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EE371-Electrical Machines I
Electric Machines
An electric machine is a devise that can convert electrical energy
to mechanical or/and mechanical energy to electrical.
1.1. Generators convert mechanical energy from a prime mover to electrical
energy through the action of the magnetic field.
1.2. Motors convert electrical energy from a power source to mechanical energy
through the action of the magnetic field.
3
Magnetic Circuits
1) i-H relation
2) B-H relation
3) Magnetic equivalent circuit
4) B-H relation (Magnetizing curve)
5) Magnetic circuit calculation
6) Inductance
7) Hysteresis and eddy losses
5
Basic principles underlying usage of magnetic field
1. A wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire
if it passes through that coil (transformer action).
3. A wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic field
experiences a force induced on it (motor action).
4. A wire moving in a presence of a magnetic field gets a voltage
induced in it (generator action).
6
NiA
BA
lc
8
Ni
I net Ni H
lc
Ni NiA
B H BA
lc lc
9
B H wb / m 2 or Tesla Where:
= permeability of a material
B 0 r H wb / m 2 or Tesla r = Relative permeability
= permeability of free-space
d
eind N
dt
eind – voltage induced in the coil
N – number of turns of wire in the coil
- magnetic flux passing through the coil
11
F ilB sin
This is a basis for a motor action.
eind (v B)l
Where v is the velocity of the wire, l is its length in the magnetic field, B – the
magnetic flux density
5. Magnetic circuits
Consider a toroid
H dl i Ni
Hl Ni
Magneto-Motive Force (mmf) F= Ni is the external force required to set
up the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material.
Where:
F NI F = Magneto-Motive Force (At)
H H = Magnetizing Force (At/m)
l l
N = number of turns (turns, t)
NI B=magnetic flux density (T)
B L = is the mean length (m)
l
16
5. Magnetic circuits
Magnetic Flux (Webers) through a given surface is given
(All the flux is confined and no leakage flux)
B dA BA B
A
H
NI NIA
HA
l l
NI NI
l / A A
Where:
Φ = is the flux (wb)
B = is the average flux density
A = is cross-sectional area (m2)
= is the reluctance
17
5. Magnetic circuits
Reluctance is a measure of the opposition the
magnetic circuit offer to flux analogues to the
resistance in an electric circuit
l
Materials with high A
permeability such as
ferromagnetic materials
have small reluctance
and will result in
Where:
increased measure of
l = length of the circuit (m)
flux through the core. A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
= permeability of the material
18
5. Magnetic circuits
5. Magnetic circuits
F R F: mmf;
: magnetic flux
R: reluctance
20
5. Magnetic circuits
1
Permeance: P =
R
NiA A
Magnetic flux: = F P = BA = F
lc lc
lc
Therefore, the reluctance: R
A
Serial connection: R eq R 1 R 2 ... R N
1 1 1 1
Parallel connection: ...
R eq R1 R 2 R N
21
5. Magnetic circuits
lc lg
c g
c Ac 0 Ag
Ni
c g
Ni H c lc H g l g
c g
Bc Bg
Ac Ag
24
5. Magnetic circuits
5. Magnetic circuits
Since the effective area of the air gap is 1.05 x 12 = 12.6 cm2, its reluctance:
la 0.0005
R 316000 A turns / Wb
a
0 Aa 4 10 0.00126
7
5. Magnetic circuits
Therefore:
BAR 0.5 0.00126 383200
i 0.602 A
N 400
Since the air gap flux was required, the effective area of the gap was used.
27
5. Magnetic circuits
Example 2: In a simplified rotor and
stator motor, the mean path length of
the stator is 50 cm, its cross-sectional
area is 12 cm2, and r = 2000. The mean
path length of the rotor is 5 cm and its
cross-sectional area is also 12 cm2, and
r = 2000. Each air gap is 0.05 cm wide,
and the cross-section of each gap
(including fringing) is 14 cm2. The coil
has 200 turns of wire. If the current in
the wire is 1A, what will the resulting
flux density in the air gaps be?
