Pressure Vessel - Example 62

Exercises with Worked Solutions
Selecting Materials
(To accompany Lecture Unit 7)
Professor Mike Ashby

Department of Engineering
University of Cambridge
© M. F. Ashby, 2013
For reproduction guidance see back page
This exercise unit is part of a set based on Mike Ashby’s books to help introduce students to materials, processes and rational
selection.
The Teaching Resources website aims to support teaching of materials-related courses in Design, Engineering and Science.
Resources come in various formats and are aimed primarily at undergraduate education. www.grantadesign.com/education/resources
www.grantadesign.com/education/resources 1
M.F. Ashby 2010
Exercises With Worked Solutions – Unit 7
Exercises with Worked Solutions

This collection of exercises and solutions has been put together to help you as an
instructor choose or develop your own exercises for your students. You may simply
want to browse through them for inspiration, or you may use them with your class.
We are providing these in Word format so that you may pick and choose the
questions you find suitable for your course this year. We have also included
variations on a theme so that you can set different questions for different classes.
Most of the questions come from or are inspired by the exercises in the following
books by Professor Mike Ashby of the University of Cambridge Engineering
Department, co-founder of Granta Design.
• Materials Selection for Mechanical Design by Michael F. Ashby (ISBN-13:

978-1-85617-663-7)
• Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing and Design by Michael F.
Ashby, Hugh Shercliff, and David Cebon (ISBN-13: 978-1856178952)
• Materials and the Environment by Michael F. Ashby (ISBN-13: 978-0-12-
385971-6)
(Reproduction and copyright information can be found on the last page. Please make
sure to credit Professor Mike Ashby and Granta Design if you use these questions.)
Most of the questions require the use of CES EduPack. However where a topic, such
as understanding how to translate design requirements into specific criteria for
selection, is important on courses that traditionally use CES EduPack, we have
included exercises on these topics too, even though they don’t directly use CES
EduPack. (CES EduPack is a materials teaching resource used at 800+ Universities
and Colleges worldwide. You can find out all about it here:
www.grantadesign.com/education.)
Topics on which there are Exercises with Worked Solutions are1:
Title Associated Lecture Unit

Materials – classification and properties Lecture Units 1 & 2
Elements Lecture Unit 3
Design – translating requirements into constraints and Lecture Unit 6
objectives
Selecting Materials Lecture Unit 7
Manufacturing Processes – classification and Lecture Unit 10
properties
Eco Properties and the Eco Audit Tool Lecture Unit 12
Low Carbon Power Systems Lecture Unit 14
You can find the other units here: www.grantadesign.com/education/resources
If there are other topics upon which it would be good to have a collection of
questions, or if you have questions that you have used successfully with your
students that you would like to donate to the Materials Education Community,
attributed to you, then please contact Granta’s Materials Education Coordinator at
teachingresources@grantadesign.com.
1
Exercise units follow the same numbering of the PowerPoint lectures for the same topic
M.F. Ashby 2013
Contents
Material Selection Process .................................................................................................... 3

Using CES EduPack Graph Stage to select materials .......................................................... 5
Using CES EduPack Limit Stage to select materials .......................................................... 10
Using CES EduPack Tree Stage to select materials .......................................................... 15
Materials Selection combining various Selection Stages in CES EduPack ........................ 16
Using the Results Area of CES EduPack............................................................................ 18
Using Material Property Charts ........................................................................................... 20
Material Indices ................................................................................................................... 27
Using Material Indices in Applications................................................................................. 34
An Assortment of Material Selection Examples .................................................................. 38
Economic Factors................................................................................................................ 65
Longer Questions ................................................................................................................ 69
Material Selection Process
Design Data:
requirements: Materials Attributes
Expressed as
Comparison Process Attributes
Constraints Engine: Documentation
Able to be molded
Water and UV resistant • Screening E.g.
Stiff enough • Ranking Density
Strong enough Price
• Documentation
Modulus
Objectives
Durability
As light as possible
….
As cheap as possible
Final Selection
In this unit we focus on the central section of the design strategy. We have used translation in
the previous unit to establish the design requirements (the section on the left), and CES
EduPack provides us with the data (the section on the right).
Now, again using CES EduPack, we will learn how to apply the constraints, eliminating
materials that cannot meet the design requirements, and rank the ‘survivors’ using the
objectives to create a shortlist of candidate materials.
CES EduPack offers 3 selection tools: the Graph, Limit, and Tree stages.
M.F. Ashby 2013
1. Describe the process you went through the last time you bought an electronic gadget e.g.
mobile phone, computer, radio etc.
Name 3 constraints you screened on.
Name 2 objectives you ranked on.
Where did you get your data?
What documentation did you read?
Answer.
Examples may be:
Contraints:
Size - Fits in my handbag or on the table top.
Functionality - Has to be able to do x e.g. receive FM radio or call abroad.
Objectives:
Cheap as possible
Gets highest reviews online
Data:
Shop labels, shop website, shop assistants, consumer magazines.
Documentation:
User manuals, online review sites.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Using CES EduPack Graph Stage to select materials
1. Video tutorials on the Graph Stage can be accessed by clicking Help > Video Tutorials.
2. Make a bar chart with Fracture toughness on the Y-axis using Level 1, Materials.
Click on “Select”, then select “Edu Level 1” under “MaterialUniverse” and proceed as
shown.
Browse Search Select Tools
1. Selection data
Edu
Edu Level
Level 11 :: Materials
Materials
2. Selection Stages X-axis Y-axis
Graph Limit Tree List of properties

Density
Yield strength
Fracture toughness
etc
Label two (or more) materials by clicking on the bars.
Label Magnesium alloys (right-click on name in Result window on the left, and click on
“Label”).
Use the BOX selection tool to find the five materials with the highest values of
fracture toughness.
Answer.
Low alloy steels
Nickel alloys
Titanium alloys
Zinc alloys
Stainless steel
M.F. Ashby 2013
Nickel Nickel-chromium
alloys
Nickel-based superalloys
100
Fracture toughness (MPa.m^0.5)
CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
Silicon carbide
Stainless
10 steel
Granite
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
Zinc die-casting alloys
Low
alloy Polyamides (Nylons, PA)
1
steel
Polycarbonate (PC)
Limestone
0.1 Epoxies
Silicone elastomers (SI, Q)

0.01
Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)
3. Make a bar chart with Price on the Y Axis and the 4 main classes of materials on the x
axis. Which materials class has the widest range of values? What is the cheapest
material per kilogram? (You can change from metric to imperial units in the options
menu.)
Under the ‘Select’ mode on the toolbar, click to choose the graph selection stage. The
‘New Graph Stage Wizard’ dialog appears.
Set the Y-axis to plot price.
For the X-axis, under ‘Category’ click on the button ‘Advanced…’. This will bring up
another dialog box which allows you to set a formula for what goes on the X-axis.
Select the ‘Trees’ tab. Double-clicking any folder will insert it into the box above.
Whatever goes into this box will thus be reflected on the X-axis.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Ceramics and Glasses have the widest range of prices. Concrete is the cheapest material
per mass.
100000
Gold
10000
1000 Aluminum nitride

Silver
Price (USD/kg)
Ceramic foam Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Titanium alloys
100
10
1
Polyvinylchloride
(tpPVC)
0.1 Plywood Cast iron, gray

Concrete
Ceramics and glasses Hybrids: composites, foams, natural materials Metals and alloys Polymers and elastomers
4. Which is the cheapest material per unit volume?
Click on this icon to Edit stage . Click on y-axis and Advanced, then make the
function (Price * Density). Click to the right-hand-side of the highlighted word price and
press the * button. Then find density in the property list and double click on it. Once you
have [Price]*[Density] in the window click OK twice.
Answer.
Concrete and Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)
5. Make a new bubble chart with Density on the X-axis and Young’s modulus on the Y-
axis using Level 1, Materials settings.
Click on “Select” Browse Search Select Tools
Then select “Edu Level 1” 1. Selection data

Edu
Edu Level
Level 1:
22 ::Materials
Materials
Materials
And proceed as shown.
2. Selection Stages X-axis Y-axis
Graph Limit Tree List of properties

Density
Young ’s modulus
Yield strength
etc
Switch on the envelopes by clicking the icon
M.F. Ashby 2013
By what factor are polymers less stiff than metals? Is wood denser or less dense than
polyethylene (PE)?
Answer.
On average polymers are about 50 times less stiff than metals. Polyethylene is denser
than woods.
6. Make a new bubble chart with Density on the X-axis and Yield strength on the Y-axis
using Level 2, Materials settings.
Label two (or more) materials by clicking on the bubbles.
Switch on the envelopes by clicking the icon
Do any metals have yield strength less than 10 MPa (2 ksi)?
Answer.
Yes, Commercially pure Lead, Lead alloys and Tin.
7. With the graph created in the previous exercise, use the BOX selection tool
to find materials with yield strength σy > 600 MPa (90 ksi) and a density ρ < 2000 kg/m
3
(120 lbs/cubic ft).
After drawing the box with approximately these values, click on and then on the
“Selection” tab to adjust the limits.
In materials selection, however, it is more common to use the GRADIENT-LINE selection

tool. . Find the material with the highest “specific strength” (σy/ρ) by selecting the
line selection tool and entering a slope of 1. Click anywhere on the graph and then click
above the line. The materials below the line will be grayed out. Then move the line to the
top left of the graph until only one material is left above it.
Answer.
Both exercises lead to CFRP.
8. Use a Young’s modulus – Density (E-ρ) chart to identify materials with both a modulus E
> 45 GPa and a density ρ < 2000 kg/m .
3
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Material Comment
Cast, and Wrought Magnesium is the lightest of all common structural metals –
Magnesium alloys only Beryllium is lighter, but it is very expensive and its oxide
is toxic.
CFRP – carbon-fiber CFRP is both lighter and stiffer than Magnesium. That is one
reinforced plastic reason it is used for competition cars and bikes.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Using CES EduPack Limit Stage to select materials
9. Video tutorials on the Limit Stage can be accessed by clicking Help > Video Tutorials.
Browse Search Select Print Search web
1. Selection data
A Limit stage
Edu
Edu Level
Level 2:
2: Materials
Materials
Mechanical properties
2. Selection Stages
Thermal properties Min. Max
Graph Limit Tree Maximum service temperature C
200
Thermal conductivity 25 W/m.°C
Specific heat J/kg.°C
Results Ranking
X out of 95 pass Prop 1 Prop 2 Electrical properties
Material 1 2230 113 Electrical conductor

Good
Good conductor
conductor
Poor
Poor conductor
conductor
Material 2 2100 300 or insulator?
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Material 3 1950 5.6 Poor
Poor insulator
insulator
Material 4 1876 47 Good insulator
etc...
A Limit Stage applies numeric and discrete constraints. Required upper or lower limits for
material properties are entered into the Limit stage property boxes. If a constraint is
entered in the Minimum box, only materials with values greater than the constraint are
retained. If it is entered in the Maximum box, only materials with smaller values are
retained. The selection will show in the Results window in the bottom left of the CES
EduPack screen.
10. Use a “Limit” stage to find materials with modulus E > 180 GPa and price Cm < $3 / kg.
(The units and currency can be changed in the options menu.)
Answer.
All are ferrous alloys:
• Cast iron, ductile (nodular)

