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1.0 Introduction
For millennia, music has been a source of debate, inspiration and unification across the world (Shäfer
et al. 2013). Although the aspects of interpersonal relationships that can be formulated, changed or
ceased due to differing music preferences have been studied, the intrapersonal factors which
contribute to the well-being of an individual are lesser known (Demos et al. 2012). It is accepted that
music with a high tempo correlates to increased arousal (Hussain, Thompson & Shellenberg 2002),
however, the impact of preferences is yet to be seen. The aim of this research is to ascertain whether
differing music preferences elicit different physiological responses when listening to arousing music.
The independent variable is music preference and the dependent variable is heart rate. Prior research
(Greenberg et al. 2015) states that music preference is linked to heart rate, therefore it can be
hypothesised that a preference for relaxing music (Preference B) will trigger a larger increase in heart
rate than participants who prefer arousing music (Preference A) when listening to arousing music. 30
Year 12 students across two classes in one South Australian school were chosen to participate,
including 15 males and 15 females. Using quantitative observational research methods, the heart rate of
participants will be used as the dependent variable to indicate levels of arousal yielding objective
quantitative data.
2.0 Results
Figure 1; the impact of music preference on arousal levels when listening to arousing music
3.0 Discussion
3.1 Interpretation
Figure 1 shows that, when listening to arousing music, people with a preference for relaxing music
experience a higher change in heart rate than those who prefer arousing music. This is depicted using
a bar graph due to the discrete data type. Preference A (arousing) elicited a mean increase of 3.9 beats
per minute (BPM), meaning participants in this category experience heightened arousal levels as a
result of the exposure to arousing music. People indicating Preference B (relaxing) had a mean
increase in heart rate of 5.5 BPM, therefore the hypothesis is supported; when listening to arousing
music, people with a preference for relaxing music experience a higher mean change in heart rate than
those who prefer arousing music.
A key piece of information when interpreting data is to include how much the results deviate from the
mean. In the case of Preference A, the standard deviation is 6.2, meaning the results are not likely to
be subject to outliers. In contrast, Preference B has a standard deviation of 13.5. A small sample size
can be attributed to these deviations due to individual outlier data points.
3.2 Evaluation
3.2.1 Sample size and representativeness
A sample size of 30 participants meant that individual data points had a significant impact on the
standard deviation and mean results. This small sample size was not representative of the population
due to the small cohort of students from one school, meaning data can not be generalised to the
greater population.
3.2.2 Strengths and weaknesses (limitations to validity and reliability)
Each participant recorded their heart rate for 15 seconds and multiplied this by four to get the beats per
minute (BPM). This was done before and after the music segment and written down on a self-reporting
form. Even if the participants sought to provide accurate readings, they manually recorded one’s own
heart rate using a personal timing device such as a mobile phone or stopwatch. Although this method
can be used to identify significant deviations from normal cardiac rhythms in medical settings, the
accuracy required in this research can not be obtained. Limitations to validity may have included
inaccurate timing mechanisms, or that participants may have incorrectly counted the number of beats
in a set period. Data recording showed limitations to validity as only 29 data points are of use, as one
participant reported a rate outside the functioning range of a human heart. Whether results were
fabricated to obscure results or due to a lack of procedural knowledge by students, this contributes to
unreliable data as a result. An alternative would be to use an independent medical professional to
provide one-to-one heart rate monitoring and recording. Using an automatic heart rate monitor,
inaccuracies would be negated and thus lead to reliable and valid data.
In addition, the presence of the researchers during data collection can impact validity. Known as
observer bias, their cognitive ideals may have impacted participants’ behaviour. As the researchers
were secondary school teachers, they were required to closely monitor student behaviour. This may
have resulted in discomfort when sharing information one deems personal- such as heart rate- leading
to fabricated data. The researchers may have also pushed their opinions about how the survey should
run onto the participants to create preferable results. A way to reduce the effects of this would be to
employ an independent psychologist with no affiliation to the researchers to conduct the study
alongside the medical professional. Because of these weaknesses relating to the lack of available
resources, it is unlikely a repeated test would yield the same results, alluding to unreliable and invalid
research.
The cohort used each other’s data for individual investigations, meaning favourable outcomes may
have been recorded to skew the results. As the research was conducted during lesson time, some
students may have hastened the investigation to complete other coursework succeeding completion.
