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Introduction
1.1Background
Again in Power System, Frequency is one of the most important and sensitive
parameter in power system. Any variation in power system is eventually
reflected the change in frequency. A change in frequency leads to change in
system reactance and the operation of several relays such as reactance relay is
affected. Frequency is a measure of mismatch between power generation and
load demand. If load demand is greater than power generation under
frequency situation arises and if generation is greater than load demand over
frequency situation arises, in either case change in frequency poses a threat to
efficiency, safety of entire system and increase in chances of system collapse,
thus frequency is an integral part of power system protection, power quality
monitoring, and operation and control of devices using digital technology.
Hence the accurate estimation and tracking of system frequency is of utmost
important. Due to development of several electronics and other non linear
devices, the present power system is subjected to several undesirable
conditions such as presence of noise and harmonics etc. Keeping in mind
several undesirable conditions and also taking into account the dynamic
phenomenon of frequency variation conventional frequency estimation based
on constant frequency assumption are not suitable for achieving accurate
frequency estimation.
Duric, M.B et al; [3] proposed a new approach to the design of a digital
algorithm for network frequency estimation. Derivation of the proposed
algorithm is based on Fourier and zero crossing technique. Fourier method is
used as digital filter and zero crossing technique is applied to the cosine and
sine components of the original signal which can be corrupted by higher
harmonics. Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) is used by many researchers for
frequency estimation of a signal, the conventional DFT shows excellent
performance when the signals contains fundamental and integer harmonics
component [4]. presence of decaying dc component in a signal and the implicit
data window in DFT, introduce fairly large errors in the estimation when
frequency deviates from the nominal value.[5] To improve the performance of
DFT, some approaches has been mentioned by some authors [6-8] like
feedback loop by turning the sampling interval, adjusting the data window
length, changing the nominal frequency used in DFT iteratively, correcting the
gains of orthogonal filter and tuning the weighted factor recursively
respectively. Theoretically the decaying component can be completely
removed from the original waveform once its parameter can be obtained.
Some of the authors added some samples to calculate the parameter of the
decaying component based on this idea. The effect of DC components by DFT
is eliminated by using the outputs of even-sample set and odd-sample set.
Some authors estimate the parameter of the DC of decaying component by
using the phase-angle difference between voltage and current.
Sidhu et al; [12] proposed a revised digital algorithm called Smart Discrete
Fourier Transforms to estimate the frequency of a sinusoidal signal with
harmonics in real time. This algorithm smartly avoids the errors which are
coming due to the deviation of frequency from nominal frequency and always
associated with all the advantages of DFT [4], although this approach is
suitable for measurement of frequency over a wide-range, the on-line
application requires a trade-off between the accuracy and computational
complexity.
T.Lobes et al; [13] Proposed Prony estimation technique along with Discrete
Fourier Transform (DFT) which is a static state algorithm for power system
frequency estimation with a variable data window to eliminate the noise and
harmonics associated with a signal. Least square algorithm along with
orthogonal FIR digital filter presented by the same author [13] for
measurement of frequency in the operating condition of a power system.This
algorithm is capable of producing a correct and noise free estimate for near
nominal, nominal and off nominal in very short duration.
Arghya Sarkar, [16] proposed a novel digital signal processing algorithm for
online estimation of the fundamental frequency of the distorted power system
signals. The basic algorithm relies on the development of an efficient variance
reduction algorithm and design of a new stable band pass infinite impulse
response (IIR), second-degree digital integrator (SDDI) with reduced
approximation error. Compared with the well-established technique such as
the enhanced-phase-locked-loop (EPLL) system, the proposed algorithm
provides higher degree of immunity and insensitivity to harmonics and noise
and faster response during step frequency change.
YiliXial et al; [21] proposed a novel technique for online estimation of the
fundamental frequency of unbalanced three-phase power systems based on
Clarke’s transformation and widely linear complex domain modeling, the
proposed method makes use of the full second-order information within three-
phase signals, thus promising enhanced and robust frequency estimation. The
proposed method is also less sensitive to the variations of the three-phase
voltage amplitudes over time and in the presence of higher order harmonics.
Least Mean Square (LMS) [22] algorithm is adopted where the formulated
structure looks very simple and it has been observed that this algorithm is
found to be accurate under various systems changing condition to estimate
correct measure of frequency. Pradhan et al; [23] proposed a Least Mean
Square algorithm in complex form to estimate the frequency of a power
system. This estimation of frequency is verified in the presence of noise, with
frequency jump and data collected from real time system. The presence of 3 rd
harmonic in the signal does not affect the performance of the algorithm as the
3rd harmonic component is eliminated during Clarks transform. But the
presence of 5th harmonic component affects the performance of the algorithm,
so a Butterworth Filter used for pre filtering shows the correctness of the
estimation with less error.
A Variable Step Size LMS (VSSLMS) has been proposed [24] to get more
accurate and better convergence in estimation over conventional LMS
algorithm. Disturbances exist in a signal do not affect the estimation
performance using VSSLMS algorithm. Step size of this algorithm is adjusted
by autocorrelation of square of time averaging estimate error and previous
error. The auto-correlation error is a good measure of the proximity to the
optimum and it rejects the effect of uncorrelated noise sequence in the step
size update. However, this VSSLMS provides faster convergence at early
stages of adaptation while there is little deviation in the later stage.
Soliman Abdel-Hady [28] proposed a new application for linear Kalman Filter
algorithm for power system frequency estimation. The filter uses the digitized
samples of the three-phase voltages or current waveform signals. These three
phases are transformed into two phases, using the well-known αβ –
transformation matrix. Having obtained the signal of the two new phases, a
complex phasor is constructed using the new two-phase voltages. Kalman
filter is then applied to extract the frequency and phase angle of the
fundamental component of the complex phasor.
A.Pradhan et al, [23] Presents an arc cosine function –free technique for
frequency estimation to reduce the burden of computation with little decline in
frequency estimation accuracy. A leak factor updatation algorithm has been
proposed for variable leakage factor in VLLMS [24]. This leak adaptation in
the proposed VLLMS has the advantage of using measurable signals in the
system to perform the adjustment of the leak factor.
This section describes some of the recent developed soft computing methods
applied for frequency estimation in power system signal.
Neural Network and Genetic Algorithm (GA) have been used in [31], for
estimation of power system frequency. In this proposed algorithm, the learning
of weights of NN was carried out by GA. Authors have compared the
performance of this proposed technique with the conventional error back
propagation and LMS algorithm. But they found that the proposed algorithm
outperforms over the other two. They have judged the performance using
simulation only and also observed that though the algorithm gives better
performance still it suffers from problem in training of the network.
The frequency and the rate of frequency change are estimated by the non
recursive Newton-type algorithm [40, 43] using generator swing equation, the
recursive algorithm form is improved with a strategy of sequential tuning of
the forgetting factor. By this, the algorithm convergence and accuracy are
significantly improved.
