper it causes the copper to strain and dislocate into the structure, this causes
interference for further deformation; annealing the copper wire after deformation allows the structure to form new
grains that are free of strain and it can easily be formed again, removing all dislocations and defects caused by
deformation (Stoebe, 2007). This process does not require labor only the equipment and tools need to be controlled
allowing mass production of wires.

(Fig 4.6 shows copper being drawn out into (Fig 4.7 copper wire stranded after being an-
nealed)
wiring (Meiwa Chemical Co.,Ltd. , 2009))

(Fig 4.8 The final products from manufacturing process Stator, spade connectors and plug (as inside wiring) )
23
ADDITION POLYMERISATION & EXTRUSION
Components that required these production methods include: Spade connectors and plug (as insulator)
The material that was previously identified as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (see page 11) was used in the production for
the insulators for the spade connector and plug; the process of manufacturing the insulators start with the
polymerisation of vinyl chloride. Before polymerisation, first chloride must be extracted from salt (NaCl) through a
process called electrolysis; where a tank with an anode and cathode cell produces an electric current within a brine
solution (salt water) extracting chloride (Euro Chlor , 2017). Chloride is then combined with ethylene to produce
ethylene dichloride; this process is the oxyclorination of ethylene where ethylene reacts with HCl with oxygen in a
heterogeneous catalytic reaction thus forming ethylene dichloride (Occidental Petroleum Corporation, 2018).
Ethylene dichloride is broken down into vinyl chloride monomer and hydrogen chloride through a process called
thermal cracking; it runs an endothermic reaction at 500 degrees and at 15-30 atm (astropheric pressure) outputting
vinyl chloride monomers and HCl (Applied Analystics, 2017). Vinyl chloride uses additional polymerization to
produce polyvinyl chloride; Vinyl chloride is polymeristed in aqueous dispersion at 325-350 Kelvins (50-70 degrees
Celsius) (University of York, 2016). Under pressure and heat vinyl chloride molecules are forced closer together a
liquid the pressure is kept within 12 atm to keep the monomer in a liquid phase (AUS-e-TUTE, 2018); polyvinyl
chloride is then precipitated out as a white solid as it is insoluble in the monomer (University of York, 2016). To
make the insulator flexible a plasticiser substance is added to the material; the polyvinyl chloride is rigid at room
temperature, by adding a plasticiser, plasticiser molecules make their way between the PVC molecules preventing
them from moving closer together (Sevenster, 2017). This allows the PVC molecules to stay apart at room
temperature with softness maintained (Sevenster, 2017). Addition polymerization is an important process, as
monomers add themselves to one another forming a polymer that has many applications such as insulators,
polymerization determines the structure of the polymer in this case for PVC it forms an Amorphous structure.
(Fig 5.1 The process of polymerization of PVC (Guichon Valves, 2018))

24
After raw polyvinyl chloride material is produced, it is melted into a molten plastic and formed into a continuous
profile, this process is known as extrusion. The molten plastic is fed through a screw extrusion machine, which
consists of a screw with a special form, rotating in a heated barrel or cylinder where the feed opening is placed
(ABDULKAREEM, 2014). Copper wire of specific sizes are then fed through the extruder where polyvinyl chloride is
coated on the wire to a specific thickness; once the extruded wire passes though the cooling rank it is coiled on the
take-off system (The Development Commissioner (SSI), Ministry of SSI, New Delhi , 2003). Extruding is used to
produced wires as it covers the wires closely and evenly, this ensures insulation to the wires; the manufacturer can
also monitor and change the desired thickness of the PVC being extruded onto the wires as well as colour the PVC
before extrusion for clients.
(Fig 5.2 shows the screw extrusion machine in which the PVC is extruded from what this model does not show is the
copper wire being fed through)
(Fig 5.4 is the end product (the insulators on the plug and connector spades) )