• High carbon steel
• Low alloy steel
• Low carbon steel
• Medium carbon steel
M.F. Ashby 2013
3
11. Use a “Limit” stage to find materials with modulus E > 2 GPa, density < 1000 kg/m and
price Cm < $3 / kg.
Answer.
The survivors meeting all 3 constraints are: Hardwood (oak, along grain and across
grain), Bamboo, Plywood, Softwood: pine, along grain, Paper and cardboard.
12. Use a “Limit” stage to find materials with maximum service temperature > 200°C, thermal
conductivity > 25 W/m.°C, and are good electrical insulators.
Answer.
Aluminum Nitride, Alumina, Silicon Nitride.
13. Use a “Limit” stage to find materials with a yield strength greater than 100MPa and
3
density less than 2000 kg/m . List the results.
Answer.
Cast magnesium alloys, wrought magnesium alloys, and composites CFRP and GFRP.
14. Add two further constraints to the selection of the previous exercise. Require now that the
material price be less than $5/kg and the elongation be greater than 5%.
Answer.
Only the magnesium alloys survive.
15. Use the Limit stage to witness the evolution of materials usage across time. Use a “Limit”
stage to select only the materials in usage before 3000BCE. Then produce a graph of
Yield Strength vs Young’s Modulus. Copy this plot to a Word document. Repeat this
procedure for Years “0”, “1500AD”, “1900AD”, “1950AD” and “2012AD”. Compare the
plots obtained.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
3000BCE Metals and alloys Gold

Silver
1000
Bronze
Limestone
Hardwood: oak, along grain
Copper
100
Yield strength (elastic limit) (MPa)
Bamboo
Softwood: pine, along grain
Glasses
Leather Lead alloys
Soda-lime glass
10 Slate
Natural materials
Granite
Tin
Brick
1
Sandstone Marble
Commercially pure lead
0.1
Cork Softwood: pine, across grain
Non-technical ceramics
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Young's modulus (GPa)
Bronze
Metals and alloys Brass
Year 0 Silver
1000
Cast iron, gray
Limestone
Gold
Copper
100
Bamboo
Glasses
Leather Lead alloys
Soda-lime glass
10 Slate
Natural materials
Granite
1
Marble
Commercially Tin
Brick
pure lead
Sandstone Cement
0.1
Cork
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

M.F. Ashby 2013
Bronze
Metals and alloys Brass
1500AD Silver
1000
Cast iron, gray
Limestone
Gold
Copper
100 Bamboo
Glasses
Leather Lead alloys
Soda-lime glass
10 Slate
Natural materials
Granite
1
Marble
Commercially Tin
Brick
pure lead
Paper and cardboard Sandstone Cement

0.1
Cork
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Steel
Technical ceramics
1900AD
1000
Polymers Glasses
Silicon
Elastomers carbide
100 Natural rubber (NR)

Tungsten
alloys
Cellulose polymers (CA) Silicon
Soda-lime glass
10
Natural materials
Borosilicate glass
0.1
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

M.F. Ashby 2013
Metals and alloys

1950AD
1000
Composites
Polymers
Elastomers
100
10 Technical
ceramics
Natural materials
0.1
Foams
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Metals and alloys

2012AD
1000
Composites
Polymers
Elastomers
100
10 Technical
ceramics
Natural materials
0.1
Foams
0.01
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

M.F. Ashby 2013
Using CES EduPack Tree Stage to select materials
16. Video tutorials on the Tree Stage can be accessed by clicking Help > Video Tutorials,
or via the link below.
17. This exercise teaches you to find materials that can be molded. In the Level 1 Materials
database, in the Tree Stage window, select “ProcessUniverse”, expand “Shaping” in the
tree, select Molding and click “Insert”, then “OK”. What are the main classes of materials
that can be molded?
Answer.
Foams, polymers and elastomers. Soda-lime glass is the only member of the Ceramics
class that can be molded.
18. This exercise teaches you to find processes that can be used to join steels. For Level 2:
Processes – Joining database, in the Tree Stage window, select “MaterialUniverse”,
expand “Metals and alloys” in the tree, select Ferrous, and click “Insert”, then “OK”.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
At the Level 2 joining processes database, 17 of the 23 joining processes available can
be used to join steels.
19. Make a bar chart of modulus E. Add a tree stage to limit the selection to polymers alone.
Which 3 polymers have the highest modulus?
Answer.
Several polymers have moduli of about 4 GPa. Based on the mean of the range of
moduli, which is the way the software ranks materials to make bar charts, PEEK
(Polyetheretherkeytone) has the highest modulus (3.85 GPa). After that come Phenolics
Polylactide (PLA) and Acetal (Polyoxymethylane, POM). Taking the maximum of the
range of possible values, POM would achive the highest values for Young’s modulus
(5GPa) followed by Phenolics and Polyester.
Materials Selection combining various Selection Stages in

CES EduPack
20. Video tutorials on Combining Stages can be accessed by clicking Help > Video Tutorials.
21. A material is required for the blade of a rotary lawn mower. Cost is a consideration. For
safety reasons, the designer specified a minimum fracture toughness for the blade: it is
1/2
K 1c > 30 MPa m . The other mechanical requirement is for high hardness, H, to
minimize blade wear.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Applying the property limit K 1c > 30 MPam1/2, and reading of materials with high
hardness, gives three groups of materials. The steels are far cheaper than the other two
(you can see this if you do another bar chart with price on the Y axis).
Material Comment
Steels (low, medium Traditional material for blades

and high carbon)
Stainless steels Also used for blades, especially for food
Tungsten alloys Meets the requirements, but more expensive than steel
Nickel superalloys Used in other applications
Titanium alloys Meets the requirements, but MUCH more expensive
22. Use a Maximum service temperature (Tmax) chart and a Tree stage to find polymers that
can be used above 200°C.
Answer.
The chart shows just four classes of polymer with maximum service temperatures greater
than 200°C. They are listed below.
Material Comment
Polytetrafluorethylene, PTFE (Teflon) is used as non-stick coatings for cooking

PTFE ware, easily surviving the temperatures of baking and
frying.
Silicone elastomers Silicones are polymers with a Si-O-Si chain structure

instead of the C-C-C chain of polyolefins. They are more
stable than carbon-based polymers, but expensive.
Polyetheretherketone PEEK is a high performance thermoplastic and hence

(PEEK) extremely expensive, limiting it to use in applications where
technical performance is paramount.
Phenolics Their high heat resistance and moldability makes them a

good choice for electrical switchgear.
M.F. Ashby 2013
23. Plot a modulus-strength E − σ f chart and use a Tree stage to find ferrous metals that
have E > 10 GPa and σ f ≥ 1000 MPa.
Answer.
The strongest ferrous metals (steels) are listed below. Titanium alloys (Ti-alloys), Nickel-
based superalloys and carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) also meet these limits,
but they are not ferrous metals! If you eliminate the tree stage, you will get all of these.
Material Comment
High carbon steel

All have σ f above 1000 MPa,
Low alloy steel
a very large value
Stainless steel
24. Find Level 2 materials with the following properties:
• Density < 2000 kg/m3

• Thermal conductivity < 10 W/m.°C
• Strength (Elastic Limit) > 60 MPa
• Can be molded
Rank the results by price, using a bar chart. Remember that you can use to hide
materials that failed to pass all the stages.
Answer.
(In order of ascending price) PET, PLA, PMMA, POM, Epoxies, PC, PA, PEEK.
Using the Results Area of CES EduPack
25. In MaterialUniverse: Edu Level 1 draw a graph of yield strength vs density. Use a box
3
selection tool to select materials with density between 1,000 and 10,000 Kg/m and a
yield strength between 1 and 1000 MPa. Then create a limit stage and rule out materials
0.5
with a fracture toughness below 15 MPa.m .
17 out of 69 materials at level 1 pass all stages. You can see them listed in the bottom left
corner of the screen.
(a) List the first 3 alphabetically.
M.F. Ashby 2013
(b) Now change “Rank by” to “Stage 1: Density” and “Show” to “Pass all Stages”. List the
top three i.e. least dense.
(c) Now change the “Show” drop down menu to “Pass/Fail Table”. Why did Silicon
Carbide fail?
Answer.
(a) Aluminum Alloys, Cast Iron, ductile (nodular), Cast Iron, gray
(b) Least dense: CFRP, Magnesium Alloys, GFRP
(c) Silicon Carbide is not tough enough.
26. In MaterialUniverse: Edu Level 1 draw a graph of yield strength vs. density. Use a
gradient line of gradient 1 intercepting the y axis (yield strength) at 1 MPa. Click above
the line to select materials of high strength and low density. Then create a limit stage and
0.5
rule out materials with a fracture toughness below 15 MPa.m .
12 out of 69 materials at level 1 pass all stages. You can see them listed in the bottom left
corner of the screen.
(a) List the first 3 alphabetically.
(b) Now change “Rank by” to “Stage 1: Performance Index”. What is the value of the
performance index for the material with the biggest performance index? (The
performance index in this case is Yield Strength / Density. There is more about
performance indices and what they are in a subsequent section)
(c) Now change the “Show” drop down menu to “Pass/Fail Table”. Why did Cast Iron,
gray fail?
Answer.
(a) Aluminum Alloys, Cast Iron, ductile (nodular), CFRP.
(b) CFRP – performance index = 0.491
(c) Ratio of yield strength to density for Cast Iron, gray is not high enough.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Using Material Property Charts
27. Use a MaterialsUniverse: Edu Level 2 K1C –E chart to establish:

(a) Whether CFRP has higher fracture toughness K1c than aluminum alloys
(b) Whether polypropylene (PP) has a higher toughness Gc than age-hardening
aluminum alloys
(c) Whether polycarbonate (PC) has higher fracture toughness K1c toughness than glass
Answer.
(a) CFRP has lower fracture toughness K1c than aluminum alloys.
(b) Polypropylene (PP) has a similar (slightly higher) toughness Gc to age-hardening

aluminum alloys.
(c) Polycarbonate (PC) is has a much higher fracture toughness K1c than glass.
28. A component is at present made from a brass, a copper alloy. Use a Young’s modulus
bar chart to suggest three other metals that, in the same shape, would be stiffer.
Answer.
Metals that are stiffer than brass are listed below:
Material Comment
Steels The cheapest stiff, strong structural metal, widely used.
Nickel alloys More expensive than steel
Tungsten alloys Refractory (high-melting) and relatively expensive
M.F. Ashby 2013
29. Use a Young’s Modulus-Density (E-ρ) chart to find (a) metals that are stiffer and less
dense than steels and (b) materials (not just metals) that are both stiffer and less dense
than steel.
Answer.
(a) No engineering metals are both stiffer and less dense than steel, though nickel alloys
come close. (b) Several ceramics qualify: Boron carbide B4C, silicon carbide SiC, silicon
nitride Si3N4, Aluminum nitride AlN, and Alumina Al203.
Material Comment
Alumina Al203 Alumina is the most widely used of all technical ceramics
(spark plugs, circuit boards…) All ceramics are brittle – they
Silicon nitride Si3N4
have low values of fracture toughness K1c and toughness
Boron carbide, B4C
G1c .
Silicon carbide, SiC
Aluminum nitride
30. Bells ring because they have a low loss (or damping) coefficient; a high damping gives a
dead sound. Use a loss coefficient – modulus chart to identify materials that would make
good bells.
Answer.
Materials with a low loss coefficient, any of which could be used to make bells, are listed
below:
Material Comment
Copper alloys The traditional material for bells: bronzes and brasses
Glass, silica, SiO2 Glasses make excellent bells
Ceramics: Al2O3, SiC Unusual choice as they are expensive, but should work.
M.F. Ashby 2013
31. Use a loss coefficient – modulus chart to find materials with the highest possible
damping.
Answer.
Lead alloys have very high damping – they are used to clad buildings to deaden sound
and vibration. Magnesium alloys also have high damping: they are used to dampen
vibration in machine tools. Most of the foams, polymers and natural materials also have
high damping.
Material Comment
Lead alloys Used to clad buildings to damp sound and vibration
Magnesium alloys Used to damp vibration in machine tools
32. Use a Thermal conductivity-Electrical resistivity ( λ − ρ e ) chart to find three materials with
high thermal conductivity, λ , and high electrical resistivity, ρ e .
Answer.
Aluminum nitride is the best choice. The next best are alumina and silicon carbide.
Material Comment
Aluminum nitride, AlN Favored material for heat sinks requiring this combination
of properties
Alumina, Al2O3
Both also meet the requirements
Silicon carbide, SiC
33. Make a E–ρ chart. Apply a selection line of slope 1, corresponding to the index E /ρ
positioning the line such that six materials are left above it. Which are they and what
families do they belong to?
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
The six that have the highest index E /ρ are alumina, aluminum nitride, boron carbide,
CFRP, silicon carbide, and silicon nitride. They come from just two families: technical
ceramics and composites.
34. Use a E-ρ chart to establish whether woods have a higher specific stiffness E/ρ than
epoxies.
Answer.
Parallel to the grain, woods have much higher specific stiffness than epoxies.
Perpendicular to the grain, woods have on average about the same value as epoxies.
E/ρ (GPa / (kg/m )) x 10

3 3
Material
Woods parallel to the grain 8 - 29
Woods transverse to the grain 0.7 – 4.0
Epoxies 1.8 – 2.5
35. Use a E-ρ chart to identify metals with both E > 100 GPa and specific stiffness E/ρ > 0.02
GPa/(kg/m3).
Answer.
Material Comment
Steels Cheap, widely used. Stiff structural material.
Nickel alloys More expensive than steel
Titanium alloys Titanium alloys are very expensive.
Tungsten alloys Refractory, heavy and expensive materials
36. The speed of longitudinal waves in a material is proportional to E /ρ. Plot contours of this
quantity onto a copy of a E–ρ chart, allowing you to read off approximate values for any
material on the chart. Which metals have the about the same sound velocity as steel?
Does sound move faster in titanium or glass?
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Tungsten, titanium, nickel, aluminum, magnesium and steel all have about the same
value of E / ρ, and thus similar sound velocities. The sound of velocity in glass is a little
higher than that in titanium.
37. Use a E–ρ chart to identify materials with both E > 100 GPa and E 1 / 3 / ρ > 0.003
1/3
(GPa) /(kg/m3). Remember that, on taking logs, the index M = E 1 / 3 / ρ becomes
Log ( E ) = 3 Log ( ρ ) + 3 Log ( M )
and that this plots as a line of slope 3 on the chart, passing through the point E = 27GPa
when ρ = 1000 kg/m3 in the units on the chart.
Answer.
Material Comment
CFRP Carbon-fiber composites excel in stiffness at low weight.
Boron carbide, B4C Boron carbide is exceptionally stiff, hard and light; it is used
for body armor.
38. Do titanium alloys have a higher or lower specific strength (strength/density, σ f / ρ ) than
the best steels? This is important when you want strength at low weight (landing gear of
aircraft, mountain bikes). Use a σ f / ρ chart to decide.
Answer.
σf /ρ (MPa / (kg/m )) x 10
3 -3
Material
Titanium alloys 60 – 262
Steels 32 – 191
39. Are the fracture toughness, K1c, of the common polymers polycarbonate, ABS, or
polystyrene larger or smaller than the engineering ceramic alumina, Al2O3? Are their
toughness G1c = K12c / E larger or smaller? Use a graph of K1c–E.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Most polymers have lower fracture toughness, K1c, than alumina. Their toughness,
G1c = K12c / E , however, are much larger. Even the most brittle of polymers, polystyrene,
has a toughness G1c that is a few times greater than that of alumina. The values in the
table are read from the graph, using the K1c axis to read off values of fracture toughness,
and the G1c = K 12c / E contours to read off values of toughness.
1/2 2
Material K1c (MPa.m ) G1c (kJ/m )
Polycarbonate 2.1 – 4.6 2.0 – 9.6
ABS 1.2 – 4.3 0.8 – 10.5
Polystyrene 0.7 – 1.1 0.25 – 0.8
Alumina Al2O3 3.3 – 4.8 0.03 – 0.06
40. Use the fracture toughness-modulus chart to find materials that have a fracture
and a toughness G1c = K 12c / E greater than

1/2
toughness K 1c greater than 100 MPa.m
2
10 kJ/m .
Answer.
The table lists the results. Only metals have both high fracture toughness K 1c and high
toughness G1c . That is one reason that they are used for pressure vessels (boilers,
submarine hulls, gas containers etc).
2
Material K1c /E (kJ/m )
Low alloy steels 0.93 – 190
M.F. Ashby 2013
Stainless steels 19.3 – 113
Nickel 31.1 – 59.5
Nickel-chromium alloys 30.4 – 57.8
Nickel superalloys 21.4 – 65.1
M.F. Ashby 2013
Material Indices
41. What is meant by a material index? (Hint: In the Help menu of the CES EduPack there is
a section called Selection Methodology.)
Answer.
The performance of a component or product is limited by the properties of the materials of

which it is made. Sometimes it is limited by a single property, sometimes by a
combination of them. The property or property-group that measures the performance of a
material for a given design is called its material index. Performance is maximized by
seeking the materials with the most extreme (biggest or smallest, usually the smallest)
value of the index.
42. What property would you rank on if you wanted a material that is a good thermal
insulator?
Answer.
Thermal Conductivity.
43. What property would you rank on if you wanted to make the heaviest paperweight in the
world?
Answer.
Density.
Strong tie of length L and minimum mass
F F
Area A L
44. Consider a tie rod with length L defined. It must carry a prescribed tensile load F without
failure (a constraint) and at the same time be as light a possible (an objective). The area
the force acts on is A.
It must not yield so we know the yield strength of the material must be greater than F/A.
σy > F/A
The mass of the tie rod is equal to the density multiplied by the volume.
Mass = ρV = ρLA
M.F. Ashby 2013
We want to minimise the mass so we need to know the mass in terms of the materials
properties and the fixed values.
σy > F/A can be rearranged to F/ σy > A
Therefore Mass = ρLA = ρL F/ σy
(a) Given that F and L are fixed what combination of material properties needs to be
maximised in order to get the lightest tie-rod?
Use the advanced function in the graph stage wizard to plot this combination of properties
as a function on the y-axis of a bar chart for materials at Edu Level 1.
(b) What are the three best performing materials by this index?
(Video tutorials on Plotting Charts can be accessed by clicking Help > Video Tutorials.)
Performance indices only deal with the information you have used in order to create
them. Their results always need to be checked by common sense and other information
you have about your application.
(c) Why might the third best material be a bad choice for certain applications?
Answer.
(a) σy/ρ
(b)
(c) Silicon Carbide does not have a very high fracture toughness. Therefore it might not
be a good choice in any industrial application where the tie rod might get knocked
about.
M.F. Ashby 2013
45. The most usual mode of loading of engineering structures is bending: wing-spars of
aircraft, ceiling and floor joists of buildings, golf club shafts, oars, skis….all these
structures carry bending moments; they are beams. The requirement here is for a beam
of specified stiffness and minimum mass.
A beams bending stiffness depends on its shape and its young’s modulus.
3 2 3
S= CEI/L = CEA /12L
S = Bending Stiffness, m = mass, A = area, L = length, ρ = density, E = Young’s

modulus
4 2
I = second moment of area (I = b /12 = A /12)
C = constant (here, 48)
Stiff beam of length L and minimum mass
Square
b section,
area
A = b2
L
If we want to minimise mass we need an equation for it in terms of the materials

properties and fixed values.
Mass = Volume * Density = AL * ρ
Area can be found from the stiffness equation and substituted into the mass equation.
(a) What is the Mass in terms of Stiffness, Length, Density, Young’s Modulus and
constants?
If the stiffness and shape of the beam are specified and become fixed then separate the
mass equation into fixed values and materials properties.
(b) What combination of materials properties needs to be maximised to get the lightest
beam?
Most performance indices are of the form
P1α
m=
P2
Where m = performance index. P1 = a materials property and P2 = another material

property.
Taking logarithm gives: Log(P1) = 1/α Log(P2) + Log (m)
M.F. Ashby 2013
For a line on a linear graph y=ax+c, a is the gradient of the graph. Compare this equation
to the Log equation before.
(c) What gradient would you set for a line representing your performance index?
Gradient = ?
Log (P1)
Log (P2)
Plot a graph of logarithmic graph of the two properties in the performance index you just
derived. (In the graph wizard a log plot is the default.)
Line selection
tool
Line selection
Enter slope ?
OK Cancel
Plot a line on the graph using the gradient line icon in the toolbar and choosing the
gradient you just worked out. Click anywhere on the graph for the line to be drawn.
(d) Which side of the line are the best materials by your index?
Sense check this. Pick the property you are most comfortable with. In this case perhaps
Density. For a light tie rod we need low Density, so click on the graph on the side of the
line that has the lowest values of density. You’ll see that bubble on the other side go grey
and are ruled out of the selection. You can now hover over the line until the cursor
changes and then click and drag the line to reduce the number of coloured bubbles.
M.F. Ashby 2013
(e) What are the top 3 materials in Edu Level 1 for your performance index? (You can
rank by performance index in the results window. Note that it will use average values
of the properties to do this.)
Check this by deleting this stage (right click on the stage in the selection stages window
and choose delete), and creating a bar chart with your performance index as a function
on the y-axis. (The video tutorial Plotting Charts has a section on how to do this.)
(f) Are the materials the same?
Answer.
1/ 2
 12 L5 S *   ρ 
m =   1/ 2 
 C  E 
(a)  
(b) ρ/E
1/2 1/2
needs to be minimised to get the least mass. Therefore E /ρ needs to be
maximised.
(c) & (d) & (e)
Gradient = 2
(f)
M.F. Ashby 2013
46. Find the table of performance indices in the help menu of the CES EduPack and look up
the value to minimise for a stiffness limited, minimum mass, Cylinder with Internal
Pressure.
Answer.
ρ/E
47. Find the booklet Useful Solutions to Standard Problems from the website
www.grantadesign.com/education/resources (you need to register for the open access
password). Use the Elastic Bending of Beams section to write an equation for the
stiffness of an I beam with fixed ends and a central load in terms of Young’s Modulus and
the shape of the beam.
Answer.
1 b
192E h3 t (1 + 3 )
S= 6 h
3
L
Where S = Stiffness, E = Young’s Modulus, h = height, L = Length, b = width across I and
t= thickness of I.
48. The objective in selecting a material for a panel of given in-plane dimensions for the lid-
casing of an ultra-thin portable computer is that of minimizing the panel thickness h while
M.F. Ashby 2013
meeting a constraint on bending stiffness, S* to prevent damage to the screen. What is

the appropriate material index?
Answer.
1/3
The index is that for a stiffness limited panel of minimum volume: minimize 1 / E , where
E is Young’s modulus (or, more strictly, the flexural modulus, equal to E for isotropic
materials but not for those, like fiber composites, that are not isotropic).
49. Derive the material index for a torsion bar with a solid circular section. The length L and
the stiffness S* are specified, and the torsion bar is to be as light as possible. Follow the
steps for a beam bent under load, but replace the bending stiffness S* = Fδ by the
torsional stiffness S* = T / θ.
Answer.
1/2
The material index is M = G /ρ where G is the shear modulus and ρ is the density.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Using Material Indices in Applications