Rosendomacias J.A. et al; [62] Presented the basic theory of the STDFTand
kalman filter approach as well as the kalman filter models available for
harmonics estimation, STDFT shows quite a uniform convergence within a
period to the proper value of the harmonic, despite the presence of higher
harmonics. However it can not deal properly with the presence of decaying
DC Component, which produces ripple around the correct harmonic
magnitude.
Yilmatz et al; [67] suggested parametric spectral estimation methods for the
estimation of harmonics, inter-harmonics and sub-harmonics, Co-Variance and
Modified Co-Variance methods are applied for estimation of harmonics. A
Mother Wavelet Transform based approach for the study of time-varying
power system harmonics has been developed where time frequency
localization chacteristics are embedded in Wavelets. Mandel [68] suggested
Ensemble Kaman Filter (EnKF), is a new version of the Kalman Filter and is
an important data assimilation component of ensemble forecasting. This ref.
described the derivation and practical implementation of the basic Version of
EnKF [68] this paper suggested that EnKF can be implemented without access
to the observation matrix but only an observation function is required.
Soft computing is a concept that has come into prominence in recent times and
its application to power system analysis is still more recent. This section
explores the application of soft computing techniques in the area of power
system harmonics estimation, soft computing as opposed to conventional
“hard” computing, is a technique that is tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty,
partial truth and approximation. Some of the important branches of soft
computing (SC) are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Fuzzy Logic (FL),
Genetic Algorithm (GA), and BFO etc.
Das P.K. et [125] proposed a technique on Fuzzy LMS for estimation of
harmonics voltage and current signals in power network using fuzzy gain
scheduling method for the adjustment of step size to provide faster
convergence and noise rejection for tracking fundamental as well as
harmonics components from signals.
If there is any frequency drift in signal, then conventional FFT based on fixed
measurement window is unable for effective power system monitoring.
However, Lie et al. [70] applied the Least Square technique with ANN to
harmonics extraction in time varying situation. This proposed method is
capable of dealing simultaneously the measurement of varying frequency,
amplitude and any harmonic components present in the power system.
Mori et al. [81] presented a method based on back propagation learning for
feed-forward neural network for harmonics prediction. S. Ghodratollaht et al.
[72] presented an adaptive neural network based on Genetic Method called
GAP (Genetic AdalinePerceptrons) for tracking the harmonics components of
current and voltage waveforms in faulted power system, at each iteration of
Adaline, GAP uses GA for selection of optimized value for learning
parameter.
Current harmonics are produced by [97, 120] nonlinear load such fluorescent
lighting with electronic ballasts, switch mode power supply (SMPS), battery
chargers, rectifiers, inverters, three phase power converter fed drives, arc
furnaces, arc welding, discharge lighting and saturable reactors etc. in the
power system leading to current and voltage waveform distortion. All these
loads draw the non-sinusoidal currents resulting in current harmonics and are
injected back into the supply system through the Point of Common Coupling
(PCC), which causes severe deterioration of power factor and other adverse
effect such as overheating of transformer, increase in R.M.S value of supply
current, losses, over loading in the system, unnecessary tripping and
interference with telecommunication lines and poor power system efficiency
etc. [98, 122]
The Controller is the most important part of the active power filter and
recently a lot of research is being conducted in this area [99].Mostly a
Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for both
single phase and three phases APF [103-105]. The output of PI controller is
multiplied with unit vector of source voltage to generate reference source
current. Unit vector implies a sine wave having unit peak value with phase
same as that of source voltage. As PI controller has large impact on source
current harmonics, a low pass filter is connected at the output of PI controller
to reduce the source current THD. Some advance technologies, such as Fuzzy
Logic, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Genetic Algorithm have been
used in literature [106-108] to generate reference source current. P. Kumar and
A. Mahajan [106] compares different soft computing techniques for
generating reference source current. They found that with application of soft
computing technique, APF give very good response under frequent load
variation. In [107] comparison of PI controller and Fuzzy Logic Controller is
done for controlling the DC voltage of capacitor. The generation of reference
current using the combination of ANN and Fuzzy Logic is explained in [128].
In this literature all the analysis have been carried out in discrete time domain,
the main benefit of this controller is that it can handle nonlinearity.
Harmonics are estimated using neural network [108] and real power loss by
circuit elements of APF is estimated using PI controller. Both PI controller and
NN are used to generate reference source current. A three phase shunt active
power filter was proposed by H. Akagi using instantaneous active and reactive
power theory [109]. In this control strategy, reference source currents are
calculated instantaneously using instantaneous source voltages and load
currents. Further development in this strategy was done by S. Bhattacharya,
who calculated d-q (direct-quadratic) components of instantaneous three
phase currents [129]. This literature gives concept about synchronous
reference frame and calculated reference source current instantaneously
without sensing the source voltage. A modified reference current extraction
method [130] is proposed using both p-q(active –reactive) and d-q theory . In
[130], reference source current is calculated using real power balance of the
system. The peak value source current required to balance the real power loss
of the circuit elements is calculated. The peak value of source current required
to provide real power to nonlinear load is calculated. Finally both the peak
values are added to give the peak value of reference source current.
The current control with a fixed hysteresis band has the disadvantage that the
switching frequency varies within a band because peak - to - peak current
ripple is required to be controlled at all points of the fundamental frequency
wave. Kale et al [111] have proposed an adaptive band controller for APF. The
adaptive hysteresis band controller changes the hysteresis bandwidth as a
function of reference compensator current variation to optimize switching
frequency and THD of supply current. This paper proposes a fuzzy-adaptive
hysteresis band control, where the hysteresis bandwidth can be easily
calculated with the help of a fuzzy logic controller (FLC). Another important
task in the active filter design is the maintenance of constant DC voltage
across the capacitor connected to the inverter. This is necessary because there
is energy loss due to conduction and switching power losses associated with
the diodes and IGBTs of the inverter in APF, which tend to reduce the value of
voltage across the DC capacitor.
1.5 Motivations of the Work
Several System identification techniques such as Least Square(LS),
Recursive least square (RLS), Extended least square (ELS) , Least
mean square (LMS) and Kalman Filter (KF) have been applied to power
system frequency estimation. To increase the speed of convergence, to
reduce computational and settling time, an immediate motivation is to
apply some improved recursive techniques to power system frequency
estimation.
Different harmonics estimation technique based on Recursive least
square (RLS), Least Mean Square (LMS), Kalman filter (KF) and
variants of Kalman Filter such as Extended Kalman Filter (EKF),
Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF)
have been studied but the motivation is to develop an efficient
harmonics estimation technique which will be capable of estimating the
harmonics components at different critical situations of power system
signal such as variation in frequency, amplitude in presence of inter
harmonics and sub harmonics and also for the case of dynamics signal.