25
EMULSION POLYMERISATION, VULCANISATION & COMPRESSION MOLDING
Components that required these production methods include: The rubber bumpers.
Synthetic rubber was the material used in the production of the rubber bumpers, the manufacturing process begins
with the polymerization of the synthetic rubber. Synthetic rubber uses emulsion polymeristion, monomers such as
butadiene, styrene, isoprene, chloroprene, acyclonitrile, ethylene or propylene can be used depending on their
appliciation ( Siemens AG, 2013); the monomer/s are emulsified in water/a solvent with soap acting as a surfactant
and a catalyst (e.g. potassium persulfate) to induce polymerization (britannica, 2018). Once the desired
polymerisation is reached the reaction is stopped by adding a radical inhibitor (britannica, 2018); poylmerisation
results in chains of polymers creating rubber substances, these substances will then be processed into rubber
products by vucanisation ( Siemens AG, 2013). Emulsion polymerisation has been used in the manufacturing process
of synthetic rubber (to make the rubber bumpers) as it is more rapid than bulk or solution polymerization at the
same temperature, having a conversion rate of 100% (polymerdatabase.com, 2015); another benefit to emulsion
poylmerisation is that heat dissipation and viscosity control is much less problematic, meaning when heat is lost
during production the polymerisation of rubber is not effected (polymerdatabase.com, 2015).

(Fig 6.1 Shows the process of emulsion
(Fig 6.2 Shows the process of compression
polymerisation (britannica, 2018))
moulding (Datwyler, 2016))

After polymerisation, the uncured synthetic rubber will then be compression molded to create the shape for the
rubber bumpers. This process is performed with a piece of uncured rubber that has been controlled to weight and
shape; it is then placed directly into the rubber mould cavity before being closed. When the mold closes the material
is compressed between the plates causing the compound to flow to fill the cavities; it is held under immense pressure
and elevated temperature which can start to cure the rubber compound (Datwyler, 2016). This process is used as it
does not require as much energy as other manufacturing process such as injection moulding which requires much
more steps; meaning it is the least expensive process for manufacturers to use , and it is the most efficient way to
mould thermosets (rubber is a thermoset) leaving little material or energy to waste (Johson, 2017).

26
The rubber can be further cured through vulcanization through crosslinking.
Vulcanisation is the process in which synthetic rubber is cured in a permanent state through crosslinking; rubber
molecules are crosslinked with each other though heating/melting rubber with sulfur (NET INDUSTRIES , 2011); it
improves elasticity and strength. Crude rubber is combined with 5-30% of sulfur other additives can be added
depending on application (e.g. Softeners), this is then heated to 120-200 degrees Celsius, as temperature increased
the speed of Vulcanisation is also increased resulting in fast and complete crosslinking (Kopeliovich, 2013).
Crosslinking produces a net-like structure hence giving the material more stable elasticity and strength (Hooper,
2014). Vulcanisation is an important process as it allows rubber to withstand heat and cold (weathering) without
this process synthetic rubbers that are used for automotive application can go through a lot of wear and tear, as the
material cannot withstand weathering caused by the excessive use (e.g. tires being used to drive cars) (Somma,
2016). It allows the final product to be cured and used.
(Fig 6.3 shows the structure of the material (in this case Rubber) before and after it has gone through vulcanization
(Restrepo, 2014))
( Fig 6.4 shows the rubber bumpers from the desk fan as a result of the production methods)

27
CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION AND INJECTION MOULDING
Components that required these production methods include: The switch
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is the main material used for the switch, it is polymerised through condensation
polymerisation from monomers ethylene glycol, diacohol, dimethyl trephalate and diester (Shakhashiri, 2018). A
transesterification process is used in condensation, it is the reaction of an alcohol molecule and an ester molecule in
the present of an acid catalyst to form a new ester (Pierce, 2018). Melted Dimethyl Trephalate is fed through an
interchange reactor which is kept at an inert atmosphere with a temperature of 180-200 degrees, ethylene glycol is
also fed into the reactor as an acid catalyst is injected through the ethylene glycol feed stream; this results in vapors
and Bis(2-Hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (Choi, 2005). The transesterification products are then transferred to the
prepolycondensation reactor which is maintained at 280-300 degrees, the polymer is then melted and pump to the
finishing polymerisation reactor (Choi, 2005). Condensation polymerisation via transesterification is used as part of
manufacturing as it allows chemical reactions to catalyse producing the products quicker.
(Fig 7.1 shows a simple schematic of the process of transesterification (Choi, 2005))
As PET is a thermoplastic it can easily be moulded and remolded, to create the parts of the switch PET is injection
moulded. PET pellets are fed through a hopper, as a reciprocating screw heats and feeds/injects the molten polymer
into the mould cavity; it is then rapidly cooled (British Plastics Federation, 2018). The pressure of the injection is
very high it can be up to 1,00O atmospheres, depending on the application of the product (British Plastics Federation,
2018). Injection moulding is used due to its fast cycle times and the accuracy of the imprints.