(Use CES EduPack Level 1 unless otherwise indicated.)
50. Plot the index for a light, stiff panel on a Modulus-Density chart, positioning the line such
that eight materials are left above it, excluding ceramics because of their brittleness.
What material classes do they belong to?
Answer.
The index for selecting materials for light stiff panels is ρ/E . The materials that have the
1/3
lowest (best) values of the index belong to the classes
• Woods
• Polymer foams
• Composites (CFRP)
• Technical ceramics (Boron Carbide)
Polymer foams have the problem that their modulus is low, so although they are light, the
panel has to be thick to achieve much stiffness. It is possible to apply a constraint on
thickness (it translates into a lower limit for modulus); applying it then removes any
materials that can only meet the stiffness constraint if they are too thick.
CFRP and Boron carbide are both the ‘top of their class’, but both very expensive, and
only about half as good as bamboo.
51. A material is required for a cheap column with a solid circular cross-section that must
support a load F* without buckling. It is to have a height L . Write down an equation for
the material cost of the column in terms of its dimensions, the price per kg of the material,
Cm , and the material density ρ. The cross-section area A is a free variable – eliminate it
by using the constraint that the buckling load must not the less than F*. Hence read off
the index for finding the cheapest column.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Plot a graph of modulus E plotted against material cost per unit volume Cmρ. A line
1/2
corresponding to the material index = E / Cmρ is positioned on it so that only a few
materials remain above it. These are the materials with the most attractive value of the
index: concrete, brick, stone, cast iron and wood.
52. The window through which the beam emerges from a high-powered laser must obviously
be transparent to light. Even then, some of the energy of the beam is absorbed in the
window and can cause it to heat and crack. This problem is minimized by choosing a
window material with a high thermal conductivity λ (to conduct the heat away) and a low
expansion coefficient α (to reduce thermal strains), that is, by seeking a window material
with a high value of M = λ / α .
Use a limit stage to choose transparent and optical quality materials and a α − λ chart to
identify the best material for an ultra-high powered laser window. Use the Level 3
database.
Answer.
Looking at the top 8 transparent materials with high λ / α : Diamond, Titanium Silicate,
Alumina, which, is in one of three transparent forms, single crystal form (sapphire), ultra-
fine grained form (“Lucalox”), or as a Bio-ceramic, and Silica.. At Level 3 of CES
EduPack, Diamond has the highest λ / α . Diamond, has an exceptionally high value: it
has been used for ultra high-powered laser windows. It is however very expensive!
53. The elastic deflection at fracture (the “resilience”) of an elastic-brittle solid is proportional
to the failure strain, ε fr = σ fr / E , where σ fr is the stress that will cause a crack to
K 1c
propagate: σ fr =
πc
Here K 1c is the fracture toughness and c is the length of the longest crack the materials
 K 1c
1 
may contain. Thus ε fr =  
πc E 
Materials that can deflect elastically without fracturing are therefore those with large
values of K 1c / E . Use a K1c –E chart to identify the class of materials with K 1c > 1
1/2
MPa.m and high values of K 1c / E .
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Polymers and foams both have large K 1c / E allowing them to flex without fracturing.
They have much higher values K 1c / E than metals or ceramics, and thus large fracture
1/2
strains. Only polymers have, additionally, K 1c > 1 MPa.m . This makes them attractive
for snap-together parts that must flex without failing. Leather has a particularly high value
of resilience, K 1c / E .
54. One criterion for design of a safe pressure vessel is that it should leak before it breaks:
the leak can be detected and the pressure released. This is achieved by designing the
vessel to tolerate a crack of length equal to the thickness t of the pressure vessel wall,
without failing by fast fracture. The safe pressure p is thus
4 1  K Ic
2 

p ≤
π R  σ f 
where σ f is the elastic limit, K 1c is the fracture toughness, and R is the vessel radius.
The pressure is maximized by choosing the material with the greatest value of
K 12c
M =
σy
Use a K 1c − σ y chart to identify three alloys that have particularly high values of M.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
Alloys with high values of K 12c / σ y , read from the chart, are listed below:
Material K 12c / σ y
Nickel alloys 7.95 – 126 Reactors for chemical engineering and turbine
combustion chambers are made of nickel based alloys.
Copper alloys 4.72 – 103 Small boilers are made of copper.
Tin 20.9 – 92.3 Used for storage tanks for chemical solutions, but its
main use is for steel coatings and alloying with copper.
Stainless steels 7.49 – 67.9 Used for nuclear pressure vessels.
Zinc alloys 0.52 – 53.3 Used for corrosion resistance and for its castability.
Low alloy steels 0.25 – 51.8 Traditional material for pressure vessels.
M.F. Ashby 2013
An Assortment of Material Selection Examples
This section combines the efforts of the previous two sections; in here students will have to
derive material indices, then apply them to select materials using the CES EduPack. They
can be equivalently solved with materials property charts.
55. Aperture grills for cathode ray tubes. There are two types of cathode ray tube (CRT).
In the older technology, color separation is achieved by using a shadow mask: a thin
metal plate with a grid of holes that allow only the correct beam to strike a red, green or
blue phosphor. A shadow mask can heat up and distort at high brightness levels
(‘doming’), causing the beams to miss their targets, and giving a blotchy image.
To avoid this, shadow masks are made of Invar, a nickel alloy with a near-zero expansion
coefficient between room temperature and 150˚C. It is a consequence of shadow-mask
technology that the glass screen of the CRT curves inward on all four edges, increasing
the probability of reflected glare.
Sony’s ‘Trinitron’ technology overcame this problem and allowed greater brightness by
replacing the shadow mask by an aperture grill of fine vertical wires, each about 200 µm
in thickness, that allows the intended beam to strike either the red, the green or the blue
phosphor to create the image. The glass face of the Trinitron tube was curved in one
plane only, reducing glare.
The wires of the aperture grill are tightly stretched, so that they remain taut even when
hot – it is this tension that allows the greater brightness.
What index guides the choice of material to make them?
The table summarizes the requirements.
Function Aperture grill for CRT
Constraints Wire thickness and spacing specified
Must carry pre-tension without failure
Electrically conducting to prevent charging
Able to be drawn to wire
Objective Maximize permitted temperature rise without loss of tension
Free variables Choice of material
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
A thin, taut wire slackens and sags when the strain due to thermal expansion,
ε th = α∆T
exceeds the elastic strain caused by the pre-tension,
σ .
ε pt =
E
Here α is the thermal expansion coefficient of the wire, ∆T the temperature rise caused
by the electron beams that strike it, σ the tensile pre-stress in the wire and E its
modulus. We wish to maximize the brightness, and thus ∆T .
The tension is limited by the elastic limit of the wire, σ f . Inserting this and writing
ε pt ≥ ε th as the condition that the wire remains taut gives
σf
∆T =
Eα
The result could hardly be simpler. To maximize the brightness, maximize
σf
M= .
Eα
There is a second requirement. The wires must conduct, otherwise they would charge
up, distorting the image. We therefore require, also, that the material be a good
electrical conductor and that it is capable of being rolled or drawn to wire.
Applying the constraints listed in the table above to the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2
database and ranking the survivors by the index M leads to the selection listed below.
Material Comment
High Carbon steel Carbon steel is ferro-magnetic, so will interact with the
scanning magnetic fields – reject.
Commercially pure Extracting titanium from its oxide is difficult making it an

Titanium expensive option
Tungsten alloys A logical choice – tungsten has a high melting point and is
routinely produced as fine wire
Nickel-based Many nickel alloys are weakly ferromagnetic – reject for the
alloys same reason as carbon steel
M.F. Ashby 2013
The final choice, using this database, is stainless steel or tungsten. If the selection is
repeated using the more detailed Level 3 database and “All materials”, not just “All Bulk
Materials”, carbon fiber emerges as a potential candidate. Carbon fiber of the desired
diameter is available; it conducts well, both electrically and thermally, it has high strength
and – best of all – it has almost zero thermal expansion along the fiber direction.
56. Material index for a light, strong beam. In stiffness-limited applications, it is elastic
deflection that is the active constraint: it limits performance. In strength-limited
applications, deflection is acceptable provided the component does not fail; strength is
the active constraint. Derive the material index for selecting materials for a beam of
length L, specified strength and minimum weight, where the beam is secured at one end
as in a cantilever. For simplicity, assume the beam to have a solid square cross-section t
x t. You will need the equation for the failure load of a beam. It is
Iσ f
Ff =
ym L
where y m is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam and its outer most
surface and I = t 4 / 12 = A 2 / 12 is the second moment of the cross-section. y m = t/2
The table itemizes the design requirements
Neutral Axis
Function Beam
Constraints Length L is specified
Beam must support a bending load F without yield or fracture
Objective Minimize the mass of the beam
Free variables Cross-section area, A
Choice of material
M.F. Ashby 2013
Example light stiff beam – an oar.
Answer.
The objective is to minimize the mass, giving the objective function

m = AL ρ
Inverting the equation given in the question leads to an expression for the area A that will
support the design load F.
2/3
 F L
A = 6 
 σf 
 