PC
Non linear
C
Load
Source Load
current current
PD
PG
In the present day modern power systems, fast and accurate frequency
estimation has become quite vital. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency may threaten the frequency stability or at least lead to system
operation problems.The fundamental frequency is one of the most important
and sensitive parameters of a power system. Any imbalance between the
system load and generation directly affects the frequency and leads to
frequency deviations. So it is necessary to maintain frequency at its nominal
value or as close as possible to that value within a narrow limit. Deviation of
frequency from its rated value is an indication of imbalance between real
power generation and load demand. Any mistake in accurate estimation of
frequency could cause inadequate load shedding by frequency relays, which
would eventually be resulted in a major grid collapse in a power system, Thus
the frequency estimation problem is concerned with developing efficient
algorithms with a view to obtain accurate estimation of frequency of the
resulting distorted power system voltage signal.
The remaining of the chapter is organized as follows. Section 2.2 presents the
frequency estimation using the existing signal processing technique. Section
2.3 shows the proposed algorithm and formulation of equations. Section 2.4
describes the frequency estimation based on the proposed algorithm. Section
2.5 discusses the simulation results of the proposed algorithm. Section 2.6
presents some experimental setups and test results for the data obtained from
them. Section 2.7 concludes the chapter.
2.2 Frequency Estimation using existing signal processing
Techniques
2.2.1 Recursive Least Square (RLS) Algorithm applied to
Frequency Estimation
Let a distorted power system signal buried with noise is represented by the
following structure
A(t ) A1 sin t + 1 + (t ) (2.1)
To estimate the signal A(t ) , the amplitude ( A1 ) , phase (1 ) and frequency ( f ) ,
equ (2.1) can be written in discretize form as
(2.4)
Where (k ) current value of estimate
(k - 1) Past value of estimate
K (k ) Kalman Gain
The error in the measurement is given by
e k A k - h k (k - 1)
T
(2.5)
(2.6)
P (k ) [ I - K ( k )h( k ) T ]P( k - 1) /
(2.7)
A1 2 + 2 (2.8)
tan 1
1 tan -1 (2.9)
Once the estimates of amplitude and phase are obtained, then fundamental
frequency ( f ) can be estimated as follows. f is given by f can be
2
evaluated from the noisy measurement A(k ) using equation (2.1) as given
below
A(k )
sin(kT + 1 )
A1
A( k )
kT + 1 sin -1
A1
1 A(t )
f [sin -1 - 1 ] (2.10)
2kT A1
Hence the updated estimated state is related with previous state with the
following equation.
(k / k ) (k / k - 1) + K (k )( A( k ) - h (k / k - 1))
(2.13)
After updatation of the unknown parameter matrix, by Kalman Filtering,
(2.15)
For the generic model (2.15), a suitable vector of unknown parameters is
given by
x [ A0 , , , A1 ,....., AM , 1 ,....., M ]T
(2.16)
Where A0 is the magnitude of the decaying dc Component at t 0 , 1 / T , T
being the time constant , M is the highest order of harmonics present in the
signal, is the fundamental angular velocity i.e equal to 2 f , f being
frequency , AK is the magnitude of the k th harmonics. The number of
unknowns, i.e., the model order, is
n 2M + 3 (2.17)
The Model (2.15) can be simplified, e.g., containing only the fundamental
harmonic. This is due to the fact to reduce the order of the system and our
requirement i.e. determination of frequency can be met with that
simplification.The Model selection depends on the application, i.e., on the
features of the input signal processed.The vector of unknown model
parameters (2.16) can be estimated by applying non recursive NTA numerical
algorithm (2.16) given by
xˆ k +1 xˆ + j kT J k -1
j kT A - h xˆ k (2.18)
particularly when the model order is high. The real time computation can be
significantly reduced by applying the following recursive form of NTA
algorithm. So performance of computing using IRNTA becomes improved.
^ ^
x k +1 x k + Pk +1 J k +1 ( Ak +1 - h( x k )) (2.19)
Pk +1 1 / k +1 (( Pk - ( Pk j k +1 j kT+1 Pk ) /( k +1 + j kT+1 Pj k +1 ))
(2.20)
Where j mT j1 j2 j3
is the m-th row of the Jacobian matrix.For example, the third element (i.e., the
first derivative of angular velocity) is given by the following equation
M
j3 h( x) / Ak kt cos(kt + k ) (2.21)
k 1
1e : Estimated Phase, The signal model in regressor form can be written as
Table 2.1 Parameter used for simulation Studies (RLS, KF and IRNTA)
Algorithms PI
RLS 100 0.96
KF 100 0.96
IRNTA 100 0.96
2.5.1 Sinusoidal signal in presence of noise
A 50 Hz signal with constant frequency but with random noises is generated
with a 1 millisecond sampling interval. The comparative estimation
performance of proposed algorithm for SNR of 40 dB is shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig.2. 2 shows MSE in the estimation of frequency of signal at SNR 40 dB. It
is found from the Fig. that maximum MSE in case of KF followed by RLS
with noise is of the order of 10-3. But MSE, in case of IRNTA algorithm,
converges to zero after 10th sample. Hence IRNTA outperforms over other two
algorithms (RLS and KF). A quantitative assessment of the results for SNR of
40 dB case is presented in Table 2.2 Besides frequency values; the Table also
lists frequency deviation and computational time for the respective algorithms.
The frequency deviation is computed as frequency deviation = mean ((true
value–estimated value) /true value). It may be noted that the accuracy in
estimation of frequency using IRNTA is better (error in estimation is only
0.006%) compared to other two algorithms. The computational time for
estimation in case of IRNTA is also least among these three methods.
53 RLS
KF
IRNTA
52
F req u en cy in Hz.
51
50
49
48
47
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
-3
x 10
5
RLS
KF
4 IRNTA
3
MSE
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
51
RLS
KF
F re q u e n c y [H z ]
50.5 IRNTA
50
49.5
49
48.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
Fig. 2.4 Single phase signal during change of amplitude at 40th Sample
51
RLS
KF
50.5 IRNTA
F req u en cy in H z.
50
49.5
49
48.5
48
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
Fig. 2.6 Single phase signal during change of phase at 40th Sample
80
RLS
75 KF
IRNTA
70
F req u en cy in H z.
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
0.5
Amplitude in P.U.
-0.5
-1
10 20 30 40 50
Sample No.
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
65
60
55
50
45
40
0 20 40 60 80 100
Sample No.