5. Magnetic circuits
The reluctance of the stator is:
ls 0.5
R 166000 A turns / Wb
s
r 0 As 2000 4 107 0.0012
lr 0.05
R 16600 A turns / Wb
r
r 0 Ar 2000 4 10 0.0012
7
la 0.0005
R 284000 A turns / Wb
a
0 Aa 4 10 0.0014
7
5. Magnetic circuits
F Ni
R R
Ni 200 1
B 0.19T
A R A 751000 0.0014
30
B
Magnetic permeability can be defined as:
H
and was previously assumed as constant. However, for the ferromagnetic
materials (for which permeability can be up to 6000 times the permeability of
air), permeability is not a constant…
Ferromagnetic materials are essential since they allow to produce much more
flux for the given mmf than when air is used.
33
Magnetic Materials
35
Ferromagnetic materials
consist of small domains,
within which magnetic
moments of atoms are
aligned. However,
magnetic moments of
domains are oriented
randomly.
When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains pointing in the direction of that field
grow since the atoms at their boundaries physically switch their orientation and align
themselves in the direction of magnetic field. This increases magnetic flux in the material
which, in turn, causes more atoms to change orientation. As the strength of the external field
increases, more domains change orientation until almost all atoms and domains are aligned
with the field. Further increase in mmf can cause only the same flux increase as it would be in
a vacuum. This is a saturation.
37
Where:
Ke is constant depends on core material
and its lamination thicknesses
46
8. Inductance
A magnetic circuit excited by current i produces Φ
Each turn encloses or links the flux Φ
N
Flux Linkage
d
Faraday’s law eN
dt
L
N2
L
i
48
8. Inductance
49
1
Some history
Historically, the first electrical power distribution system developed by Edison in 1880s
was transmitting DC. It was designed for low voltages (safety and difficulties in voltage
conversion); therefore, high currents were needed to be generated and transmitted to
deliver necessary power. This system suffered significant energy losses!
The second generation of power distribution systems (what we are still using) was
proposed by Tesla few years later. His idea was to generate AC power of any
convenient voltage, step up the voltage for transmission (higher voltage implies lower
current and, thus, lower losses), transmit AC power with small losses, and finally step
down its voltage for consumption. Since power loss is proportional to the square of the
current transmitted, raising the voltage, say, by the factor of 10 would decrease the
current by the same factor (to deliver the same amount of energy) and, therefore, reduce
losses by factor of 100.
The step up and step down voltage conversion was based on the use of
transformers.
2
Typical Power
Transmission and
Distribution System
3
Preliminary considerations
A transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at the same
frequency. It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core. These coils are usually not connected electrically together. However,
they are connected through the common magnetic flux confined to the core.
The invention of a transformer can be attributed to Faraday, who in 1831 used its principle
to demonstrate electromagnetic induction foreseen no practical applications of his
demonstration.
4
Types and construction
Power transformers
Core form Shell form
Windings are wrapped around two sides Windings are wrapped around the
of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.
Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage and,
therefore, increase efficiency.
5
Types and construction
Lamination
types
Efficiency of
transformers with
toroidal cores is
usually higher.
6
Types and construction
Power transformers used in power distribution systems are sometimes
referred as follows:
A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used
to step its voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is
called a unit transformer.
7
Ideal transformer
We consider a lossless
transformer with an input
(primary) winding having Np
turns and a secondary
winding of Ns turns.
The relationship between the
voltage applied to the primary
winding vp(t) and the voltage
produced on the secondary v p (t ) N p
a
winding vs(t) is vs (t ) N s
If the primary current flows into the dotted end of the primary
winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of
the secondary winding.