Substituting A into the objective function gives the mass of the beam that will just support
the load F f :
 
m = (6 F )2/3 L5 / 3 
ρ 
2/3 
 σ f 
The mass is minimized by selecting materials with the largest values of the index
σ 2/3
f
M=
ρ
If the cantilever is part of a mechanical system it is important that it have sufficient

fracture toughness to survive accidental impact loads. For this we add the requirement
of adequate toughness:
K 1c > 15 MPa .m 1 / 2
M.F. Ashby 2013
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and ranking by the index M using the
CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed below.
Material Comment
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Exceptionally good, mainly because of its very low
Plastic (CFRP) density.
Metals: titanium, aluminum Here the light alloys out-perform steel

and magnesium alloys
57. Indices for stiff plates and shells Aircraft and space structures make use of plates and
shells. The index depends on the configuration. Here you are asked to derive the
material index for
(a) a circular plate of radius a carrying a central load W with a prescribed stiffness
S = W / δ and of minimum mass, and
(b) a hemispherical shell of radius a carrying a central load W with a prescribed stiffness
S = W / δ and of minimum mass, as shown in the figures.
Use the two results listed below for the mid-point deflection δ of a plate or spherical shell
under a load W applied over a small central, circular area.
3 W a2  3 +ν 
Circular plate: δ = ( 1 −ν 2 )  
4π E t 3  1 +ν 
Wa
Hemispherical shell δ = A ( 1 −ν 2 )
Et2
in which A ≈ 0.35 is a constant. Here E is Young’s modulus, t is the thickness of the plate
or shell and ν is Poisson’s ratio. Poisson’s ratio is almost the same for all structural
materials and can be treated as a constant. The table summarizes the requirements.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Function Stiff circular plate, or
Stiff hemispherical shell
Constraints Stiffness S under central load W specified
Radius a of plate or shell specified
Objective Minimize the mass of the plate or shell
Free variables Plate or shell thickness, t
Choice of material
Answer.
(a) The plate. The objective is to minimize the mass,
m = π a2 t ρ
where ρ is the density of the material of which the plate is made. The thickness t is
free, but must be sufficient to meet the constraint on stiffness. Inverting the first
equation in the question gives, for the plate,
1/ 3
 3 S a2 
t =  f 1 (ν )
 4π E 
 
where f 1 (ν ) is simply a function of ν , and thus a constant.
Inserting this into the equation for the mass gives
1/ 3
 2  ρ 
 1 / 3  f (ν )
3S a
m = π a2  
 4π  E 
 
The lightest plate is that made from a material with a large value of the index
E1/ 3
M1 =
ρ
(b) The hemispherical shell. The objective again is to minimize the mass,
m = 2π a2 t ρ
Inverting the second equation in the question gives, for the shell,
1/ 2
 Sa 
t = A  f 2 (ν )
 E 
M.F. Ashby 2013
where f 2 (ν ) as before is a function of ν , and thus a constant. (Possions ratio does
not vary very much between materials). Inserting this into the equation for the mass
gives
 ρ 
m = 2 π a 2 ( A S a )1 / 2   f (ν )
 E1/ 2 
The lightest shell is that made from a material with a large value of the index
E1/ 2
M2 =
ρ
The index for the shell differs from that for the plate, requiring a different choice of
material. This is because the flat plate, when loaded, deforms by bending. The
hemispherical shell, by contrast, carries membrane stresses (tension and compression in
the plane of the shell wall), and because of this is much stiffer. Singly-curved shells
behave like the plate, doubly-curved shells like the hemisphere.
The selection. Applying the three indices to the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database
gives the top-ranked candidates listed below.
Material Comment
E1/ 3 Natural materials: wood and plywood

High M 1 =
ρ Composites: CFRP
E1/ 2 Metals: aluminum and magnesium alloys superior

High M 2 =
ρ to all other metals.
Composites: CFRP.
Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C and AlN.
58. The C-clamp. The clamp has a square cross-section of width x and given depth b.
It is essential that the clamp have low thermal inertia so that it reaches temperature
quickly. The time t it takes a component of thickness x to reach thermal equilibrium when
the temperature is suddenly changed (a transient heat flow problem) is
x2
t ≈
2a
where the thermal diffusivity a = λ / ρ C p and λ is the thermal conductivity, ρ the
density and C p the specific heat.
M.F. Ashby 2013
The time to reach thermal equilibrium is reduced by making the section x thinner, but it
must not be so thin that it fails in service. Use this constraint to eliminate x in the
equation above, thereby deriving a material index for the clamp. Use the fact that the
clamping force F creates a moment on the body of the clamp of M = F L , and that the
xM
peak stress in the body is given by σ =
2 I
where I = b x 3 / 12 is the second moment of area of the body. The table summarizes the
requirements.
Function C-clamp of low thermal inertia
Constraints Depth b specified
Must carry clamping load F without failure
Objective Minimize time to reach thermal equilibrium
Free variables Width of clamp body, x
Choice of material
Answer.
The clamp will fail if the stress in it exceeds its elastic limit σ f . Equating the peak stress
1/ 2
 FL 
to σ f and solving for x gives x = 6 
 bσ f 
 
Inserting this into the equation for the time to reach equilibrium gives
F L  1 

t =3
b  a σ f 

The time is minimized by choosing materials with large values of the index
M.F. Ashby 2013
M = aσ f .
Additional constraints on modulus E > 50 GPa (to ensure that the clamp is sufficiently
stiff) on fracture toughness K 1c > 18 MPa.m 1 / 2 (to guard against accidental impact) and
on formability will, in practice, be needed.
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and formability, and ranking by the index
M using the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed
below.
Material Comment
Aluminum alloys The obvious candidate – good thermal conductor,

adequately stiff and strong, and easy to work.
Copper alloys Here the high thermal diffusivity of copper is

dominating the selection.
59. Springs for trucks. In vehicle suspension design it is desirable to minimize the mass of
all components. You have been asked to select a material and dimensions for a light
spring to replace the steel leaf-spring of an existing truck suspension. The existing leaf-
spring is a beam, shown schematically in the figure. The new spring must have the same
length L and stiffness S as the existing one, and must deflect through a maximum safe
displacement δmax without failure. The width b and thickness t are free variables.
Derive a material index for the selection of a material for this application. Note that this is
a problem with two free variables: b and t; and there are two constraints, one on safe
deflection δmax and the other on stiffness S. Use the two constraints to fix free variables.
M.F. Ashby 2013
The table catalogs the requirements.
Function • Leaf spring for truck

Constraints • Length L specified
• Stiffness S specified
• Maximum displacement
δ max specified
Objective • Minimize the mass
Free variables • Spring thickness t
• Spring width b
• Choice of material
Stiffnes S= F/δ
You will need the equation for the mid-point deflection of an elastic beam of length L
loaded in three-point bending by a central load F:
1 F L3
δ =
48 E I
and that for the deflection at which failure occurs
1σf L
2
δ max =
6 tE
where I is the second moment of area; for a beam of rectangular section, I = b t 3 / 12
and E and σ f are the modulus and failure stress of the material of the beam.
Answer.
The objective function – the quantity to be minimized – is the mass m of the spring:
m = bt L ρ (1)
where ρ is its density. The length L is fixed. The dimensions b and t are free. There are
two constraints. The first is a required stiffness, S. From the first equation given in the
question
F EI E bt3
S = = 48 = 4 (2)
δ L3 L3
The second constraint is that of a maximum allowable displacement δ max without
damage to the spring, given in the question as
1σf L
2
δ max = (3)
6 tE
M.F. Ashby 2013
Equations (2) and (3) can now be solved for t and b, and these substituted back into (1).
The result is
 
2 ρE
m = 9 S δ max L 
 σ 2f 
 
The mass of the spring is minimized by maximizing the index
σ 2f
M =
ρE
Additional constraints on fracture toughness K 1c > 15 MPa.m 1 / 2 (to guard against
accidental impact) and on formability will, in practice, be needed.
The selection. Applying the constraint on K 1c and formability, and ranking by the index
M using the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed
below.
Material Comment
Elastomers (rubber) Oops! We have missed a constraint here. Elastomers
excel as light springs, but the constraint on thickness t and
depth b in this application translates via equation (2) into an
additional constraint on modulus: E > SL3 / 4bt 3 .
Titanium alloys An expensive solution, but one that is lighter than steel.
CFRP CFRP makes exceptionally good light springs.
High carbon steel The standard solution, but one that is heavier than the
others above.
60. Fin for a rocket. A tube-launched rocket has stabilizing fins at its rear. During launch
the fins experience hot gas at T g = 1700 C for a time t = 0.3 seconds. It is important
o
that the fins survive launch without surface melting. Suggest a material index for
selecting a material for the fins. The table summarizes the requirements.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Function High heat transfer rocket fins
Constraints All dimensions specified

o
Must not suffer surface melting during exposure to gas at 1700 C for
0.3 seconds
Objective Minimize the surface temperature rise during firing
Maximize the melting point of the material
This is tricky. Heat enters the surface of the fin by transfer from the gas. If the heat
transfer coefficient is h, the heat flux per unit area is
q = h ( T g − Ts )
where Ts is the surface temperature of the fin – the critical quantity we wish to minimize.
Heat is diffused into the fin surface by thermal conduction.
If the heating time is small compared with the characteristic time for heat to diffuse
through the fin, a quasi steady-state exists in which the surface temperature adjusts itself
such that the heat entering from the gas is equal to that diffusing inwards by conduction.
This second is equal to
(Ts − Ti )
q =λ
x
where λ is the thermal conductivity, Ti is the temperature of the (cold) interior of the fin,
and x is a characteristic heat-diffusion length. When the heating time is short (as here)
the thermal front, after a time t, has penetrated a distance
x ≈ (2a t )1 / 2
where a = λ / ρ C p is the thermal diffusivity. Substituting this value of x in the previous
equation gives
(Ts − Ti )
(
q = λ ρ C p 1/ 2 )
2t
where ρ is the density and C p the specific heat of the material of the fin.
Proceed by equating the two equations for q, solving for the surface temperature Ts to
give the objective function. Read off the combination of properties that minimizes Ts ; it is
the index for the problem.
M.F. Ashby 2013
The selection is made by seeking materials with large values of the index and with a high
melting point, Tm . If the CES software is available, make a chart with these two as axes
and identify materials with high values of the index that also have high melting points.
Answer.
Equating the equations and solving for Ts gives
h Tg t + λ ρ C p Ti
Ts =
h t + λ ρCp
When t = 0 the surface temperature T s = Ti and the fin is completely cold. When t is
large, T s = T g and the surface temperature is equal to the gas temperature. For a given
t, T s is minimized by maximizing λ ρ C p . The first index is therefore
M1 = λ ρ C p
and index that often appears in problems involving transient heat flow. Melting is also
made less likely by choosing a material with a high melting point Tm . The second index
is therefore
M 2 = Tm
The selection. The figure shows the two indices, using the CES EduPack Level 2
database. The top-ranked candidates are listed below.
Material Comment
Silicon carbide, Silicon carbide out-performs all metals except tungsten, and is
SiC much lighter. If used, its brittleness would have to be reckoned
with.
Copper alloys The exceptional thermal conductivity of copper is dominating

here – it is able to conduct heat away from the surface quickly,
limiting the surface heating.
Aluminum alloys An attractive choice, since Al-alloys are also light
Aluminum – This metal matrix composite has almost the thermal conductivity
Silicon carbide of aluminum and is stiffer and stronger.
MMC
M.F. Ashby 2013
Handling Multiple Constraints and Objectives
The first two case studies in this section illustrate the problem of material selection with
multiple constraints. Each constraint would lead to its own material index and separate
performance equation. It can then be observed which equation is the limiting factor (“active
constraint”) in trying to achieve the objective. However by plotting a chart equating the
material indices it would then be possible to see which material indices would be the active
constraint and which materials should then be selected as the specifications of the design, or
functional requirements, are changed.
The remaining two concern multiple objectives and trade-off methods. . When a problem has
two objectives – minimizing both mass and cost of a component, for instance – a conflict
arises: the cheapest solution is not necessarily the lightest and vice versa. The best
combination is sought by constructing a trade-off plot using mass as one axis, and cost as the
other. To get further we need a penalty function with an exchange constant describing the
penalty associated with unit increase in mass, or, equivalently, the value associated with a
unit decrease. The best solutions are found where the line defined by this equation is
tangential to the trade-off surface.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Case Study on a Light, Stiff, Strong Tie (Multiple constraints)
61. A tie, of length L loaded in tension, is to support a load F, at minimum weight without
failing (implying a constraint on strength) or extending elastically by more than δ (implying
a constraint on stiffness, F / δ ). The table summarizes the requirements.
Function Tie rod
Constraints Must not fail by yielding under force F
Must have specified stiffness, F/δ
Length L and axial load F specified
Objective Minimize mass m
Free variables Section area A
Choice of material
Establish two performance equations for the mass, one for each constraint, from which
two material indices and one coupling equation linking them are derived. Show that the
two indices are
ρ ρ
M1 = and M2 =
E σy
and that a minimum is sought for both.
Use CES EduPack to produce a graph, which has the indices as axes, to identify
candidate materials for the tie when
(i) δ /L = 10-3 and (ii) δ /L = 10-2.
Remember y=ax Log(y)=Log(a)+Log(x).
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
The derivation of performance equations and the indices they contain is laid out here:
Objective Constraints Performance equation Index
Substitute for A
F E A Fρ ρ
Stiffness constraint = m1 = L2   M1 = (1)
δ L δ E E
m= AL ρ
Substitute for A
 ρ  ρ
Strength constraint F =σy A m2 = L F   M2 = (2)
σ y  σy
 