Excitation Current-12.5Amp
Input: 0-1
Connection-Star Transducer AOutput: 4-20mA
Phase-3 Phase A.C
Bus Bar
Frequency-50Hz
Digital
DDCMIS
Distributed
Control
Monitory
Information
system
3 Phase Current
Fig. 2.11 shows the schematic diagram for the data collection set up that
involves current transformer to facilitate the measurement. The generated
voltage is fed to 11KV/132KV Generator transformer, the output of GT fed to
the busbar. For acquiring digital current data, the generator is connected to
400Amp/1Amp CT. The output of CT is fed to the Transducer of output range
4-20 mA. Current signal of mA range is fed to DDCMIS (Digital Distributed
Control monitory information system) which consists of several components
such as panel terminal block, Analog input card (AT-810), Communication
interference, Profibus Communication, Controller (ABB 800m), Server, etc.
DDCMIS provides digital data of generator MW, MVA, pf, voltage and
current. In the present work, we obtained three-phase digital current data from
the output of DDCMIS. The data almost corresponds to 50Hz signal with
noises. Since the captured signal does not have any typical visually dectable
feature, we omit its presentation. From these three-phase digital current data,
frequency of the system is estimated using the three algorithms (RLS, KF and
IRNTA). Fig. 2.12 shows the performance of the algorithms and it is observed
that the KF generates largest error of more than 0.2 Hz. Whereas IRNTA
closely follow the actual frequency with errors less than 0.02 Hz. So error in
estimation in case of IRNTA is minimum and hence more effective.
50
49.8
49.6
Frequency [Hz]
49.4
49.2 RLS
KF
IRNTA
49
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Sample No.
SINGLE
Auto ISOLATION PHASE R-L
Transformer TRANSFORMER (1:1)
FULLWAVE LOAD
DIODE
BRIDGE
230V,50 HZ RECTIFIER
SUPPLY
DSO PC
50
49.8
49.6
49.4
49.2
49
48.8
48.6
3.1 Introduction
Estimation of power system harmonics is now a day’s one of the important
issues of power system engineers. Due to significant growth of nonlinear loads
in power systems, mostly power electronic equipments, uninterruptible power
supplies, arc furnaces and controlled motor drives, current and voltage signals
of power system become highly distorted. Main sources of inter harmonics
and sub harmonics in power system are power electronics devices (e.g.,
cycloconverters), arcing loads (e.g., welding machines and arc furnaces),
which are widely used in rolling mills and linear motor drives [80]. Recently,
grid integration of Renewable energy sources based on power electronic
converters also contribute to the increasing concern for the betterment of
power quality [124-125]. The aim of this work is to develop efficient
harmonics estimation technique and to design filter for removal of unwanted
harmonics distortion in power system.
In literature [83, 69, 72], so many algorithms have been applied for
power system harmonics estimation. The fundamental one is based on the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT). But it fails in presence of inter-harmonics and
variations in system fundamental frequency, because of leakage and picket-
fence effects [53-55],some methods [55, 34] are provided to improve these
drawbacks. Kalman Filter (KF) [58, 63] is the right choice for estimation of
harmonics contained in a power system signal [59-61]. However, to optimize
estimations, the higher-order terms in the Taylor’s expansion for this method
were neglected because of a nonlinear function including the formulation of
measurements. As a matter of fact, estimation of distorted signals may occur
incorrectly or take longer to converge and even diverge.A popular method for
parameter estimation is Least Square (LS) algorithm [65]. The algorithm is
very powerful in estimating system parameters and is widely used for
estimating harmonics and their deviations in a signal. But online estimation is
not possible in this case because of it’s batch processing methodology.
If the Lest Mean Square of the error is considered as the cost function to be
minimized, then due to the dynamic variation of signal, the linear weights of
the filter may go unbounded or it may take longer time to respond due to the
stalling effect [23]. To overcome this, one may employ the leaky LMS
algorithm that incorporates the magnitude of the weights in the cost function
to avoid the parameter drifting or the stalling problem [24]. One may,
however, make the leak adjustment as a variable one so that it converges
slowly along the worst-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the smallest eigenvalue of the error auto-correlation matrix)
as opposed to the best-case eigen direction (the direction of the eigenvector
corresponding to the largest eigen value) [92-93]. Although such leaky LMS
algorithm has been employed in stereophonic acoustic echo cancellation
problem [53], effectiveness of the same in estimating power system harmonics
appears to be not investigated so far. Moreover, the frequent dynamical
changes in a power system motivate one to implement such an algorithm for
efficiently estimating power system harmonics.
N
y (t ) An sin( n t + n ) + Adc exp(- dc t ) + (t ) (3.1)
n 1
N
y (k ) An sin(n kT + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kT ) + (k ) (3.2)
n 1
Invoking Taylor series expansion of the dc decaying term, Adc exp(- dc t ) and
retaining only first two terms of the series
y (k ) can be obtained as
N
y (k ) An sin( n kT + n ) + Adc - Adc dc kT + (k ) (3.3)
n 1
The VLLMS algorithm [141] is applied to estimate the state. The algorithm
minimizes the square of the error recursively by altering the unknown
parameter Xk at each sampling instant using equation (3.8) given below
X k +1 (1 - 2 k k ) X k + 2 k ek yk (3.8)
X
n tan -1 2 N (3.14)
X 2 N -1
The step size k is varied for better convergence of the LMS algorithm in
the presence of noise.
k +1 k + Rk2 (3.16)
Where Rk represents the autocorrelation of ek and ek -1 . It is computed as
Rk Rk -1 + (1 - )ek ek -1 (3.17)
Where is an exponential weighting parameter and 0 1 , and (0 1)
Error in measurement is
e(k + 1) y (k + 1) - H ( k + 1) T X ( k ) (3.19)
The gain K is related with covariance of parameter vector
No
Is final iteration
reached
Yes
Stop
Fig.3. 1 shows the flow chart of the estimation scheme of VLLMS algorithm
3.3 Simulation Results
3.3.1 Static signal corrupted with random noise and decaying DC
component
To evaluate the performance of the proposed VLLMS algorithm in estimating
harmonics amplitude and phase, discretized signal having fundamental
frequency 50 Hz is generated in MATLAB. The power system signal used for
the estimation, besides the fundamental frequency, contains higher harmonics
of the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 11th and a slowly decaying DC component [90]. This kind
of signal is typical in industrial load comprising power electronic converters
and arc furnaces.
y (t ) 1.5 sin(t + 800 ) + 0.5 sin(3t + 600 ) + 0.2 sin(5t + 450 ) + 0.15 sin(7t + 360 )
+ 0.1sin(11t + 300 ) + 0.5 exp(-5t ) + (t )
(3.
22)
The above signal is corrupted by random noise (t) 0.05randn having normal
distribution with zero mean and unity variance. All the amplitudes, given are
in p.u. values. Different parameters [17,207,208] used in the simulation
studies are selected on the basis of series of experiments performed during the
implementation of this method and are given in Table. 3.1
Parameter
Initial Initial max min Initial
W
P0
-1
-2
0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Time in sec.
Fig.3.2. Actual and Estimated signal using RLS, LMS and VLLMS
A m p litu d e in p . u .
