The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)

Civil and Environmental Engineering Department

CE 3611 –

1. Background

There are two kinds of head losses in a pipe flow: major and minor head losses. Major head loss
is the loss along the length of a straight pipe because of the friction due to the pipe roughness and
flow condition (laminar or turbulent flow). Its name contains “major”, which means this is the
main form of head loss in the pipe system. The second head loss is minor one. It is mainly
because of change of pipe systems, like pipe bends, junctions and valves, etc.

2. Theory

In each type of following minor head losses, the experimental head loss is the difference
between the total head at two points. We may or may not have a conventional method to
calculate the head loss. If we do, the comparison will be valuable to test the conventional
method.

2.1 Pipe bends

There are several types of pipe bends: 90° smooth bend (radius bend) and 90° Mitre bend (straight
bend). They are distinguished by the ratio of bend radius to the pipe internal diameter. The
former may have a ratio of 10 or more, while the latter one has a value of 0.

In a bend, there is secondary flow generated, thus the flow is separated. For the Mitre bend, the
losses are mainly due to flow separation and secondary flow patterns. For a gentle bend (radius
bend), flow separation and wall friction will predominate.

Question 1: Refer to textbooks discussing pipe flows or Google search, please explain how the
secondary flow is generated. Please use drawing to help your explanation.

These losses can be represented with a loss factor, k:

V2
hk (1)
2g
Where h is the total head loss around the bend; k is the total loss coefficient; V is the average
flow velocity in the pipe. However, it is helpful to differentiate between the total loss round the
bend (k, h) and the loss due to bend geometry (kb, hb). The total loss round the bend includes the
loss due to bend geometry and the loss due to the length of pipe (kl, hl) round the bend, major
head loss. That is:

V2 V2 L V2 V2
h  hl  hb  k l  kb  f  kb (2)
2g 2g D 2g 2g
The major head loss can be calculated according to section 2.1.1. Knowing the major head loss,
we can then calculate the loss coefficient kb due to the bend geometry. In this experiment, we will

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 1

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
use two radius bends to assist our understanding on this. Information about the two bends is
highlighted both in figure and table 5.1. We can also see what effect the bend radius has on the
energy loss by plotting a graph of kb against R/d. where R is the bend radius, and d is the pipe
diameter. d = 13.6 mm for this experiment.

2.1.1 Calculation of major head loss

The major head loss, i.e. the head loss along a pipe, is a result of the friction in that pipe. It can
be calculated by Eq. 3:

L V2
hf  f (3)
D 2g

where f is the friction coefficient (dimensionless); V is the average velocity; D is the inner
diameter of the pipe, L is the pipe length.

For laminar flow (Re < 2000), the friction factor, f, is found by the following equation:

64
f  (4)
Re

For turbulent flows, f can be obtained from Moody’s diagram. You can find it in your fluid
mechanics textbook. Haaland (1983) proposed an explicit equation to directly calculate f.

1 e D 1.11 6.9
 1.8 log[( )  ] (5)
f 3.7 Re
where e is the absolute roughness of the pipe. When the pipe is smooth, e is zero.

2.2 Sudden (90°-angle) pipe contraction

There are several different types of pipe contraction: sudden, gradual and reentrant contractions.
Each has different head loss due to the geometry. The streamlines have to converge before the
contraction, so they are not parallel through the actual contraction. The flow continues to
converge slightly after the sudden contraction to a smaller diameter than the narrower pipe. This
is called Vena Contracta. Because of this, turbulence in forms of eddy and recirculation zone
emerges. A remarkable pressure drop due to the loss of energy in turbulence and to the increase
in velocity exists.

Due to the short distance of the contraction, the major head loss is negligible. Commonly, we
describe the head loss due to sudden contraction by:

2
V
hc  kc 2 (6)
2g

Where hc is the head loss due to contraction; kc is the loss coefficient due to contraction; V2 is the
flow velocity in the narrower pipe. For the apparatus we use in this experiment, we

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 2

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
conventionally have kc = 0.32. We can also determine the experimental loss coefficient due to
2
V
contraction by plotting the head loss against 2 for four flow rates. The slope of the trendline
2g
is the experimental kc.