10
Power in an ideal transformer
Assuming that p and s are the angles between voltages and currents on the
primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:
Pin V p I p cos p
The power supplied to the output circuits is
Pout Vs I s cos s
Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:
p s
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.
11
Power in an ideal transformer
Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:
Vp
Vs ;I s aI p
a
Therefore:
Vp
Pout Vs I s cos aI p cos V p I p cos Pin
a
12
Impedance transformation
Next, we exclude the transformer from the circuit and solve it for voltages and
currents.
The solutions obtained for the portion of the circuit that was not replaced will be
the correct values of voltages and currents of the original circuit.
Finally, the voltages and currents on the other side of the transformer (in the
original circuit) can be found by considering the transformer’s turn ratio.
14
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:
Example1: A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
that is connected to the load Zload = 4 + j3 through the transmission line with
Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 . a) What is the voltage at the load? What are the
transmission line losses? b) If a 1:10 step up transformer and a 10:1 step down
transformer are placed at the generator and the load ends of the transmission
line respectively, what are the new load voltage and the new transmission line
losses?
a) Here:
V
I G I line I load
Zline Zload
4800
0.18 j 0.24 4 j 3
4800
90.8 37.8 A
5.2937.8
15
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:
Vload I load Zload 90.8 37.8 (4 j 3) 90.8 37.8 536.9 454 0.9V
16
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:
The load impedance when referred to the transmission line (while the
transformer T2 is eliminated) is:
2
10
Zload
'
a22 Zload 4 j 3 400 j 300
1
The total impedance on the
transmission line level is
Z eq Zline Zload
'
400.18 j 300.24
500.336.88
The total impedance is now referred across T1 to the source’s voltage level:
2
1
Z eq
'
a12 Z eq 500.336.88 5.00336.88
10
17
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:
N
Therefore: d
eind N
dt
19
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
If the source voltage vp(t) is applied to the primary winding, the average flux in the
primary winding will be:
1
Np v p (t )dt
p m Lp
average primary flux mutual flux
Similarly, for the secondary coil:
s m Ls
Average secondary flux
20
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
From the Faraday’s law, the primary coil’s voltage is:
d p dm dLp
v p (t ) N p Np Np e p (t ) eLp (t )
dt dt dt
The secondary coil’s voltage is:
d s dm dLs
vs (t ) N s Ns Ns es (t ) eLs (t )
dt dt dt
The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:
dm
e p (t ) N p
dt
dLs
es (t ) N s
dt
Combining the last two equations:
e p (t ) dm es (t )
Np dt Ns
21
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
Therefore:
e p (t ) Np
a
es (t ) Ns
That is, the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage both caused by the
mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.
v p (t ) Np
a
vs (t ) Ns
22
The magnetization current in a real transformer
Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current will
flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1.The magnetization current im needed to produce the flux in the core;
2.The core-loss current ih+e hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Ignoring flux leakage and assuming time-harmonic primary voltage, the average flux is:
1 1 Vm
sin tWb
Np Np
v (t ) dt V cos tdt
p m
N p
If the values of current are comparable to the flux they produce in the core, it is possible
to sketch a magnetization current. We observe:
1.Magnetization current is not sinusoidal: there are high frequency components;
2.Once saturation is reached, a small increase in flux requires a large increase in
magnetization current;
3.Magnetization current (its fundamental component) lags the voltage by 90o;
4.High-frequency components of the current may be large in saturation.
Assuming a sinusoidal flux in the core, the eddy currents will be largest when flux
passes zero.
24
The magnetization current in a real transformer
Core-loss current
The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the transformer:
iex im ih e
25
The current ratio on a transformer
If a load is connected to the secondary coil, there will be a current flowing through it.