(The symbols have their usual meanings: A = area, L= length, ρ = density, F/δ =stiffness,
E = Young’s modulus, σ y = yield strength or elastic limit.)
The coupling equation is found by equating m1 to m2, giving
 ρ 
  = L  ρ 
σ y  δ E
 
defining the coupling constant Cc = L/δ. The chart below shows the positions of the
coupling line when L/δ = 100 and when L/δ = 10 (corresponding to the required values of
3
δ /L in the question) and the materials that are the best choice for each.
Coupling
lines
δ
= 10 - 3
L
δ
= 10 -2
L
M.F. Ashby 2013
Coupling Material choice Comment

condition
L/δ = 100 Ceramics: boron carbide, silicon These materials are available as fibers as
carbide well as bulk.
L/δ = 1000 Composites: CFRP; after that, If ductility and toughness are also
Ti, Al and Mg alloys required, the metals are the best choice.
The use of ceramics for a tie, which must carry tension, is normally ruled out by their low
fracture toughness – even a small flaw can lead to brittle failure. But in the form of fibers
both boron carbide and silicon carbide are used as reinforcement in composites, where
they are loaded in tension, and their stiffness and strength at low weight are exploited.
The CES EduPack software allows the construction of charts with axes that are
combinations of properties, like those of ρ / E and ρ / σ y shown here. You can also add
a line and specify its intercept with the y-axis and gradient using the section tab in the
dialogue box that opens on clicking the properties icon. However you cannot add more
than one line at a time in the software.
Case Study on a Light, Safe Pressure Vessel
62. When a pressure vessel has to be mobile; its weight becomes important. Aircraft bodies,
rocket casings and liquid-natural gas containers are examples; they must be light, and at
the same time they must be safe, and that means that they must not fail by yielding or by
fast fracture. What are the best materials for their construction? The table summarizes
the requirements.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Function Pressure vessel
Constraints Must not fail by yielding
Must not fail by fast fracture.
Diameter 2R and pressure difference ∆p specified
Objective Minimize mass m
Free variables Wall thickness, t
Choice of material
(a) Write, first, a performance equation for the mass m of the pressure vessel. Assume, for
simplicity, that it is spherical, of specified radius R, and that the wall thickness, t (the free
variable) is small compared with R.
Then the tensile stress in the wall is
∆p R
σ =
2t
where ∆p , the pressure difference across this wall, is fixed by the design. The first
constraint is that the vessel should not yield – that is, that the tensile stress in the wall
should not exceed σy. The second is that it should not fail by fast fracture; this requires
that the wall-stress be less than K 1c / π c , where K 1c is the fracture toughness of the
material of which the pressure vessel is made and c is the length of the longest crack that
the wall might contain.
(b) Use each of these in turn to eliminate t in the equation for m; use the results to identify
two material indices,
ρ ρ
M1 = and M2 =
σy K 1c
and a coupling relation between them.
It contains the crack length, c.
The figure shows the chart you will need with the two material indices as axes.
(c) Plot the coupling equation onto this figure for two values of c: one of 5 mm, the other 5
µm. Identify the lightest candidate materials for the vessel for each case.
You can add a line and specify its intercept with the y-axis and gradient using the section
tab in the dialogue box that opens on clicking the properties icon. However you cannot
M.F. Ashby 2013
add more than one line at a time in the software. Remember y=ax+c Log(ax) = Log(a) +
Log(x)
Answer.
(a) The objective function is the mass of the pressure vessel: m = 4 π R 2t ρ
∆p R
(b) The tensile stress in the wall of a thin-walled pressure vessel is: σ=
2t
Equating this first to the yield strength σ y , then to the fracture strength K 1c / πc and
substituting for t in the objective function leads to the performance equations and indices
laid out below:
Objective Constraints Performance equation Index
∆pR  ρ 
No Yield: σ= ≤ σy m1 = 2 π ∆ p.R 3 ⋅   M1 =
ρ
(1)
2t  σ f  σy
Substitute for t
m = 4 π R 2t ρ
M.F. Ashby 2013
∆pR K 1 C  ρ  ρ
No Fracture: σ = ≤ m 2 = 2π ∆p ⋅ R 3 (π c )1 / 2   M2 = (2)
2t πc K
 1c  K 1c
Substitute for t
The coupling equation is found by equating m1 = m2, giving a relationship between M1
and M2: M 1 = ( πc)1/2 M 2
(c) The position of the coupling line depends on the detection limit, c1 for cracks, through
the term (π c) .
1/2
The figure on the next page shows the appropriate chart with two coupling lines, one for c
= 5 mm and the other for c = 5µm.
The resulting selection is summarized in the table:
Coupling condition Material choice Comment
Titanium alloys These are the standard materials for

pressure vessels. Steels appear, despite
Crack length c ≤ 5 mm Aluminium
their high density, because their toughness
alloys
( πc = 0.125 ) and strength are so high
Steels
CFRP Ceramics, potentially, are attractive

structural materials, but the difficult of
Crack length c ≤ 5 µm Silicon carbide
fabricating and maintaining them with no
Silicon nitride
( πc = 3.96 x 10 −3 ) flaws greater than 5 µm is enormous
Alumina
Coupling line,
c = 5 microns
Coupling line,
c = 5 mm
M.F. Ashby 2013
In large engineering structures it is difficult to ensure that there are no cracks of length
greater than 1 mm; then the tough engineering alloys based on steel, aluminum and
titanium are the safe choice. In the field of MEMS (micro electro-mechanical systems), in
which films of micron-thickness are deposited on substrates, etched to shapes and then
loaded in various ways, it is possible – even with brittle ceramics – to make components
with no flaws greater than 1 µm in size. In this regime, the second selection given above
has relevance.
Case Study on an Air Cylinder for a Truck
63. Trucks rely on compressed air for braking and other power-actuated systems. The air is
stored in one or a cluster of cylindrical pressure tanks like that shown here (length L,
diameter 2R, hemispherical ends). Most are made of low-carbon steel, and they are
heavy. The task: to explore the potential of alternative materials for lighter air tanks,
recognizing that there must be a trade-off between mass and cost – if it is too expensive,
the truck owner will not want it even if it is lighter. The table summarizes the design
requirements.
Function Air Cylinder for Truck
Constraints Must not fail by yielding
Diameter 2R and length L specified, so the ratio Q = 2R/L is fixed.
Objectives Minimize material cost C
Minimize mass m
Free variables Wall Thickness, t
Choice of material
(a) Show that the mass and material cost of the tank relative to one made of low-carbon
steel are given by
m  ρ  σ y ,o  C  ρ  σ y ,o 
=   and =  Cm  
σ y  ρ o    
mo    Co  σ y  C m ,o ρ o 
M.F. Ashby 2013
where ρ is the density, σy the yield strength and Cm the cost per kg of the material,
and the subscript “o” indicates values for mild steel. Remember that the stress in the
wall of a pressure vessel, where t<<R, = PR/t,
(b) Explore the trade-off between relative cost and relative mass, considering the
replacement of a mild steel tank with one made, first, of low alloy steel, and, second,
one made of filament-wound CFRP, using the material properties in the table below
Define a relative penalty function,
m C
Z* = α* +
mo Co
where α is a relative exchange constant, and evaluate Z for α = 1 and for α = 100.
* * * *
Material Density ρ Yield strength σc Price per /kg Cm

3
(kg/m ) (MPa) ($/kg)
Mild steel 7850 314 0.702
Low alloy steel 7850 775 0.937
CFRP 1550 760 42.1
(c) Below is a chart with axes of m/mo and C/Co. Mild steel (here labelled “Low carbon
steel”) lies at the co-ordinates (1,1).
*
Sketch a trade-off surface and plot contours of Z that are approximately tangent to
the trade-off surface for α = 1 and for α = 100. What selections do these suggest?
* *
( Density / 7850 ) * ( 314 / Yield strength (elastic limit) )
Non age-hardening wrought Al-alloys
Zinc die-casting alloys Lead alloys
Low carbon steel

Copper
10
Cast iron, gray
Medium carbon steel
1
Nickel
High carbon steel
Low alloy steel

PEEK
0.1
CFRP
Age-hardening wrought Al-alloys

Titanium alloys
Wrought magnesium alloys

0.01
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

( Density / 7850 ) * ( 314 / Yield strength (elastic limit) ) * ( Price / 0.702 )
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
(a) The mass m of the tank is m = (2πR L t + 4π R 2 t ) ρ = (2πR L t (1 + Q)) ρ
where Q, the aspect ratio 2R/L, is fixed by the design requirements. The stress in the
wall of the tank caused by the pressure p must not exceed σ y , which is the yield strength
of the material of the tank wall, meaning that
pR
σ = ≤σy
t
Substituting for t, the free variable, gives
 ρ 
m = 2πR 2 L p ( 1 + Q) 
σ 
 y 
The material cost C is simply the mass m times the cost per kg of the material, Cm, giving
C ρ 
C = C m m = 2πR 2 L p ( 1 + Q ) m 
 σy 
 
from which the mass and cost relative to that of a low-carbon steel (subscript o) tank are
m  ρ  σ y ,o  C  ρ  σ y ,o 
=   and =  Cm  .
σ y  ρ o    
mo    Co  σ y  C m ,o ρ o 
(b) To get further we need a penalty function: The relative penalty function
m C
Z* = α* +
mo Co
This is evaluated for Low alloy steel and for CFRP in the table below, for α = 1 (meaning
*
*
that weight carries a low cost premium) – Low alloy steel has by far the lowest Z . But
when it is evaluated for α = 100 (meaning that weight carriers a large cost premium),
*
*
CFRP has the lowest Z .
(c) The figure shows the trade-off surface. Materials on or near this surface have
attractive combinations of mass and cost. Several are better than low-carbon steel. Two
contours of Z that just touch the trade-off line are shown, one for α = 1, the other for α
* * *
= 100 – they are curved because of the logarithmic axes. (Note for CES EduPack
enthusiasts: The trade surface is not dictated by an equation, but is in effect a wiggly line
created by the location of the material bubbles on the chart. This cannot be plotted using
the CES EduPack. You can however copy and paste the charts into WORD and add any
lines or curves you want to demonstrate your point. The Z* lines can be added (one at a
time) to the charts in CES EduPack by first adding them in the linear plot and then
changing the graph properties to a log plot.)
M.F. Ashby 2013
The first, for α = 1 identifies higher strength steels as good choices. This is because
*
their higher strength allows a thinner tank wall. The contour for α = 100 touches near
*
CFRP, aluminum and magnesium alloys – if weight saving is very highly valued, these
become attractive solutions.
* *
Material Density ρ Yield strength Price per /kg Z, Z,
(kg/m )
3
σc (MPa) * *
Cm ($/kg) α =1 α = 100
Mild steel 7850 314 0.702 2 101
Low alloy steel 7850 775 0.937 0.946 41.0
CFRP 1550 760 42.1 4.9 12.9