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
RLS
0.2 LMS
VLLMS
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.3a. Estimation of amplitude of fundamental component of signal
P h a s e in d e g .
80
75
70
65
60
RLS
55 LMS
VLLMS
50
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
Time in sec. Fi
g.3.3b. Estimation of phase of fundamental component of signal
A m p litu d e in p .u . 0.4
RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.4a. Estimation of amplitude of 5th harmonic component of signal
A m p litu d e in p .u .
80
RLS
60 LMS
VLLMS
40
20
-20
-40
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig. 3.4b Estimation of Phase of 5th harmonic component of signals
A m p litu d e in p .u .
0.4
RLS
0.35 LMS
VLLMS
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
VLLMS
50
-50
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.2 shows actual vs. estimated value of signal using three different
algorithms. Actual vs estimated signal almost matches with each other with
very less deviation in case of LMS algorithm. Figs.3.3a and3.3bshow the
tracking of fundamental amplitude and phase of signal in presence of random
noise and decaying dc components using RLS, LMS and VLLMS algorithms
Fig.3.4a and3.4b presents the comparative estimation of 5 th harmonic
amplitude and phase of signal. Figs.3.5a and3.5b shows the estimation of 11 th
harmonic amplitude and phase of signal respectively. In the above estimation
process, proper choice of co-variance matrices optimally tune RLS algorithm.
The RLS algorithm exhibits oscillations in the estimated amplitude of
fundamental and harmonics components in the presence of a distorted signal
and noise.These results are quite significant in tracking steady-state both
fundamental as well as harmonics components of a power system over a
period of 24 hour for the assessment of power quality and harmonics
distortions. Fig.3.6 compares Mean Squared Errors in the estimation of signal
using three different algorithms such as RLS, LMS and VLLMS. It is found
from Fig.6 that MSE is in the order of 10-3.Fig. 3.7 presents a sensitivity
analysis of estimation of power system harmonics using VLLMS algorithm. It
gives an idea regarding variation of estimation error in signal with respect to
variation of sampling frequency in estimation. It is found that estimation error
in signal is very much reduced with increase in sampling frequency and the
minimum estimation error is 0.001 at a sampling frequency of 3 kHz. From
this Figs.3.1-3.7, it is seen that estimation accuracy using VLLMS is more as
compared to other two such as RLS and LMS.
Table 3.2 shows the amplitude and phase estimates of all harmonic
components using VLLMS in presence of noise and dc decaying components.
On comparing the actual values of parameters, it is found that VLLMS is a
good estimator so far as estimation accuracy of harmonic components is
concerned.
3.3.2. Estimation of harmonics in presence of amplitude drift
Fig.3.8 shows the estimation of 5th harmonic amplitude using the above
three algorithms. It is observed that all algorithms track the 5 th harmonics
change in amplitude from 0.2 to 0.5 p.u.with oscillations in case of RLS and
LMS estimation.
0.8
A m p litu d e in p .u .
RLS
0.7 LMS
VLLMS
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
85
80
P h a s e in d e g .
75
70
65
60
55
RLS
50
LMS
45 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.9. Estimation of sub-harmonics having phase 75 deg.
0.35
A m p litu d e in p .u .
RLS
0.3 LMS
VLLMS
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
Fig.3.10. Estimation of inter-harmonics having amplitude 0.1 p.u.
Where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signal respectively. In this case
the significance of the performance index is that it provides the accuracy of
the estimation algorithm. Small value of corresponds to more accurate
estimation and vice versa.
The performance indices of all the three algorithms are given in Table 3.3
from which it can be seen that VLLMS achieves significant improvements in
terms of reducing error for harmonics estimation in comparison to other two
algorithms. VLLMS exhibits superior estimation performance and is more
robust as compared to RLS and LMS owing to the fact that unlike in RLS, the
performance of the VLLMS is not influenced by the initial choice of
covariance matrix used in RLS.
(3.24)
(3.26)
0.22
A m p litu d e in p .u .
0.21
0.2
0.19
Actual
0.18
RLS
LMS
0.17 VLLMS
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
300
A m p litu d e in v o lt.
200
100
-100
Funda
-200 3rd
5th
-300 7th
11th
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
400
Funda
350 3rd
5th
300
7th
250 11th
200
150
100
50
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
50
Funda
-50 3rd
5th
7th
11th
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time in sec.
In this research work, two hybrid approaches of KF-MGA and KF-BFO are
proposed for the improvement in percentage error in estimation, processing
time in computation and performance in presence of inter and sub-harmonic
components. A comparative study of two proposed strategy for estimation of
harmonics in distorted power signals is made to show the superiority in
performance. A laboratory prototype is developed for generation of power
system data in order to validate the efficacies of the proposed algorithm
The chapter is organized as follows. Section 4.2 provides idea about power
system harmonic estimation problem. Section 4.3 gives the structure of two
hybrid estimation schemes applied to power system harmonics. Section 4.4
and 4.5 describes methods of individual KF-MGA and KF-BFO schemes for
harmonics estimation. Section 4.6 shows the simulated results for different
cases of harmonics estimation. Section 4.7 describes the experimental set-up
developed to validate the efficacy of the proposed algorithm. Section4. 8
conclude the chapter.
frequency; μ(t) is the additive Noise; Adc exp(- dc t ) is the probable d.c.
decaying Term.
N
y (k ) An sin(n kTs + n ) + Adc exp(- dc kTs ) + (k ) (4.2)
n 1
Weight updating
using KF
(4.5)
N [An sin(nkTs) cosn + An cos(nkTs )sinn]
y( k )
+ A - A kT + (k )
n1 dc dc dc s
The discrete signal y (k ) can be modelled in state space form as
x (k + 1) I ( 2 N + 2 )( 2 N + 2 )
[ x1 (k ) x 2 (k ) ... x 2 N -1 (k ) x 2 N (k ) x 2 N +1 (k ) x 2 N + 2 (k )]T (4.6)
y (k ) H (k ) x(k ) + (k ) (4.7)
Measurement matrix
H (k ) [sin(1kTS ) cos(1kTS ) ... sin( N kTS ) cos( N kTS ) 1 - kTS ]T
(4.9)
And
x [ A1 cos(1 ) A1 sin(1 ) ... An cos( n ) An sin( n ) Adc Adc dc ]T
(4.10)
Error in measurement is
(k + 1) y (k + 1) - H (k + 1)T x (k ) (4.13)
Here the model relating the measurements to the states is obtained using the
first principle modeling. Deterministic behavior of the model is found from
this modeling. Based on this consideration process noise covariance is
neglected and so process noise covariance Q is taken as zero.
lemma
P( k + 1) [ P( k ) - K ( k + 1) H ( k + 1)T P( k )] (4.15)
These equations are initialized by taking some initial values for the estimate at
instants k H(k)and P. As the choice of initial covariance matrix is large it is
taken P=αI where α is dc decaying parameters are derived as
An ( x 22N + x 22N -1 )
(4.16)
x
n tan -1 2 N (4.17)
x 2 N -1
Adc x 2 N +1 (4.18)
x
dc 2 N + 2 (4.19)
x 2 N +1
Because
(4.20)
Ns Ns
J (i, n, m, l ) 2 (t ) [ y (t ) - y (t )]2 (4.21)
t 1 t 1
4.4Modified GA (MGA)
The following two modifications have been proposed Modification in parent
selection Modification in crossover mechanism
4.4.2Proposed Crossover
Crossover is an algorithm for artificial mating of two individual chromosomes
with an expectation that a combination of genes of individuals of high fitness
value may produce an offspring with even higher fitness. It represents a way
of moving in the solution space based on the information derived from the
existing solutions. This makes exploitation and exploration of information
encoded in genes.