Fnet N p i p N s is 0
26
The magnetization current in a real transformer
ip Ns 1
N p i p N s is
is Np a
An ideal transformer (unlike the real one) can be
characterized as follows:
27
The transformer’s equivalent circuit
28
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
dLp
eLp (t ) N p
dt
Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance that is
much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s leakage flux is:
Lp P N p i p
permeance of flux path
Therefore:
eLp (t ) N p P N p i p N pP
d 2
di p
dt dt
29
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
di p
Primary coil: eLp (t ) Lp
dt
dis
Secondary coil: eLs (t ) Ls
dt
The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.
The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the
primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the primary
voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just approximations.
30
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer
The transformer’s
equivalent circuit
31
Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer
From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude and the angle
of the excitation impedance can be determined.
To evaluate RC and XM, we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:
1
GC
RC
The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is:
1
BM
XM
33
Determining the values of components
Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total excitation
admittance is:
1 1
YE GC jBM j
RC XM
The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:
I oc
YE
Voc
The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit power
factor (PF):
Poc
cos PF
Voc I oc
34
Determining the values of components
In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current always
lags the angle of the voltage by degrees. The admittance is:
I oc I oc
YE cos 1 PF
Voc Voc
35
Determining the values of components
VSC
Z SE
I SC
The power factor of the current is given by:
PSC
PF cos
VSC I SC 36
Determining the values of components
Therefore:
VSC 0 VSC
Z SE
I SC I SC
Since the serial impedance ZSE is equal to
Z SE Req jX eq
Z SE R p a 2 RS j X p a 2 X S
it is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary side of the
transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the series impedance into primary
and secondary components.
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The results
will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary side of the
transformer.
37
Determining the values of components
Example:
Example 2: We need to determine the equivalent circuit impedances of a 20 kVA,
8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer. The open-circuit and short-circuit tests led to the
following data:
VOC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V
IOC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A
POC = 400 W PSC = 240 W
IOC 0.214 1 1
YE cos1 PF cos1 0.234 0.0000063 j0.0000261 j
VOC 8000 RC XM
38
Determining the values of components
Example:
1 1
Therefore: RC 159k ; X M 38.3k
0.0000063 0.0000261
The power factor during the short-circuit test is
PSC 240
PF cos 0.196lagging
VSC I SC 489 2.5
The series impedance is given by
VSC 1 489
Z SE cos PF 78.7
I SC 2.5
38.4 j192
Therefore:
Req 38.3; X eq 192
The equivalent circuit
39
The per-unit system
The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are measured
as fractions of some base level instead of conventional units.
actualvalue
Quantity perunit
basevalueof quantity
Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often, such
quantities are voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:
Z base
I base Sbase
40
The per-unit system
I base
Ybase
Vbase
Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can be
computed form the above equations.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the specific point
in the system. Note that a transformer has no effect on the apparent power of the
system, since the apparent power into a transformer equals the apparent power out of a
transformer. As a result, the base apparent power remains constant everywhere in the
power system.
On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it goes
through a transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process of referring
quantities to a common voltage level is done automatically in the per-unit system.
41
The per-unit system- Example:
Sbase1 10000
I base1 20.83 A
Vbase1 480
Vbase1 480
Z base1 23.04
I base1 20.83
The turns ratio of the transformer T1 is a1 = 0.1; therefore, the voltage in the
transmission line region is
Vbase1 480
Vbase2 4800V
a1 0.1
The other base quantities are
43
The per-unit system: Example
Sbase2 10kVA
10000
I base2 2.083 A
4800
4800
Z base2 2304
2.083
The turns ratio of the transformer T2 is a2 = 20; therefore, the voltage in the load region
is
Vbase 4800
Vbase 240V
a2 20
The other base quantities are
44
The per-unit system: Example
Sbase 10kVA
10000
I base 41.67 A
240
240
Z base 5.76
41.67
b. To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each component must be divided by
its base value in its region. The generator’s per-unit voltage is
4800
VG , pu 1.00 pu
480
The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is
20 j 60
Z line, pu 0.0087 j 0.026 pu
2304
45
The per-unit system: Example
1030
Z load , pu
5.76
1.73630 pu
The per-unit equivalent
circuit
V pu 10
I pu 0.569 30.6 pu
Z tot , pu 0.0087 j 0.026 1.73630
46
The per-unit system: Example
Pline, pu I pu
2
Rline, pu 0.5692 0.0087 0.00282
The actual power lost in the transmission line
47
The per-unit system
When only one device (transformer or motor) is analyzed, its own ratings are used as the
basis for per-unit system. When considering a transformer in a per-unit system,
transformer’s characteristics will not vary much over a wide range of voltages and powers.