2.3 Sudden pipe expansion (enlargement)

There are also two different types of pipe expansion: sudden and gradual expansions. The
streamlines will also expand to follow the expansion. Again, they are not parallel through the
actual expansion. This results in the generation of turbulence in forms of eddy and recirculation
zone. Unlike in contraction, the pressure rises after the expansion because of the decrease in
velocity, but this rise would be even greater if there were not the loss in energy.

Due to the short distance of the expansion, the major head loss is negligible. Commonly, we
describe the head loss due to sudden expansion by:

(V1  V2 ) 2
he  k e
2g
(7)

Where he is the head loss due to expansion; ke is the loss coefficient due to expansion; V1 and V2
are the flow velocities in the narrower and wider pipes. For sudden expansion, conventional
ke = 1. We can also determine the experimental loss coefficient due to expansion by plotting the
(V1  V2 ) 2
head loss against for four flow rates. The slope of the trendline is the experimental
2g
ke.
Question 2: Alternatively, people express the head loss of sudden expansion in a form of only V2.
Please derive the loss coefficient K in a relationship to ke as defined in equation 4.

3. Experimental Apparatus
Hydraulic bench and head loss apparatus (H-408)

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 3

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department

Fig. 5.1 Head loss apparatus

Table 5.1 Details about the pipes used in this experiment

In experiments, we will use two radius bends: 50 mm and 150 mm in a pipe with the inner
diameter of 13.6 mm. Table 5.1 gives the length between the two tappings for each bend.

The sudden expansion (enlargement) and sudden contraction changes between pipes of 13.6 mm
and 26.2 mm. Again, the major head loss due to friction of pipe is negligible.

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 4

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department

We will still run four flow rates to see how the flow rates change the head loss.

4. Experimental Procedures
1. Connect the apparatus with the bench. Find corresponding pressure tappings, connect the
tappings with the manometer using the flexible tubing.
2. Open the bench feed valve, the gate valve and flow control valve to admit water into the
apparatus, also disperse any air bubbles.
3. When the pipe network has filled with water, disconnect the tubing from the manometer,
let water run for several seconds to release the air bubbles. After this, reconnect the
tubing with the manometer.
4. The level of water in the manometer tubes can be adjusted by using the hand pump
attached to the air connector and air bleed screw.
5. Vary the flow control valve slightly; measure the flow of water; and record the pressure
measurements, h1 and h2, from the manometers.
6. Repeat steps 5 for four different flow rates by gradually open the flow control valve.

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 5

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
5. Data Tables

Flow rate 1 Flow rate 2 Flow rate 3

Trial Volume Time Volume Time Volume
Time (s)
(L) (s) (L) (s) (L)

1
2
3

Pipe bends

Flow rate V L hl h15 h16 hb

Pipe Re kb
(L/s) (cm/s) (mm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
0.315 920 58.6 17.3
50-mm
0.233 920 62.0 42.7
radius bend
0.270 920 71.1 8.00
Flow rate V L hl h19 h4 hb
Pipe Re kb
(L/s) (cm/s) (mm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
0.315 652 76.3 41.0
150-mm
0.233 652 90.3 56.0
radius bend
0.270 652 80.2 50.4

Sudden pipe contraction

Flow rate V1 V2 h11 h12 hc Experimental

Pipe V22/(2g)
(L/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (cm) (cm) (cm) kc
0.315 73.4 36.7
Sudden pipe
0.233 65.0 46.8
contraction
0.270 66.3 39.4

Sudden pipe expansion

Flow rate V1 V2 (V1-V2)2/ h9 h10 he Experimental

Pipe
(L/s) (cm/s) (cm/s) (2g) (cm) (cm) (cm) ke
0.315 72.7 80.2
Sudden pipe
0.233 78.5 84.6
expansion
0.270 71.5 85.0

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 6

The George Washington University CE 3611 (Spring, 2018)
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department
6. Report Requirements:

1. Calculate the experimental k for sudden contraction and expansion by plotting

relative data in graph. Compare them to common theoretical values.

2. Using graph to answer how the head loss changes when the flow rate changes for
bends, sudden contraction and sudden expansion.

3. Demonstrate the effect of the bend radius has on the energy loss by plotting a graph
of kb against R/d.

4. Include two questions in the report.

Lab 4 Minor Head Loss in Pipe Flow – Page 7