(Fig 7.2 shows all the components present (Fig 7.3 This is the final product produced
within the injection moulding process (R, thorugh these production method (the
2016)) switch)
28
ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS FOR COMPONENTS
In this section appropriate alternative materials that could be used in manufacturing components will
be discussed, reasons for and/or against why the material has been chosen as an alternative will also
be discussed. An alternative material will be listed and the material used for each component will be
included down below.
FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS
Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) is the chosen alternative material for steel; steel is used in the production of the Back
and front fan guards, leg stand, Tamper proof screws and bolts, other screws & bolts.
Fiber reinforces plastic is a material that consists of thermosetting resins and fiber glass; it is a composite material
with a polymer matrix blended with a reinforced material such as fibers. This material can be considered as an
alternative material for steel due to its similar characteristics such as mechanical strength, and durability; and some
characteristics that steel is limited to such as lightweightedness and thermal conductivity. The fibers (carbon, aramid
and glass) used to make FRP are strong giving it the mechanical strengths; the fibers have strengths of the order of
3000MPa, however this is reduced as the fibers are bundled or put through pultrusion; the strengths presented in the
material is even higher than prestressing steels (Burgoyne, 2009) . Like steel FRPs are durable, the resin used to
laminate the FRP adds to environmental and chemical resistance, therefore the material won’t expand or used due to
oxidisation; however, unlike steel resins in FRPs are liable for degration (Burgoyne, 2009). It is also unaffected by
moisture or water immersion making it much more ideal as a protective covering for surfaces where chemical
spillages may occur rather than steel (CraftTech industries, 2018). FRPs are very lightweight it is ¼ lighter than steel
making it easier to install , like steel it has a good strength to weight ratio (CraftTech industries, 2018). Finally, FRPs
are a good insulator with low thermal conductivity unlike steel which conducts heat; this property allows the
material to be used in humid or moist conditions (CraftTech industries, 2018).
MAGNESIUM ALLOY
Magnesium alloy is the chosen alternative material for aluminium, it can be used in production for components - Fan
blade and motor mounts.
Magnesium is the lightest metal on the periodic table, alloys are combined with magnesium to increase mechanical
and physical properties. Magnesium Alloy has been chosen as an alternative material for aluminum as they both
possess very similar properties; however, magnesium alloy also possess other advantages over aluminum; including
weight and strength. Similar to aluminum magnesium alloy is ductile it can be easily drawn out or fabricated, it also
has excellent corrosion resistivity as it is a non-ferrous metal. Magnesium is much lighter than aluminum with a
density of only 1.75 – 1.85g/cm3 as opposed to 2.7g/cm3, it also has a higher tensile strength 280MPa compared to
aluminum’s 150MPa; although magnesium is light it won’t sacrifice the strength or rigidity (Totalmateria, 2006).
Another advantage to magnesium alloys is its damping capacity which is especially helpful for the motor mounts,
magnesium is able to absorb energy so noise created by vibrations from the motor can be “dampened” (American
Foundry Society, 2018). However, a major disadvantage to using magnesium alloy for the component is dimensional
stability; the strength and hardness of magnesium alloys can be impaired at around 150 degrees Celsius, other
compositions must be developed to allow magnesium to keep its properties (Totalmateria, 2006).