Middle Point
a7 a6 a5 a4 a3 a2 a1 a0
Exploration Exploitation
Fig.4.3Example of Crossover
Start
Replace these for the least fit chromosomes of the existing population
Yes
Check
Done
Convergence
No
No
Done Is gen<
MAX gen?
Yes
Gen = Gen+1
4.5BFO Algorithm
The survival of species in any natural evolutionary process depends upon their
fitness criteria, which relies upon their food searching (foraging) and motile
behavior. The E. coli bacteria that are present in our intestines have a foraging
strategy governed by four processes, namely, chemo taxis, swarming,
reproduction, and elimination and dispersal [178]
4.5.1 Chemotaxis
The characteristics of movement of bacteria in search of food can be defined
in two ways, i.e. swimming and tumbling together known as chemo taxis. A
bacterium is said to be ‘swimming’ if it moves in a predefined direction, and
‘tumbling’ if moving in an altogether different direction. Depending upon the
rotation of the flagella in each bacterium, it decides whether it should go for
swimming or for tumbling, in the entire lifetime of the bacterium.
4.5.2 Swarming
For the bacteria to reach at the richest food location (i.e. for the algorithm to
converge at the solution point), it is desired that the optimum bacterium till a
point of time in the search period should try to attract other bacteria so that
together they converge at the solution point more rapidly. This can be
achieved by using a penalty function based upon the relative distances of each
bacterium from the fittest bacterium.
4.5.3. Reproduction
The original set of bacteria, after getting evolved through several chemotactic
stages reach the reproduction stage. Here, the best set of bacteria gets divided
into two groups. The healthier half replaces the other half of bacteria, which
gets eliminated, owing to their poorer foraging abilities. This makes the
population of bacteria constant in the evolution process.
J 2 t Y t - Yˆ (t )
Ns Ns 2
t 1 t 1
J last J SW (i, n, m, l )
c) Update parameter
(i )
x i (n + 1, m, l ) x i (n, m, l ) + u C (i )
(i ) (i )
T
This results in an adaptable step size in the direction of tumble for set of
solution of parameter i
d) If minimum (J) is less than tolerance limit then break all the loops.
5. If J N C , go to 4, In this case continue Chemot axis since the life of
bacteria is not over.
6. Reproduction
a) For the given m and l ,and for each i=1,2,3…..S,
N C +1
Let J health J
j 1
SW (i, n, m, l )
For i=1,2,…..S, with probability Ped ,eliminate and disperse each set of
parameters
Cost functionJ(i,j)
Initialize Initialize
unknown para of
Variables
KF as output
ofBFO
No
Elimination and Dispersal J(i,j)<J(i,j-
Loop Counter E=E+1 1) Update
unknown
i=i+1 parameters
Yes using KF
Yes
SL=SL+1
Z N<Nf
No
No
Reproduction Loop SL<Ns No
Counter R=R+1
Yes
End
K>Nc
No
Y
Fig.4.5. Flow chart of KF-BFO Algorithm
Fig 4.5 describes the proposed KF-BFO estimation scheme. This algorithm
has two distinct parts, in first part BFO is applied to optimize the unknown
parameters and in second part optimized output of BFO is again updated using
KF algorithm. As a result the error between the desired and the estimated
output is minimized.
The signal is corrupted by random noise having normal distribution with zero
mean and unity variance. In the simulation work, in harmonics estimation, the
values of different parameters taken during both simulation and
experimentation work are given in Table 1. The no. of parameters to be
optimized, =12 (without inter and sub- harmonics case), =18 (with inter and
sub-harmonics case) are taken. During simulation, an initial value of
Measurement noise covariance is taken as and process noise covariance is
taken as zero. Where is an identity matrix. The Genetic Algorithm parameters
used in the present research work are tabulated in
Table 4.1 Values of parameters used for simulation and experimental work employing BFO
Gen.)
100 40 0.6 0.01
Ampl., P .U.
2
KF-BFO
1.5 KF-MGA
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.
0.6
KF-BFO
0.5 KF-MGA
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
Ampl., P .U.
0.25
KF-BFO
0.2 KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.15
0.145 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.12
A m pl., P .U .
KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.11
0.1
0.09
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
82
KF-BFO
80 KF-MGA
78
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.
65
KF-BFO
60 KF-MGA
55
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
P hase,deg.
50
KF-BFO
45 KF-MGA
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
1.2
KF-BFO
KF-MGA
1
0.8
MSE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Sample No.
Table 4.3 compares the simulation results obtained by the proposed KF-MGA
algorithm with KF-BFO, Genetic Algorithm (GA) and BFO [70]. The final
harmonics parameters obtained with the proposed approach exhibit the best
estimation precision where the largest amplitude deviation is 2.6 occurred at
the 11th harmonics estimation and the largest phase angle deviation is 1.53580
occurred at the 3rd harmonics estimation. The computational time of estimation
using KF-MGA is the smallest (8.642 sec.) compared to other three algorithm
0.6
Ampl., P.U.
0.5 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.
KF-BFO
0.3 KF-MGA
0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
0.4
Ampl., P.U.
KF-BFO
0.35 KF-MGA
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sample No.
k 1
N
100
y (k )
k 1
2
Where y (k ) and y (k ) are actual and estimated signals, respectively. In this
case, the significance of the performance index is that it provides the
accuracy of the estimation algorithm. Small value of corresponds to more
accurate estimation and vice versa.
Rheostat
415 V Rectifier Load
100, 5A (Three Phase
1500 rpm
DiodeBridge)
DG Set
20
actual
15 KF-BFO
KF-MGA
Amplitude in volt.
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Sample No.