( Density / 7850 ) * ( 314 / Yield strength (elastic limit) )
Non age-hardening wrought Al-alloys
Zinc die-casting alloys Lead alloys
Low carbon steel

Copper
10
Cast iron, gray
Medium carbon steel
1
Nickel
High carbon steel
Low alloy steel

PEEK
0.1
CFRP
Age-hardening wrought Al-alloys

Titanium alloys
Wrought magnesium alloys

0.01
Z* with α* = 1 Z* with α* = 100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
( Density / 7850 ) * ( 314 / Yield strength (elastic limit) ) * ( Price / 0.702 )
M.F. Ashby 2013
Case Study on Insulating Walls for Freezers
64. Freezers and refrigerated trucks have panel-walls that provide thermal insulation, and at
the same time are stiff, strong and light (stiffness to suppress vibration, strength to
tolerate rough usage). To achieve this, the panels are usually of sandwich construction,
with two skins of steel, aluminum or GFRP (providing the strength) separated by, and
bonded to, a low density insulating core. In choosing the core we seek to minimize
thermal conductivity, λ, and at the same time to maximize stiffness, because this allows
thinner steel faces, and thus a lighter panel, while still maintaining the overall panel
stiffness. The table summarizes the design requirements.
Function Foam for panel-wall insulation
Constraints Panel wall thickness specified
Objective Minimize foam thermal conductivity, λ
Maximise foam stiffness, i.e. Young’s modulus, E
The graph below shows the thermal conductivity λ of foams plotted against their elastic
compliance 1 / E (the reciprocal of their Young’s moduli E, since we must express the
objectives in a form that requires minimization). The numbers in brackets are the
3
densities of the foams in Mg/m . The foams with the lowest thermal conductivity are the
least stiff; the stiffest have the highest conductivity. Explain the reasoning you would use
to select a foam for the truck panel using a penalty function.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
The steps in making a reasoned choice are as follows:
1. Sketch the trade-off surface: the low λ vs. low 1/E envelope of the data, as shown
below. The foams that lie on or near the surface are a better choice than those far
from it. This already eliminates a large number of foams and identifies the family
from which a choice should be made. Note that most metal foams are not a good
choice; only if the highest stiffness is wanted is the metal foam Aluminium-SiC (1.0)
an attractive choice.
2. Construct a penalty function:
1
Z = α1 λ + α 2  
E
Z is to be minimized, so α 1 is a measure of the value associated with reducing heat
flow; α 2 a measure of the value associated with reducing core compliance.
Rearranging the equations gives
Z α2  1 
λ = −  
α1 α1  E 
If the axes were linear, this equation would be that of a family of straight, parallel,
lines on the λ vs. 1/E diagram, of slope −α 2 / α 1 , each line corresponding to a value
of Z / α 1 . In fact the scales are logarithmic, and that leads instead to a set of curved
lines. One such line is sketched below for values α 2 / α 1 = 0.01 (meaning that
thermal insulation is considered very important, and stiffness less important) and for
α 2 / α 1 = 100 (meaning the opposite). The foam nearest the point at which the
penalty lines are tangent to the trade-off surface is the best choice. In the first
3
example PVC foam with a density of about 0.1 Mg/m is the best choice, but in the
second a ceramic or even a metal foam is a better choice.
Ceramic foams are brittle. This probably rules them out for the truck body because is
exposed to impact loads. But in other applications ceramic foams – particularly glass
foams – are viable.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Ceramic
foams Metal foams
Penalty line
for α1/α2 = 100
C
Polymer
foams
Penalty line
for α1/α2 = 0.1
M.F. Ashby 2013
Economic Factors
In design, and materials selection, the science dominates the constraints and considerations,
but engineers and materials scientists cannot work in isolation from the world around them.
There are environmental, social, and political factors as well, but one of the most common
factors to consider when designing a product has to be the price of it relative to the budget of
its target audience. In this section are examples with minimizing cost as the main objective.
(See Unit 6 for questions where the environment is considered.)
65. (a) Use the Young’s modulus-Price (E – Cm) chart to find the cheapest materials with a
modulus, E, greater than 100 GPa.
(b) Use the Strength-Price ( σ f − C m ) chart to find the cheapest materials with a
strength, σ f , above 100MPa.
Answer.
(a) The two cheap classes of material that meet the constraints are cast irons and carbon
steels.
(b) Cast irons and steels are again the best choice. It is because of their high stiffness
and strength at low cost that they are so widely used.
66. Plot a Modulus-Price (E – Cm) chart to find, from among the materials that appear on it,
(a) The cheapest material with a modulus greater than 1 GPa
(b) The cheapest metal
(c) The cheapest polymer
(d) whether magnesium alloys are more or less expensive than aluminum alloys
(e) whether PEEK (a high performance engineering polymer) is more or less expensive
than PTFE
Answer.
(a) concrete; (b) cast iron; (c) polypropylene; (d) magnesium alloys are more expensive
than aluminum alloys; (e) PEEK is much more expensive than PTFE, which itself is an
expensive polymer.
M.F. Ashby 2013
67. It is proposed to replace the cast iron casing of a power tool with one with precisely the
same dimensions molded from nylon. Will the material cost of the nylon casing be
greater or less than that made of cast iron?
Answer.
If the dimensions of the cast iron and nylon cases are the same, the volume of material
required to make them are equal. Thus the cheaper option is the one with the lower
material cost per unit volume C v , where C v = ρ C m ( ρ is the material density and C m
the material cost per kg). Surprisingly, the nylon casing has a lower material cost than
that made of cast iron.
68. A material is required for a tensile tie to link the front and back walls of a barn to stabilize
both. It must meet a constraint on stiffness and be as cheap as possible. To be safe the
1/2
material of the tie must have a fracture toughness K 1c > 18 MPa.m . The relevant
material index is M = E / C m ρ . (E is the elastic modulus, ρ the material density and
C m the material cost per kg).
Construct a chart of E plotted against Cmρ. Add the constraint of adequate fracture
1/2
toughness, meaning K 1c > 18 MPa.m , using a “Limit” stage. Then plot an appropriate
selection line on the chart and report the 3 materials that are the best choices for the tie.
Answer.
All 3 are plain-carbon steels: High carbon steel, Medium carbon steel, Low carbon steel.
69. Columns support compressive loads: the legs of a table; the pillars of the Parthenon.
Derive the index for selecting materials for the cheapest cylindrical column of specified
height, H, that will safely support a load F without buckling elastically. You will need the
equation for the load Fcrit at which a slender column buckles. It is
M.F. Ashby 2013
n2 π 2 E I
Fcrit =
H2
where n is a constant that depends on the end constraints and I = π r 4 / 4 = A 2 / 4π is
the second moment of area of the column. The table lists the requirements.
Function Cylindrical column
Constraints Length L is specified
Column must support a compressive load F without buckling
Objective Minimize the material cost of the column
Free variables Cross-section area, A
Choice of material
Answer.
A slender column uses less material than a fat one, and thus is cheaper; but it must not
be so slender that it will buckle under the design load, F. The objective function is the
cost
C = A H ρ Cm
Where C m is the cost/kg of the material of the column. It will buckle elastically if F
exceeds the Euler load, Fcrit , given in the question. Eliminating A between the two
equations, using the definition of I, gives:
1/2
4F  C ρ
C ≥   H 2  m 
 nπ   E 1/2 
The material cost of the column is minimized by choosing materials with the largest value
of the index
E1 2
M=
Cm ρ
The loading here is compressive, so brittle materials are viable candidates. Since some
are also very cheap, they dominate the selection. Applying the index M to the CES
EduPack Level 1 or 2 database gives the top-ranked candidates listed below.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Material Comment
Ceramics: brick, concrete, The low cost and fairly high modulus makes these
cement and stone the top-ranked candidates.
Wood Exceptional stiffness parallel to the grain, and

cheap.
Carbon steel, cast iron Steel out-performs all other materials when strength
at low cost is sought.
* Cm is the cost/kg of the processed material, here, the material in the form of a circular rod or
column.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Longer Questions
70. Elastic beams with differing constraints. Start each of the four parts of this problem
by listing the function, the objective and the constraints. You will need the equations for
the deflection of a cantilever beam with a square cross-section t x t. The two that matter
are that for the deflection δ of a beam of length L under an end load F:
F L3
δ = (1)
3 EI
and that for the deflection of a beam under a distributed load f per unit length:
1 f L4
δ = (2)
8 EI
where I = t 4 / 12 . For a self-loaded beam f = ρ A g where ρ is the density of the
material of the beam, A its cross-sectional area and g the acceleration due to gravity.
(a) Show that the best material for a cantilever beam of given length L and given square
cross-section (t x t) that will deflect least under a given end load F is that with the
largest value of the index M = E, where E is Young's modulus (neglect self-weight).
(Figure a)
(b) Show that the best material choice for a cantilever beam of given length L and with a
given section (t x t) that will deflect least under its own self-weight is that with the
largest value of M = E/ρ, where ρ is the density. (Figure b)
(c) Show that the material index for the lightest cantilever beam of length L and square
section (not given, i.e., the area is a free variable) that will not deflect by more than δ
under its own weight is M = E / ρ 2 . (Figure c)
(d) Show that the lightest cantilever beam of length L and square section (area free)
that will not deflect by more than δ under an end load F is that made of the
material with the largest value of M = E 1 / 2 / ρ (neglect self weight). (Figure d)
M.F. Ashby 2013
Answer.
The point of this problem is that the material index depends on the mode of loading, on
the geometric constraints and on the design objective.
(a) The table lists the design requirements for part (a) of the problem.
Function End-loaded cantilever beam
Constraints Length L specified
Section t x t specified
End load F specified
Objective Minimize the deflection, δ
Free variables Choice of material only
The objective function is an equation for the deflection of the beam. An end-load F
produces a deflection δ of
F L3
δ =
3 EI
where E is the modulus of the beam material and I = t 4 / 12 is the second moment of
the area, so that the deflection becomes
F L3  1 
δ = 4  
t4  E 
The magnitude of the load F and the dimensions L and t are all given. The deflection
δ is minimized by maximizing M1 = E.
(b) The design requirements for part (b) are listed below
Function Self-loaded cantilever beam
Section t x t specified
Objective Minimize the deflection, δ
Free variables Choice of material only
The beam carries a distributed load, f per unit length, where
f = ρ gt2
M.F. Ashby 2013
where ρ is the density of the beam material and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Such a load produces a deflection
3 f L4 3 g L4  ρ 
δ = =  
2 E t4 2t2  E 
(the objective function). As before, t and L are given. The deflection is hence minimized
by maximizing
E
M2 =
ρ
(c) The design requirements for part (c) are listed below:
Function Self-loaded cantilever beam
Maximum deflection, δ , specified
Objective Minimize the mass, m
Section area A = t 2
The beam deflects under its own weight but now the section can be varied to reduce the
weight provided the deflection does not exceed δ , as in the figure. The objective
function (the quantity to be minimized) is the mass m of the beam
m = t2 L ρ
Using equation (2) above and putting in values for f and I in terms of t and then
substituting for t (the free variable) into the mass equation, gives
3 g L5  ρ 2 
m =
2δ  E 
 