29
SILICONE RUBBER
Silicone rubber is the chosen alternative material for synthetic rubber it can be used in the production for
components- rubber bumpers
Silicone rubber is an elastomer it is the combination of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and silicon; which is then mixed
with reinforcing fillers and processing aids forming a stiff gum (Colgate, 2018). Silicone rubber is extremely similar to
synthetic rubber; they both possess high thermal resistivity, and good shock absorption. Silicone rubber is able to
withstand extreme fluctuation in temperature from being low as -60 degrees Celsius to 300 degrees Celsius; it is able
to withstand fluctuation in temperature better than synthetic rubber. Its elasticity makes the material ideal to reduce
vibrations (vibration from the stator and rotor for the desk fan) as well as for stabilising joints (Colgate, 2018)
similar to the purpose of the synthetic rubber on the desk fan joins and legs. The only disadvantage to silicone rubber
is that it can be attacked by most concentrated solvents such as oils and acids (Timco Rubber, 2018); besides this
disadvantage silicone rubber is extremely similar to synthetic rubber.
POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA)
Polylactic acid is the chosen alternative material for Polypropylene terephthalate it can be used in the production for
components – switch
Polylactic Acid is a polymer/plastic deprived from renewable resources like corn starch or sugar cane, so unlike other
plastics like polypropylene terephthalate, polylactic acid is known as a bioplastic (Creative Mechanisms, 2015). It is a
much more ‘sustainable’ material as opposed to polypropylene terephthalate; however, this material is much more
disadvantaged to polypropylene terephthalate most of its properties are weaker than PET; PET would be still being
considered as the more dominate material. They share the characteristic of being a thermoplastic, PLA is able to be
heated shaped, cooled and reheated again without significant degradation (Creative Mechanisms, 2015). Its tensile
strength only ranges from 62-66 MPa compared to PET’s which ranges from 20-110MPa. The only benefit to
polylactic acid is that it naturally degrades when exposed to the environment and despite this it is still extremely
robust in any normal applications such as small plastic electronic parts (e.g. switch); thus, it can definitely stand in
for PET (Creative Mechanisms, 2015).

30
ALUMINUM
Aluminium is the chosen alternative material for copper it can be used in the production for components – stator and
wiring
Aluminium properties and characteristics have already been already being exhibited in “identifying Materials” (see
page 7). It is shown to be extremely similar to copper displaying good electrical resistivity (0.00000270 ohm-cm) and
thermal conductivity of 210W/m-K which is only second to copper (Shown Page 7). This is the main reason to why
aluminium can be used as alternative to copper, they also present similar physical and chemical properties, such as
ductility and corrosion resistivity; thus, making aluminium very compatible as an alternative for copper.

POLYSULFONE (PSU)
Polysulfone is the chosen alternative material polyvinyl chlorine it can be used in the production for components –
insulator for plug and spade connectors.
Polysulfone are a family of sulfur-containing thermoplastic it is known for its stability, resisting creep, deformation
under continuous load and elevated temperature ( AETNA PLASTICS, 2018), it’s characteristics are similar to
polyvinyl chlorine; they are both used for similar application, such as medical devices and insulators. Polysulfone can
remain consistent from -100 degrees to 150 degrees Celsius; its tensile strength ranges from 70MPa to 85 MPa, this is
a stronger tensile strength than PVC with the ultimate tensile strength only being 52MPa. In addition to this it is also
offers good resistance to detergents, hot water and steam allowing PSU to be used a ridged material in alternative to
PVC (e.g. Pipes) . Finally, the most important property for PSU to have as an alternative material for the insulators is
its low thermal conductivity (only 0.26 w/mK) allowing it to be a good insulator for wires (SubsTech, 2013).