Chapter 5
Development of Control Strategies for Harmonics Elimination using
Shunt Active Power Filter
5.1 Introduction
In recent decades, there are many studies about the issue of Harmonics and its
mitigation technique in power system. Due to the Vast application of non
linear load such as Ballasts used in Fluorescent tubes, static power converters,
AC voltage governors (low power) used for light dimmers and small induction
motors correct phase angle, Metal diminution operation, HVDC utilize large
power converters, Switch mode power supplies(SMPS), small uninterruptible
power supplies(UPS) units, Three phase loads (Variable speed drives, ,Large
UPS Units) etc, causes harmonics in the distribution system [97-98][120] and
the harmonics currents causes over heating of transformer, over loading of
neutral, un necessary tripping of circuit breaker, over-stressing of power factor
correction capacitors, skin effects etc. [100], and hampers the quality of
power, So the improvement of power quality is necessary at the present age.
Initially Passive filters, capacitors banks are used for harmonic elimination
and power factor improvement respectively. But it has associated with some
disadvantages like large size, bulky nature, resonance phenomenon etc. To
overcome this disadvantages power engineers developed several types of APF
[100][122]. A brief discussion of several types harmonics filter used for
harmonics mitigation and its principle of operation discussed here.
5.2Types of Harmonics Filter
The power system needs harmonics filter to avoid the harmonics and to
increase the system efficiency. Harmonics filters are mainly classified in to
three types.
1. Passive filter
2. Active filter
3. Hybrid filter
Tuned filters:
To filter out the particular harmonics frequency from the system Tuned filters
are used
High pass filter: High pass filter posses the characteristics of offering low
Fig. 5.4 shows a C-type high pass filter in which a capacitor is connected in
series with the inductor to provide low impedance path for low frequencies.
Pure active filters can be classified into two types according to their circuit
configuration
In CSI based APF, a CSI is connected at PCC through second order low pass
filter made up of LF and CF as shown in Fig. 5.6. Current source of the inverter
is replaced by a high DC side inductor [123]. In CSI all the semiconductor
switches must support unipolar current and bipolar voltage. Earlier researchers
were using Gate Turn-Off (GTO) thyristor with reverse blocking capabilities.
But recently to enhance research on CSI, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) with a series diode is used.
Fig.5.6 Block diagram of VSI based shunt active power filter
The series active filter is series connected with the power supply. This filter
controls on the basis of “Feedback” manner. The block diagram of a series
active power filter is shown in the fig.5.8.
C-Type High
pass filter
Shunt APF
Single Tuned Double Tuned
System Variable
Power Circuit Interference
Detection
Reference
Over all System Controller
Signal
Estimator
D2
Ls D1
source
D4
D3
The basic components of a shunt active power filter are a single-phase full-
bridge voltage-source PWM Inverter, a DC bus Capacitor and an Inductor
.The Inverter is connected to the power supply network through the inductance
of the inductor which ensures first the controllability of the currents in the
active filter and secondly it acts as a first-order passive filter attenuating high
frequency ripples generated by the inverter. The proposed model for our work
is given in Figure 5.13 and the magnitude of the parameters associated with
the proposed filter is given in Table 5.1.The SPSAPF is connected parallel
with the single phase line where the non –linear load is connected, due to the
non-linearity behaviour of the load harmonics are generated in the system and
the filter cancels the effect of harmonics by generating the same magnitude of
harmonics current but having opposite phase with it.
5.4 Control Strategy applied to shunt active filters
The Controller is the most important part of the active power filter and
recently a lot of research is being conducted in this area[99], [102],
[105.Conventional PI and proportional integral derivative (PID) Controllers
have been used to estimate the peak reference currents and control the DC
Capacitor voltage of the inverter. Mostly a Proportional- Integral (PI)
controller is used to control the DC link capacitor voltage as well as to
estimate peak value of reference source current for both single phase and three
phases APF [103-105],[110]. When the Source supplies a non-linear or
reactive load it is expected to supply only the active fundamental component
of the load current and the compensator supplies the harmonics or reactive
component. The outer capacitor voltage loop will try to maintain the capacitor
voltage nearly constant which is also a mandatory condition for the successful
operation of the active power filter. The System losses are provided by the
source in steady state. The Compensator supplies the harmonics power, which
manifests itself only on the reactive component of power, however the
conventional PI Controller requires precise linear mathematical model of the
system which is difficult to obtain under parameter variations and non-linear
load disturbance. Another drawback of the system is that the proportional and
integral gains are chosen heuristically [111].To overcome the demerits
associated with PI Controller, recently fuzzy logic controller (FLC) is
developed to use as controller for many power electronics system and active
power filter application [106-108].
V*dc
Sin θs +
PI or Fuzzy
Logic Vdc
Controller
-
+
i*
Multiplier Low pass filter 2 Multiplier s
iL
+
Triangular Wave
-
S1
i*
s
Not S4
+
Current Control Limiter
- S3
+ -1
- Not S2
+
is
(5.2)
Now we can see that the load current consists of two parts Fundamental load
current and load current with harmonics again the fundamental load current
consists of two parts
I L S I Lf + I Lh (5.3)
I Lf =Fundamental Part of the Load current,
Signal respectively
The Fundamental active Current
I Lfa I L1Cos1Sin S (5.5)
For filtering the load current the active component of fundamental current is
transformed into the DC component. Which we can able to get by multiplying
“sin ϴS” both sides of equation-5.2
I L ( S )Sin S I L1 / 2.Cos1 - I L1 / Cos(2 s - 1) + Sin S + I Lh.Sin(h S - h ) (5.8)
h2
The design of dc bus voltage Vdc is used in control loop and should be
regulated at a set Value Vdcref .The dc side capacitor voltage is sensed, then
compared with a reference value .The signal error of comparison between the
sensed voltage ( Vdc ) and its reference ( Vdcref ) is the input signal of the fuzzy
regulator.The output of this regulator is considered as the peak value of line
current ( I SMax ).
5.4.2 PI Controller
A Proportional- Integral (PI) controller is used to control the DC link capacitor
voltage as well as to estimate peak value of reference source current for the
proposed Shunt active power filter (SAPF). The DC side capacitor voltage is
sensed and compared with a reference voltage. This error e Vdc , ref - Vdc at the
nth sampling instant is used as input for PI controller. The error signal is
passed through Butterworth design based Low Pass Filter (LPF). The LPF
filter has cutoff frequency at 50 Hz that can suppress the higher order
components and allows only fundamental components. Its transfer function is
represented as H S K P + K I / S , where, K P is the proportional constant that
determines the dynamic response of the Dc-side voltage control and KI is the
integration constant that determines the settling time. The steady state error in
the DC-side voltage is eliminated by the Controller.
Fuzzy logic control is derived from fuzzy set theory introduced by Zadeh in
1965. It is one of the soft computing tools that can take automatic decisions
like human beings. In order to implement the control algorithm of a shunt
active filter in closed loop, the dc side capacitor voltage is sensed and then
compared with a reference value.