The quantities L and δ are given. The mass is minimized by maximizing
E
M3 =
ρ2
(d) The design requirements for part (d) are listed below
M.F. Ashby 2013
Function End-loaded cantilever beam
End-load F specified
Maximum deflection, δ , specified
Objective Minimize the mass, m
Section area A = t 2
The section is square, but the dimension t is free. The objective function is
m = t2L ρ
The deflection is, as in part (a)
F L3  1 
δ = 4  
t4  E 
Using this to eliminate the free variable, t, gives
1/ 2
 F L5   ρ 
m = 2  
 1/ 2


 δ  E 
 
The quantities F, δ and L are given. The mass is minimized by maximizing
E1/ 2
M4 =
ρ
From a selection standpoint, M3 and M4 are equivalent.
The selection. Applying the three indices to the CES EduPack Level 1 or 2 database
gives the top-ranked candidates listed below.
M.F. Ashby 2013
Index Material choice
Metals: tungsten alloys, nickel alloys, steels.
High M1 = E Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C, Al2O3 and AlN, but of course all
are brittle.
Metals: aluminum, magnesium, nickel and titanium alloys and

steels all have almost the same value of E / ρ
E
High M 2 =
ρ Composites: CFRP
All technical ceramics
E Metals: aluminum and magnesium alloys superior to all other

High M 3 =
2
ρ metals.
Composites: CFRP excels

E1/ 2
High M 4 =
ρ Ceramics: SiC, Si3N4, B4C, Al2O3 and AlN
Case Study on a Cheap Column that must not Buckle or Crush
71. The best choice of material for a light strong column depends on its aspect ratio: the ratio
of its height H to its diameter D. This is because short, fat columns fail by crushing; tall
slender columns buckle instead. Derive two performance equations for the material cost
of a column of solid circular section and specified height H, designed to support a load F
large compared to its self-load, one using the constraints that the column must not crush,
the other that it must not buckle. The table below summarizes the needs:
Function Column
Constraints Must not fail by compressive crushing
Must not buckle
Height H and compressive load F specified.
Objective Minimize material cost C
Free variables Diameter D
Choice of material
M.F. Ashby 2013
(a) Proceed as follows:
• Write down an expression for the material cost of the column – its mass times its cost
per unit mass, Cm.
• Express the two constraints as equations, and use them to substitute for the free
variable, D, to find the cost of the column that will just support the load without failing
by either mechanism. (Hint: Remember the open access booklet Useful Solutions for
Standard Problems contains Second Moments of Area and Buckling equations.)
• Identify the material indices M1 and M2 that enter the two equations for the mass,
showing that they are
C ρ  C ρ 
M 1 =  m  and M2 =  m 
 σc   E 1/2 
where C m is the material cost per kg, ρ the material density, σ c its crushing
strength and E its modulus.
(b) Data for six possible candidates for the column are listed in the Table. Use these to
5
identify candidate materials when F = 10 N and H = 3m. Ceramics are admissible here,
because they have high strength in compression.
Data for candidate materials for the column
Material Density ρ Cost/kg Modulus E Compression

(kg/m )
3
(MPa) strength, σ c
Cm ($/kg)
(MPa)
Wood (spruce) 700 0.5 10,000 25
Brick 2100 0.35 22,000 95
Granite 2600 0.6 20,000 150
Poured concrete 2300 0.08 20,000 13
Cast iron 7150 0.25 130,000 200
Structural steel 7850 0.4 210,000 300
Al-alloy 6061 2700 1.2 69,000 150
M.F. Ashby 2013
(c) Below is a material chart with the two indices as axes. Identify and plot coupling lines for
5
selecting materials for a column with F = 10 N and H = 3m (the same conditions as
3
above), and for a second column with F = 10 N and H = 20m.
Answer.
This exercise illustrates the method of solving over-constrained problems. This one
concerns materials for a light column with circular section which must neither buckle nor
crush under a design load F. The cost, C, is to be minimized:
π
C = D 2 H Cm ρ
4
where D is the diameter (the free variable) and H the height of the column, Cm is the
cost per kg of the material and ρ is its density. The column must not crush, requiring that
4F
≤ σc
π D2
where σc is the compressive strength. Nor must it buckle:
π 2 EI
F≤
H2
The right-hand side is the Euler buckling load in which E is Young’s modulus. The
second moment of area for a circular column is
M.F. Ashby 2013
π 4
I= D
64
The subsequent steps in the derivation of performance equations are laid out below:
Objective Constraint Performance equation
Substitute for D
π D2 C ρ 
Crushing constraint Ff ≤ σc C1 = F H  m  (1)
4  σc 
π
C = D 2 H Cm ρ
4
Substitute for D
π 2 EI π3 D4 E 2 C ρ 
Buckling constraint F ≤ = C2 = F 1/2 H 2  m  (2)
H2 64 H 2 π 1/2  E 1/2 
C ρ  C ρ 
The performance equations contain the indices M 1 =  m  and M 2 =  m  .
 σc   E 1/2 
~
This is a min-max problem: we seek the material with the lowest (min) cost C which itself
is the larger (max) of C1 and C2. The two performance equations are evaluated in the
~
table, which also lists C = max ( C1 , C 2 ). for a column of height H = 3m, carrying a load F
5
= 10 N. The cheapest choice is concrete.
Material Density ρ Cost/kg Modulus Compression C1 C2 ~

C
(kg/m )
3
Cm ($/kg) E (MPa) strength σc
$ $ $
(MPa)
Wood (spruce) 700 0.5 10,000 25 4.2 11.2 11.2
Brick 2100 0.35 22,000 95 2.3 16.1 16.1
Granite 2600 0.6 20,000 150 3.1 35.0 35.0
Poured concrete 2300 0.08 20,000 13 4.3 4.7 4.7
Cast iron 7150 0.25 130,000 200 2.6 16.1 16.1
Structural steel 7850 0.4 210,000 300 3.0 21.8 21.8
Al-alloy 6061 2700 1.2 69,000 150 6.5 39.5 39.5
The coupling equation is found by equating C1 to C2 giving
M.F. Ashby 2013
1/ 2
π 1/2  F 
M2 = ⋅  
 ⋅M1
2 H2 
2
It contains the structural loading coefficient F/H . Two positions for the coupling line are
2 2 5
shown, one corresponding to a low value of F/H = 0.011 MN/m (F = 10 N, H = 3 m)
2 2 7
and to a high one F/H = 2.5 MN/m (F = 10 N, H = 2 m), with associated solutions.
Remember that, since E and σ c are measured in MPa, the load F must be expressed in
units of MN.
Coupling
lines
2
Large F/H
2
Small F/H
M.F. Ashby 2013
Author
Professor Mike Ashby
University of Cambridge, Granta Design Ltd.
www.grantadesign.com
www.eng.cam.ac.uk
Reproduction
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can reproduce these resources in order to use them with
students, provided you have purchased access to Granta’s
Teaching Resources. Please make sure that Mike Ashby and
Granta Design are credited on any reproductions. You cannot
use these resources for any commercial purpose.
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We try hard to make sure these resources are of a high
quality. If you have any suggestions for improvements, please
contact us by email at teachingresources@grantadesign.com.
Open Access Resources include:

Interactive Case Studies
Getting Started Guides
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You can register for a user name and password for these
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Other Resources Available:

25 PowerPoint lecture units
Exercises with worked solutions
Recorded webinars
Posters
White Papers
Solution Manuals
© M. F. Ashby, 2013
Granta’s Teaching Resources website aims to support teaching of materials-related courses in Engineering, Science and Design.
The resources come in various formats and are aimed at different levels of student.
This resource is part of a set of resources created by Professor Mike Ashby and Granta design to help introduce materials,
materials selection and their environmental impact to students.
The website also contains other resources donated by faculty at the 800+ universities and colleges worldwide using Granta’s CES
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M.F. Ashby 2013

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Exercises with Worked Solutions

(To accompany Lecture Unit 7)

Professor Mike Ashby

Exercises with Worked Solutions

• Materials Selection for Mechanical Design by Michael F. Ashby (ISBN-13:

Topics on which there are Exercises with Worked Solutions are1:

Title Associated Lecture Unit

You can find the other units here: www.grantadesign.com/education/resources

Material Selection Process .................................................................................................... 3

Material Selection Process

Name 3 constraints you screened on.

Name 2 objectives you ranked on.

Where did you get your data?

What documentation did you read?

Examples may be:

Size - Fits in my handbag or on the table top.

Functionality - Has to be able to do x e.g. receive FM radio or call abroad.

Gets highest reviews online

Shop labels, shop website, shop assistants, consumer magazines.

User manuals, online review sites.

Using CES EduPack Graph Stage to select materials

Browse Search Select Tools

2. Selection Stages X-axis Y-axis

Graph Limit Tree List of properties

Label two (or more) materials by clicking on the bars.

Low alloy steels

CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)

Silicone elastomers (SI, Q)

Rigid Polymer Foam (LD)

Set the Y-axis to plot price.

1000 Aluminum nitride

Ceramic foam Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)

0.1 Plywood Cast iron, gray

4. Which is the cheapest material per unit volume?

Concrete and Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)

Click on “Select” Browse Search Select Tools

Then select “Edu Level 1” 1. Selection data

Graph Limit Tree List of properties

Label two (or more) materials by clicking on the bubbles.

Switch on the envelopes by clicking the icon

Do any metals have yield strength less than 10 MPa (2 ksi)?

(120 lbs/cubic ft).

In materials selection, however, it is more common to use the GRADIENT-LINE selection

Both exercises lead to CFRP.

Using CES EduPack Limit Stage to select materials

Browse Search Select Print Search web

Material 1 2230 113 Electrical conductor

All are ferrous alloys:

• Cast iron, ductile (nodular)

Aluminum Nitride, Alumina, Silicon Nitride.

Only the magnesium alloys survive.

3000BCE Metals and alloys Gold

Commercially pure lead

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Paper and cardboard Sandstone Cement

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

100 Natural rubber (NR)

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Metals and alloys

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Metals and alloys

0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Using CES EduPack Tree Stage to select materials