For example, the series resistance is usually from 0.02 to 0.1 pu; the magnetizing reactance
is usually from 10 to 40 pu; the core-loss resistance is usually from 50 to 200 pu. Also, the
per-unit impedances of synchronous and induction machines fall within relatively narrow
ranges over quite large size ranges.
If more than one transformer is present in a system, the system base voltage and power can
be chosen arbitrary. However, the entire system must have the same base power, and the
base voltages at various points in the system must be related by the voltage ratios of the
transformers.
System base quantities are commonly chosen to the base of the largest component in the
system.
48
The per-unit system
Per-unit values given to another base can be converted to the new base either
through an intermediate step (converting them to the actual values) or directly
as follows:
Sbase
P, Q, S pu ,base2 P, Q, S pu ,base
Sbase
Vbase
V pu ,base2 V pu ,base
Vbase
2
Vbase 1 Sbase
R, X , Z pu ,base2 R, X , Z pu ,base 2
Vbase Sbase
49
The per-unit system: Example
Example 4: Sketch the appropriate per-unit equivalent circuit for the 8000/240 V, 60 Hz, 20
kVA transformer with Rc = 159 k, XM = 38.4 k, Req = 38.3 , Xeq = 192 .
To convert the transformer to per-unit system, the primary circuit base impedance needs to
be found.
Vbase1 8000V ;Sbase1 20000VA
2
Vbase 8000 2
Z base1 1
3200
Sbase1 20000
38.4 j192
Z SE , pu 0.012 j 0.06 pu
3200
159000
RC , pu 49.7 pu
3200
00
X M , pu 12 pu
3200
50
The per-unit system: Example
51
Voltage regulation and efficiency
Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformer’s output voltage
varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this
respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows:
Vs ,nl Vs , fl V p a Vs , fl
VR 100% 100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl
In a per-unit system:
V p , pu Vs , fl , pu
VR 100%
Vs , fl , pu
Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.
52
The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the voltage drops
within it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on transformer VR can be ignored
and, therefore, only the series impedances need to be considered. The VR depends on the
magnitude of the impedances and on the current phase angle.
A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations. The phasor voltage Vs is assumed
to be at 00 and all other voltages and currents are compared to it.
53
The transformer phasor diagram
A transformer operating at a
unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0
54
The transformer efficiency
Pout Pout
100% 100%
Pin Pout Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0 power
factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at power
factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?
56
The transformer efficiency: Example
a. The excitation branch values of the equivalent circuit can be determined as:
Poc 50
oc cos 1 cos 1 84
Voc I oc 2300 0.21
The excitation admittance is:
I oc 0.21
YE 84 84 0.0000095 j 0.0000908S
Voc 2300
The elements of the excitation branch referred to the primary side are:
1
Rc 105k
0.0000095
1
XM 11k
0.0000908
57
The transformer efficiency: Example
58
The transformer efficiency: Example
b. To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, we need to divide the
impedance by a2. Since a = 10, the values will be:
59
The transformer efficiency: Example
61
The transformer efficiency: Example
62
The transformer efficiency: Example
63
The transformer efficiency: Example
64
Transformer taps and voltage regulation
We assumed before that the transformer turns ratio is a fixed (constant) for the given
transformer. Frequently, distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to
permit small changes in their turns ratio. Typically, transformers may have 4 taps in
addition to the nominal setting with spacing of 2.5 % of full-load voltage. Therefore,
adjustments up to 5 % above or below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer are
possible.