Sensor
Below Figures 5.15-5.17 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable and fuzzy structure for 7/7 rule
Fig5.15 7/7 input variable
∆e
NB NM NS ZE PS PM PB
e
NB PB PB PM PM PS PS ZE
NM PB PM PM PS PS ZE NS
NS PM PM PS PS ZE NS NS
ZE PM PS PS ZE NS NS NM
PS PS PS ZE NS NS NM NM
PM PS ZE NS NS NM NM NB
PB ZE NS NS NM NM NB NB
Below Figures 5.18-5.20 shows the Input variable, Input variable error, output
variable of fuzzy structure for 5/5 rule.
Fig.5.18 5/5 input variable
∆e NB NS ZE PS PB
e
NB NB NB NB NS ZE
NS NB NB NS ZE PS
ZE NB NS ZE PS PB
PS NS ZE PS PB PB
PB ZE PS PB PB PB
40
Il(A m p)
20
-20
-40
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
200
100
V s(V olt)
-100
-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Time in Sec
Fig.5. 21 without active power filter
20
il [A ]
-20
40 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
-40
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
5.5.3 Simulation results of shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF) with Fuzzy
Logic control technique with 5/5 Fuzzy Rule
The load current I L , Source current IS and Supply voltage VS are shown in
Fig.5.25.The harmonic spectra of the supply current of shunt active filter with
fuzzy hysteresis combined current control technique along with 5/5 fuzzy rule
is shown in Fig.5.26, The THD is reduced from 20.64% to 5.24%.
20
il [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
Fig.5.26 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(5/5) rule
20
il [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
20
is [A ]
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
200
V s [V ]
-200
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time [s]
Fig.5.27 Simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller (7/7) Rule
Fig.5.28 FFT Analysis of Source current of the simulated wave form of SAPF with Fuzzy Logic Controller
(7/7) Rule
Table 5.4: Comparison of THD reduction for each order of harmonics
dI I 2V IL
dc t (5.10)
dt t L 2Vdc
In the equation (5.10) 2Vdc depends on switching state of inverter, rate of
change of inverter current is represented as I ,rate of change in current in
time period is t .In the hysteresis band complete switching cycle is from
0 t1 T
+ IL
t1 (5.11)
2Vdc
- IL
T - t1 (5.12)
- 2Vdc
By combining both the equations, total switching time can be written as:
2
1 V V
f s dc f max dc (5.13)
T ILV dc IL
V sa (t ) Vma sin t
(5.14)
Vsb (t ) Vmb sin(t - 120 0 )
(5.15)
Vsc (t ) Vmc sin(t - 240 0 )
(5.16)
(5.17)
I Lb (t ) I bn sin(t - bn - 120 0 )
(5.18)
N
I Lc (t ) I cn sin(t - cn - 240 0 )
n 1
(5.19)
Step 1:
The 3-phase instantaneous power (P3∅) in the proposed system can be written
as
v sa i La + v sb i Lb + v sc i Lc p a + pb + p c Vma sin t I an sin(t - an ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I bn sin(t - bn - 1
n 1 n 1
+ Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I cn sin(t - cn - 240 0 )
n 1
(5.20)
Step-2:
The instantaneous power is passed through low pass filter (LPF), which blocks
higher order frequency component and only fundamental component is
obtained from the output of LPF.
Pfund Vma sin tI a1 sin(t - a1 ) + Vmb sin(t - 120 0 ) I b1 sin(t - b1 - 120 0 ) + Vmc sin(t - 240 0 ) I C1
Vma I a1
sin(t - c1 - 240 0 ) cos a1 - cos(2t + a1 ) + Vmb I b1 cos b1 - cos(2t + b1 ) + Vmc I c1
2 2 2
cos c1 - cos(2t + c1
(5.21)
Step 3:
The average fundamental power in 3-phase is given by
T
1 Vma I a1 V I V I
Pav
T P
0
fund dt
2
cos a1 + mb b1 cos b1 + mc c1 cos c1
2 2
(5.22)
Step 4:
Using equation (5.23), the average power per phase can be written as
VI
Pav ph cos 1 (5.24)
2
Let I cos 1 I m Maximum amplitude per phase fundamental current
2 Pav ph
Im (5.25)
V
Step 5:
The Load current contains Fundamental, reactive and harmonic parts; if the
active power filter can be able to compensate the total reactive and harmonics
parts then the source current waveform will be Sinusoidal.
The fundamental component of the load current can be given as
I Fa I m sin t (5.26)
I Fb I m sin(t - 120 0 ) (5.27)
I Fc I m sin(t - 240 0 ) (5.28)
The expression of reference current for shunt active power filter in each phase
* * *
ica , icb , icc
*
ica I La - I Fa (5.29)
*
icb I Lb - I Fb (5.30)
*
icc I Lc - I Fc (5.31)
After getting the reference current ,it is compared with the actual current by
using hysteresys current comparator to generate six switching pulses,which
are used to control the IGBT either by turning ON or OFF
5.8 Simulation Results and Analysis of three phase system
400
S o u rc e V o lta g e ( V )
Phase A
300 Phase B
Phase C
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
L o a d C u rre n t ( A )
Phase B
4 Phase C
-2
-4
-6
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
C o m p e n s a tin g C u rre n t ( A )
100
Phase A
80 Phase B
Phase C
60
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
80
S o u rc e C u rre n t ( A )
Phase A
60 Phase B
Phase C
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
Mag(% of Fundamental)
6
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Harmonic order
THD= 3.76%
3
Mag(% of Fundamental)
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
500
Phase A
S o u rce V o lta g e s (V )
400 Phase B
phase C
300
200
100
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
20
Phase A
L o a d C u rre n t ( A )
15 Phase B
phase C
10
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
100
Phase A
80
Phase B
60 Phase C
40
20
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Time (sec.)
Fig. 5.35 (d) Source current under unbalanced condition after compensation using SAPF
THD= 22 . 97%
6
Mag(% of Fundamental)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase A
THD= 24.74%
9
6
Mag(% of Fundamental)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (b) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase B
THD= 23 .56%
12
10
Mag(% of Fundamental)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.36 (c) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums without SAPF of Phase C
THD= 2 .41%
1.8
1.6
1.4
Mag(% of Fundamental)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.37 (a) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase A
THD= 3 .02%
2.5
Mag(% of Fundamental)
1.5
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.37 (b) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase B
THD= 2 .75%
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
Mag(% of Fundamental)
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic order
Fig.5.37 (c) FFT Analysis of Source current spectrums with SAPF of Phase C
Nonlinear C
Load V
C
I
O
I
L Inductor
IGBT Switches
I L
S (SKM 75 GB 123 D)
AC 4 IGBT Gate signals
I
Source IGBT Gate Drivers
(SKHI 22 AR )
V
S Control signals
Voltage sensor
V
C
circuit
( LV 25 -P )
I
S dSPACE 1104
Current sensor Control Board
I
O circuit
( LA 55 -P )
Chapter 6
Summary and Conclusions
6.1 Summary of the Work
6.3 Conclusions
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