31
SOCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIAL AND PRODUCTION

METHOD
This section of the report will identify implication caused by both the material used and the types of
manufacturing used for each component on the environment and society. Subtitles will be used to list
the material and the manufacturing process that the component/material uses; with a discussion of the
social and environmental implications.
Steel - (BOS) Basic Oxygen Steelmaking, Cold Drawing, Bending, Welding & surface Treatment
– Cold Heading & Thread Rolling
Steel is the most highly used material as it demonstrates a variety of beneficial properties such as its mechanical
strength (others see pg. 6); it is met with a wide range of application and is used into almost all of our everyday
products. Steel is used for construction, transport, energy, packaging, appliances and industrial machines (Bell, 2018)
Steel is 100% recyclable it can be recycled back into its manufacturing process as scrap is remelted through BOS, in
which around 25% of scrap steel is recycled. In other steelmaking processes such as electric arc steelmaking up to
90-100% of scrap can be used (GreenSpec, 2018); it can be recycled without any of its properties being lost in the
process. Steel’s ability to be recycled reduces its environmental impact as well as its carbon footprint. However, some
manufacturing methods of steel cause energy consuming and polluting implications to the environment.
The primary steel making process is the most impactful on the environment out of all the other manufacturing
processes, and it outranks the reduced environmental impacts/carbon foot print of the recycling of steel. Basic
oxygen steel making is where iron is converted to steel, producing a hot metal from iron ore; this process outputs
steel products as well as unwanted products such as solid wastes and emissions to air and to water (Jiang, 2012).
Emissions produced by BOS include carbon dioxide ( which is contributing to global warming), sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide as well as dust; these emissions pose a serious impact on both the environment as well as humans;
prolonged exposure from these gases can lead to serious health problems and even a risk of death. Water pollution
can also occur including oil, grease, chemicals and suspended solids which can easily find its way into a water way
damaging the ecosystem and human health (Jiang, 2012).
The casting and fabrication used in the production does not have a significant impact environmentally or socially;
cold drawing, bending, welding surface treatment, cold heading and tread rolling do not generate any harmful gas
combustion products or use up a lot of energy (Forging Industry Association, 2018). These casting and fabricating
processes are low labor intensive, machines do most of the work whilst engineers and operators control the
machines dictating the required design/measurements for the components. Cold drawing however does produce an
unwanted waste material through its lubricant; fatty-based oils are used as lubricants are used for minimizing
friction, increasing productivity , lessening consumption of tools and lessening production costs (Praveen, 2013). The
lubricant also becomes a waste product after usage, the lubricant has more ecotoxicity than the original lubricants as
it has picked up contents of the metal from drawing out the metal; these metallic particles can lead to the reduction of
total organic carbon and an increase in ecotoxicity (Ruiz, 2001).
Aluminum - Bayer process, Hall-Heroult Process, Casting, Rolling, Powder Injection Moulding
Aluminum one of the most abundant metal in the world, it is extremely popular due to its lightweightedness,
strength, malleability, ductility, conductivy and durability; its properties are the makes it a very desirable material for
manufactures to use. Aluminum can be 100% recycled without any of its properties being lost in the process.
Common uses for aluminum in society include transportation, construction, electrical, and consumers goods (Metal
Supermarkets, 2016). Through recycling aluminum reduces its environmental impact and carbon footprint; when
aluminum is recycled from various scraps, it requires less energy (95% reduced greenhouse emissions) than
producing new aluminum from scratch (Conserve Energy Future, 2006).
Despite aluminum being able to save energy over its lifetime, it requires a lot of energy to be produced from scratch.
Extracting bauxite ore into aluminum (Bayer process and Hall Heroult process) is incredibly energy intensive that
requires a vast amount of electricity, water and raw resources to extract aluminum (Leigh, 2010); CSIRO calculated
that the embodied energy for aluminum is 211GJ per tonne compared to steel which is only 22.7GJ per tonne (The
Conversation , 2012). This amount of energy requires major cost and greenhouse emissions such as carbon
32
dioxide, perfluorocarbons, sodium fluoride, sulfur dioxide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon are released to the
surrounding area of the manufacturing plant (Leigh, 2010).
A waste product made in the production of aluminum is ‘red mud’ (mentioned in production methods see pg. 16), it is
an insoluble substance that is left behind during the Bayer process. Red mud contains heavy metals and caustic
substances, to smelt red mud into metals requires a lot of energy as well has building huge hydroelectric dams;
flooding tens of thousands of acres of land (Erickson, 2014). Red mud is produced at a rate of twice the amount of the
end product (aluminum), so red mud is usually dumped on land in man-made damns and dykes or even natural
valleys (Das, 1998); this results in human rights violations as red mud would be dumped inappropriately on to
indigenous or tribal land (Erickson, 2014). The contamination of red mud from the production of aluminum is
evident in Jamaica’s red mud lakes, where 60 billion gallons of sludge has built up in containment ponds, they are
often located near communities; the substance is very toxic for the communities (The Gleaner, 2010).
Casting and rolling process of aluminum is less energy consuming as it requires little heat/energy as aluminum is
ductile; this process is also less expensive as it is not labor intensive. Powdered injection moulding, like casting and
rolling, powder injection moulding is low labor intensive; the machines are automated without any difficulty,
meaning low labor costs; powdered injection moulding produces little to no waste during production.
Copper - Concentrating, Smelting, Refining, Casting and Drawing