Example 6: A 500 kVA, 13 200/480 V transformer has four 2.5 % taps on its primary winding.
What are the transformer’s voltage ratios at each tap setting?
65
Transformer taps and voltage regulation
Taps allow adjustment of the transformer in the field to accommodate for local voltage
variations.
Sometimes, transformers are used on a power line, whose voltage varies widely with the
load (due to high line impedance, for instance). Normal loads need fairly constant input
voltage though…
One possible solution to this problem is to use a special transformer called a tap changing
under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator. TCUL is a transformer with the
ability to change taps while power is connected to it. A voltage regulator is a TCUL with
build-in voltage sensing circuitry that automatically changes taps to keep the system
voltage constant.
These “self-adjusting” transformers are very common in modern power systems.
66
The autotransformer
Sometimes, it is desirable to change the voltage by a small amount (for instance, when
the consumer is far away from the generator and it is needed to raise the voltage to
compensate for voltage drops).
In such situations, it would be expensive to wind a transformer with two windings of
approximately equal number of turns. An autotransformer (a transformer with only one
winding) is used instead.
Diagrams of step-up and step-down autotransformers:
Series Series
winding winding
Common Common
winding winding
Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across common and series windings.
67
The autotransformer
Since the autotransformer’s coils are physically connected, a different terminology is used
for autotransformers:
The voltage across the common winding is called a common voltage VC, and the current
through this coil is called a common current IC. The voltage across the series winding is
called a series voltage VSE, and the current through that coil is called a series current ISE.
The voltage and current on the low-voltage side are called VL and IL; the voltage and current
on the high-voltage side are called VH and IH.
For the autotransformers:
VC N
C
VSE N SE
N C I C N SE I SE
VL VC I L I C I SE
VH VC VSE I H I SE
68
Voltage and Current relationships in an
Autotransformer
for the high-side voltage, we arrive at
N SE N SE
VH VC VC VL VL
NC NC
VL NC
Therefore:
VH N C N SE
I L N C N SE
Therefore:
IH NC
69
The apparent power advantage
Not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary winding of the
autotransformer goes through the windings. As a result, an autotransformer can handle
much power than the conventional transformer (with the same windings).
Considering a step-up autotransformer, the apparent input and output powers are:
SSSin VVVL IIIL
in
in
in LLL LLL
out
SSSout
out
out VVVHHHHIIIHHHH
It is easy to show that SSininin SSout
out
out SSIOIO
IO
where SIO is the input and output apparent powers of the autotransformer.
However, the apparent power in the autotransformer’s winding is
SSWWW VVCCCIICCC VVSE
SEIISE
SE SE
SE
N SE
NSE N NCC N SE
NSE NNCC
70
The apparent power advantage
Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings is
S IO N SE N C
SW N SE
71
The apparent power advantage
For example, a 5 MVA autotransformer that connects a 110 kV system to a 138 kV system
would have a turns ratio (common to series) 110:28. Such an autotransformer would
actually have windings rated at:
N SE 28
SW S IO 5 1.015MVA
N SE N C 28 110
Therefore, the autotransformer would have windings rated at slightly over 1 MVA instead
of 5 MVA, which makes is 5 times smaller and, therefore, considerably less expensive.
74
3-phase transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are 3-phase systems.
The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase bank of independent
identical transformers (can be replaced independently) or as a single transformer wound on a
single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).
75
3-phase transformers
76
3-phase transformer connections
77
3-phase transformer connections
1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
V P
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS 3V S
VLP 3V P
a
VLS 3V S
78
3-phase transformer connections
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1.If loads on one of the transformer circuits are unbalanced, the voltages on the
phases of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2.The third harmonic issue. The voltages in any phase of an Y-Y transformer are
1200 apart from the voltages in any other phase. However, the third-harmonic
components of each phase will be in phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the
transformer core always lead to generation of third harmonic! These components
will add up resulting in large (can be even larger than the fundamental component)
third harmonic component.