Whether intentional or not, time pressures such as this meant participants may have incorrectly entered
their results. Additionally, the classroom setting meant that some people were unable to hear due to
distractions, with uncontrolled seating arrangements contributing to this. These weaknesses could be
negated by ensuring the students create private appointments with an independent researcher. In the
absence of peers, researcher bias and time pressures that are associated with lessons, a more valid
dataset could be recorded.
The methodology required participants to choose between Preference A (arousing) or Preference B
(relaxing). This was done by showing participants a range of genres such as ‘heavy metal’, ‘techno’ and
‘punk’ for the former and ‘light’, ‘classical’ and ‘R&B’ for the latter. Table 1 was created by the South
Australian Certificate of Education Board and participants were asked to circle which preference they
best identify with. Although some may prefer one of these genres over the other, a representative
sample of the population must include more options for music preferences. Rentfrow, Goldberg and
Levitin (2012) state that styles such as sophisticated, mellow, urban, intense and campestral are better
indicators of music preference. They recommend these five genre-free categories as they represent
the emotive responses associated with the community who identify with the respective music tastes.
Moreover, they describe one particular style of music, unlike ‘classical’ which could refer to either the
use of an orchestra or old music depending on the circumstances. Further weaknesses include the
inclusion of ‘classical’ as a type of relaxing music, when the segment of arousing music played to
participants was in fact categorized as ‘classical’. The research’s validity is therefore questionable, as it
may not be measuring the correct music preference. Additional improvements would be to use music
preferences that offer more variety to accurately capture the preferences of participants and thus be
standardised across studies.
Table 1: Music preference selection table used by participants
Type of Music Music Preference Type of Music Music Preference
* all electronic dance (up-tempo) music including ‘hip-hop’, ‘house’, ‘trance’, ‘chill-out’, etc.
§ all ‘mood’ or ‘pop instrumental’ music, including ‘lounge’, ‘easy listening’, etc.
3.3 Ethical considerations
Secondary school classrooms are not always an appropriate setting to conduct psychological research,
meaning there are weaknesses relating to this. Although participants were given a unique identification
number to attach to their data, this was done in a setting shared with other participants who were
simultaneously completing the experiment. Peers could trace classmates’ data back to individual
people and may have caused participants to fabricate data in order to appear a certain way to their
peers. Confidentiality was not upheld due to these reasons.
All participants were required to give informed consent to the researchers prior to the investigation.
Conducted in an educational environment, the process was promoted as an integral part of a holistic
learning experience. Choosing not to participate was portrayed by the researchers to be of detriment
to the student, citing repercussions for their school-based assessment. Although this would likely result
in participation from all students, they may not have felt comfortable in doing so as they were not given
the right to withdraw. The cohort was debriefed following the study and informed of resources to assist
them if they had questions or were troubled by the study.
4.0 Conclusion
The research shows a possible correlation between the music preference and arousal levels of
teenagers when exposed to arousing music, however, several weaknesses of the study provide an
inconclusive result. Inappropriate resources and settings, unreliable timing mechanisms for the
recording of heart rates, non-standardised measures and unethical practices weaken the framework of
which the data is built upon, meaning the hypothesis can not be supported. In order to provide
conclusive evidence of the correlation, these issues must be rectified and another test completed.
References
Demos, A.P., Chaffin, R., Begosh, K.T., Daniels, J.R. and Marsh, K.L., 2012. Rocking to the beat: Effects
of music and partner's movements on spontaneous interpersonal coordination. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: General, 141(1), p.49.
Greenberg, DM, Baron-Cohen, S, Stillwell, DJ, Kosinski, M, Rentfrow, PJ 2015, ‘Musical Preferences are
Linked to Cognitive Styles’, PLOS One, viewed 6 March 2018,
<http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131151>.
Husain G, Thompson, WF & Schellenberg EG 2002, ‘Effects of Musical Tempo and Mode on Arousal,
Mood, and Spatial Abilities’, University of Toronto, Music Perception, vol. 20, no. 2, viewed 6 March
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Rentfrow, PJ, Goldberg, LR & Levitin, DJ 2012, ‘The Structure of Musical Preferences: A Five-Factor
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<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3138530/>.
Schäfer, T, Sedlmeier, P, Städtler C & Huron, D 2013, ‘The psychological functions of music listening’,
National Institutes of Health, viewed 8 March 2018,
<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3741536/>.
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