Copper is extremely important in our society; copper is abundant and affordable, combined with its properties such
as corrosion resistivity, heat and electrical conductivity makes the material very versatile for all sorts of everyday
applications such as electronics, house hold items, renewable energy, and advanced medical technology (Cheo, 2015).
Copper has become essential to modern society we rely on it for electricity and clean water into our homes and cities;
over 25 million tons of copper are produced annually to keep up with the demands (European Copper Institute,
2018). Like the previously mentioned metals copper is also 100% recyclable without losing its properties (Leblanic,
2016); recycling copper also requires much less energy than making copper from copper ore, it reduces greenhouse
emissions by 85-90% (Leblanic, 2016).
Corresponding to other extraction processes of metals, the extraction of copper from concentrating to refining
produces a lot of pollutants. Waste gases are produced during extraction, including carbon dioxide being released
into the atmosphere contributing to global warming and harmful sulfur dioxide which can react with the surrounding
environment causing devastating effects on the terrestrial environment (Larsson, 2018). The bioaccumulation of
these toxic gases in plants or small invertebrates can lead to poisoning of other animals higher up on the food chain
(GreenSpec, 2018). Other waste products of copper include lead, arsenic and selenium, copper smelters deposited
these toxic wastes into water, this causes a strong biocidal activity that greatly affects ecosystems; the pollutants
react with water and oxygen to produce an acidic environment dissolving rock mineral from the waste containing
toxic metals and trace elements (Larsson, 2018). This acidic, toxic water can leak into local groundwater causing
serious health problems and even cancer; this is evident from people living in Hayden and Winkelman, Arizona
where smelters operate, “Lead, arsenic, selenium and particulate matter from copper smelters contaminate the
bodies of people living downwind and downstream," (Pew, 2003).
Similar to cold drawing of steel, copper also needs a lubricant to increase productivity, so it becomes a waste product
within the process; the lubricant has more ecotoxicity than the original lubricants as it has picked up contents of the
metal from drawing out the metal; these metallic particles can lead to the reduction of total organic carbon and an
increase in ecotoxicity (Ruiz, 2001). (From previous page).
Polyvinyl Chloride - Addition Polymerisation & Extrusion

PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) is a versatile material, it can be rigid and/or a flexible material, that is used in many
applications including construction (Pipes, flooring, power etc.), healthcare (Blood bags, artificial skin etc.),
electronics (as insulation), automotive (seat covering, underbody coat, sun visors etc.), sports/leisure (equipment,
surfaces, protective barriers etc.), and clothing (British Plastics Federation, 2018). PVC is able to be 100% recycled
without losing its properties, it can be recycled two ways mechanical and feed stock recycling; overall PVC has a very
low carbon footprint compared to other products (British Plastics Federation, 2018). Although PVC is recyclable, it
can be extremely difficult to recycled, there is no reduction in emissions compared to its virgin material.
33
PVC is very toxic; it contains 57% of chlorine a toxic substance that generates a substantial amount of pollution.
Before polymerisation, chlorine is produced; during the extraction of chlorine from brine dioxins are released into
the environment (Eco-novice, 2013). Throughout PVC’s life cycle it can produce large quantities of hazardous
organochlorine by product which is then released into the environment, the degration of PVC in landfill or dumped
into the environment can build up over time, and its chemical toxicity can leach into the environment (Thornton,
2002). Dioxins can bioaccumulation in the tissues of living things (animals and humans), the toxicity of
bioaccumulation can result in arrange of health problems for humans including cancer, disruption of the endocrine
system, reproductive impairment etc. (Thornton, 2002). Toxic chemicals from PVC are now universally present in the
environment and in the bodies of the human population (Thornton, 2002).
PVC is easy to produce, long lasting, tough and light; it consumes less primary energy during production compared
other plastics (British Plastic Federation, 2018). However, the polymerisation releases large quantities of ethylene
dichloride and vinyl chlorine monomers into the air and water causing serious health problems for animals and
humans in the liver, central nervous system and cardiovascular systems (World Health Organisation , 2000).
The extrusion process of PVC for the insulator has no major social or environmental implications; we do use this
manufacturing process to insulate our copper wires; and the extrusion process requires energy (heat) during the
process, thus producing carbon dioxide contributing to global warming.
Synthetic Rubber - Emulsion Polymerisation, Vulcanisation & Compression Moulding