Both problems can be solved by one of two techniques:
1.Solidly ground the neutral of the transformers (especially, the primary side). The third
harmonic will flow in the neutral and a return path will be established for the unbalanced
loads.
2.Add a third -connected winding. A circulating current at the third harmonic will flow
through it suppressing the third harmonic in other windings.
79
3-phase transformer connections
2. Y- connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
V P
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS V S
VLP 3V P
3a
VLS V S
80
3-phase transformer connections
The Y- connection has no problem with third harmonic
components due to circulating currents in . It is also more stable to
unbalanced loads since the partially redistributes any imbalance
that occurs.
One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary
voltage is shifted by 300 with respect to the primary voltage. This
can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers since
transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled.
Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.
In the U.S., it is common to make the secondary voltage to lag the
primary voltage. The connection shown in the previous slide will do
it.
81
3-phase transformer connections
3. -Y connection:
V P VLP
VLP V P a
VLS 3V S 3
4. - connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
V P VLP
VLP V P
a
VLS V S
84
Transformer Vector Group
Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise.
Dy11
85
Transformer Vector Group
Dy1 Dy11
Hour Hand
Yy0
Yy6
Dd0
86
Transformer Vector Group
The hour indicator indicates phase displacement angle. Because there are
12 hours on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360°, each hour represents
30°. Thus 1=30°, 2=60°, 3=90°, 6= 180°, 11=330° (-30°) and 12=0° (360°).
The minute hand is set on 12 o'clock and replaces the line to neutral
voltage of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.
88
Transformer Vector Group
Yy0: Y connected
HV winding, y
connected LV
winding, no phase
shift between HV
and LV.
Yy6: Y connected
HV winding, y
connected LV
winding, 180o
phase shift
between HV and
LV.
89
Transformer Vector Group
Wye - Delta Connection for Yd1 Vector Group.
90
Transformer Vector Group
91
Transformer Vector Group
92
Transformer Vector Group
93
Transformer Vector Group
94
Transformer Vector Group
95
Transformer Vector Group
Two winding, three phase transformers can be divided into four main
categories (Clock hour number and phase displacement of those most
frequently encountered in practice in brackets)
96
Transformer Vector Group
To summarise:
• Dd0:Delta connected HV winding, delta connected LV winding, no
phase shift between HV and LV.
• Dyn11:Delta connected HV winding, star connected LV winding with
neutral brought out, LV is leading HV with 30°.
• YNd5: Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, delta
connected LV winding, LV lags HV with 150° .
97
Common Transformer Connections (IEC 60076-1)
98
Common Transformer Connections (IEC 60076-1)
99
Transformer Vector Group
In ANSI standards, it is possible to connect the transformers
appropriately so that voltages and currents on the H.V. side
always lead corresponding on the L.V. side. The convention to
label (and connect) Y-Δ and Δ-Y transformers so that the high-
side quantities LEAD low side quantities by 30º is referred to as
the “American Standard Thirty-Degree” connection convention.
Under this convention, high-side currents also lead low side
currents by 30º.
Other phase displacements are possible with unconventional
connections (for instance red on b, yellow on c and blue on a).
100
Transformer Vector Group
By doing some unconventional connections externally on both
sides of the transformer, an internal connected group III or
group IV transformer can be changed to any of these two
groups.
Thus, an internal connected Dyn1 transformer can be changed
to either a: Dyn3, Dyn5, Dyn7, Dyn9 or Dyn11 transformer, by
doing external changes on both sides of the transformer. This is
just true for star/delta or delta/star connections.