Synthetic rubbers are used in a variety of different industries depending on their application we use it for clothing,
automotive parts, electrical insulators, and for medical equipment; most of our everyday products predominately for
safety and comfort (ScienceStruck, 2018). Synthetic rubber can be re-used, recycled and recover energy; the rubber
can be cut and shredded down into new products as rubber is a malleable material to reform by hand; the recycling of
rubber turning it back into a crude rubber is a chemical and thermal process, and it is lower in the waste
management hierarchy; energy recovery involves burning the rubber, for electricity generation as it contains around
60% of hydrocarbons which is a store of energy that can be recovered (Appropriate Technology Development
Association, 2018). Most synthetic rubbers aren’t recycled and are often found littered on the streets or going into
landfill; synthetic rubbers take thousands of years to degrade so the c toxic chemicals contained in synthetic rubber
can slowly leach into the environment.
Emulsion polymerisation wastes a lot of water contained with a variety of chemical elements such as sodium and
bicarbonate, sodium and sulfate, calcium and sulfate, and calcium and chloride; the make-up of water depends on the
application of the synthetic rubber (Durfor, 1993). The production of synthetic rubber during the stage of emulsion
polymerisation discharges more than 85 million gallons of water into surface streams per day; during cooling when
water is discharged into water streams there are no treatments meaning waste products from poylmerisation are
also dumped into water streams polluting it (Durfor, 1993).
To allow rubber to withstand heat and cold as well as increasing its strength, Vulcanisation is used to increase the
durability of the rubber. During Vulcanisation soot is produced and is released into the atmosphere; soot is a particle
created due to incomplete combustion of CO2, this contributes to global warming. People living nearby factories
producing synthetic rubber can accidentally inhale, ingest or absorb soot through their skin, this can result in serious
health problems especially cancer (lung, esophageal and bladder cancers) (National Cancer Institute, 2015).
Compression moulding does produce CO2 as it requires heat and energy to ‘compress’ the rubber. The production
process of synthetic rubber is a low labor intensive, it only requires a worker to manage and observe the automated
process, whilst chemical engineers control the amount of catalysts and chemicals placed in.
Polyethylene terephthalate - Condensation Polymerisation and injection moulding

Polyethylene terephthalate is utilised in many disposable products such as plastic water bottles, and food packaging
containers; also clothing (synthetic), and it is also used in electrical applications such as capacitors and working
components (e.g., Switch). Since Polyethylene terephthalate is a thermoplastic it is easily recycled, it is known as the
most widely recycled plastic in the world; being able to make a variety of end products such as t-shirts, automotive
parts, new PET containers etc. Recycling PET also reduces its carbon footprint (Leblanc, 2016). However unmanaged
waste can easily end up in landfill, or into our waterways; PET takes almost hundreds of thousands of years to break
down; even then they break down into small particles that can be consumed by animals, moving up to the food chain
34
we can also be consuming PET plastics. Roughly 8 million tons of plastic is dumped into the world’s ocean every year,
ending up on costal islands all around the world; communities and locals end up having to clean the waste up.
Condensation polymerisation uses a significant amount of raw materials and energy, it also emits carbon dioxide
within this process, making the carbon foot print for producing PET from its virgin material very big; about 6kg of
carbon dioxide is produced per kg of plastic (Time for change org, 2009). Carbon dioxide is the instigator of global
warming, the amount of CO2 produced in the life time of PET can continue to add to global warming causing
substantial emissions. Injection moulding also produces greenhouse gases research has found that injection moulding
consumption in the us uses 2.10 x 108 GJ (Thiriez, 2006).
Although we do have a few societal benefits such as health and safety that PET provides for us in disposable products,
there are still many concerns relating to littering and recycling trends (Andrady, 2008).

35
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the desk fan was successfully able to be dismantled, and the components and
the components’ materials were able to be identified; further investigation of the production,
characteristics, features, environmental and social implications of each component and
alternative materials was all researched and mentioned within this report.
The materials identified from the components includes steel, aluminum, copper, polyvinyl
chloride, synthetic rubber, and Polyethylene terephthalate; the properties, and
characteristics of the materials were researched within this section as well as the means to
how the material was identified. The production methods were also thoroughly researched
from the extraction of the materials from its virgin material to is final product. The alternative
materials including fibre reinforced plastic, magnesium alloys, silicone rubber, polylactic
acid, aluminum and polysulfone were directly discussed as some points for and against were
included as well as their characteristics. Finally, the social and environmental implications are
significantly discussed.
This report did allow the student to be able to exhibit the relationship between properties,
structures, uses and application of materials in engineering.
36
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1

CELSIUS DESK FAN

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2

Evidence and Method Used to identify materials .......................................................................12

Alternative Materials For Components ........................................................................................28

Social & Environmental Implications Of Material And Production Method ..............................31

Evidence and Method Used to identify materials

Production Method of Component & Reason of Use

Social and Environmental implications

For my report I have taken apart a desk fan.

EXPLODED VIEW OF DESK FAN

Front cover/wire guard

All components are labelled below :

Back cover/ wire guard

Rubber Bumper for

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction of identified components

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction

POLYPROPYLENE TEREPHTHALATE (PET)

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE (PVC)

Identification and classification of component’s materials

Justification to why the material is used in the construction

EVIDENCE AND METHOD USED TO IDENTIFY MATERIALS

Magnetic test & Filing surface test

Sink/Float test & Burn Test

(Fig 1.2 Shows a plastic identification flow chart (Ramirez, 2011)

PVC PET (burnt and had sunken when in water)

Synthetic rubber after burn

PRODUCTION METHOD OF COMPONENT & REASON OF USE

(BOS) BASIC OXYGEN STEELMAKING, COLD DRAWING, BENDING, WELDING

COLD HEADING & THREAD ROLLING

BAYER PROCESS, HALL-HEROULT PROCESS CASTING ROLLING, & POWDER

(Fig 3.3, Showing aluminum being rolled)

CONCENTRATING, SMELTING, REFINING, CASTING AND DRAWING

(Fig 4.1, showing the process of heap leaching (Basov, 2015))

(Fig4.4, Showing the process of smelting copper (Total Materia, 2016))

(Fig 4.5 shows electrolytic refining process)

ADDITION POLYMERISATION & EXTRUSION

(Fig 5.1 The process of polymerization of PVC (Guichon Valves, 2018))

EMULSION POLYMERISATION, VULCANISATION & COMPRESSION MOLDING

The rubber can be further cured through vulcanization through crosslinking.

CONDENSATION POLYMERISATION AND INJECTION MOULDING

Components that required these production methods include: The switch

ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS FOR COMPONENTS

FIBER REINFORCED PLASTICS

POLYLACTIC ACID (PLA)

SOCIAL & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIAL AND PRODUCTION

Copper - Concentrating, Smelting, Refining, Casting and Drawing

Polyvinyl Chloride - Addition Polymerisation & Extrusion

Synthetic Rubber - Emulsion Polymerisation, Vulcanisation & Compression Moulding

Polyethylene terephthalate - Condensation Polymerisation and injection moulding

AETNA PLASTICS, 2018. AETNA PLASTICS. [Online]

Siemens AG, 2013. Siemens AG. [Online]

ABDULKAREEM, A., 2014. IMPROVING THE THERMOPLASTIC EXTRUSION PROCESS IN CABLE

Aluminium Norf GmbH, 2018. ALUNORF. [Online]

Aluminum Association, 2018. The Aluminum Association. [Online]