101
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
The per-unit system applies to the 3-phase transformers as well as
to single-phase transformers. If the total base VA value of the
transformer bank is Sbase, the base VA value of one of the
transformers will be
Sbase
S1 ,base
3
3 V ,base
2 2
V ,base
Z base
S1 ,base Sbase
102
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
The line quantities on 3-phase transformer banks can also be represented in per-unit
system. If the windings are in :
VL ,base V ,base
Sbase
I L ,base
3VL ,base
The application of the per-unit system to 3-phase transformer problems is similar to its
application in single-phase situations. The voltage regulation of the transformer bank is
the same.
103
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
Example 8: A 50 kVA, 13 800/208 V -Y transformer has a resistance of 1% and
a reactance of 7% per unit.
a.What is the transformer’s phase impedance referred to the high voltage side?
b.What is the transformer’s voltage regulation at full load and 0.8 PF lagging,
using the calculated high-side impedance?
c.What is the transformer’s voltage regulation under the same conditions, using the
per-unit system?
a. The high-voltage side of the transformer has the base voltage 13 800 V and a
base apparent power of 50 kVA. Since the primary side is -connected, its phase
voltage and the line voltage are the same. The base impedance is:
Z base 11426
Sbase 50000
104
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
The per-unit impedance of the transformer is:
Z eq , pu 0.01 j 0.07 pu
Therefore, the high-side impedance in ohms is:
105
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
The rated phase voltage on the secondary of the transformer is
208
V S 120V
3
When referred to the primary (high-voltage) side, this voltage becomes
V S ' aV S 13800V
Assuming that the transformer secondary winding is working at the rated voltage and
current, the resulting primary phase voltage is
0114.21.208cos1(0.8) j 8001.208cos1(0.8)
VP aVS Req I jXeq I 13800
14490
j690.3 14506
2.73V
The voltage regulation, therefore, is
V P aV S 14506 13800
VR 100% 100% 5.1%
aV S 13800
106
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
c. In the per-unit system, the output voltage is 100, and the current is 1cos-1
(-0.8). Therefore, the input voltage is
1.051 1.0
VR 100% 5.1%
1.0
The voltage regulation in per-unit system is the same as computed in volts…
107
Transformer ratings
108
Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency
The voltage rating is a) used to protect the winding insulation from breakdown; b)
related to the magnetization current of the transformer (more important)
flux
If a steady-state voltage
v(t ) VM sin t
is applied to the transformer’s primary
winding, the transformer’s flux will be
1 VM
Np
(t ) v (t )dt cos t
N p
Magnetization
An increase in voltage will lead to a current
proportional increase in flux. However,
after some point (in a saturation
region), such increase in flux would
require an unacceptable increase in
magnetization current!
109
Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency
Therefore, the maximum applied voltage (and thus the rated voltage) is set by the
maximum acceptable magnetization current in the core.
We notice that the maximum flux is also related to the frequency:
Vmax
max
Np
Therefore, to maintain the same maximum flux, a change in frequency (say, 50 Hz
instead of 60 Hz) must be accompanied by the corresponding correction in the
maximum allowed voltage. This reduction in applied voltage with frequency is called
derating. As a result, a 50 Hz transformer may be operated at a 20% higher voltage on
60 Hz if this would not cause insulation damage.
110
Transformer ratings: Apparent Power
The apparent power rating sets (together with the voltage rating) the current
through the windings. The current determines the i2R losses and, therefore, the
heating of the coils. Remember, overheating shortens the life of transformer’s
insulation!
In addition to apparent power rating for the transformer itself, additional
(higher) rating(s) may be specified if a forced cooling is used. Under any
circumstances, the temperature of the windings must be limited.
Note, that if the transformer’s voltage is reduced (for instance, the transformer is
working at a lower frequency), the apparent power rating must be reduced by an
equal amount to maintain the constant current.
111
Transformer ratings: Current inrush
Assuming that the following voltage is applied to the transformer at the moment it is
connected to the line:
113
Transformer ratings: Name Plate
114
Instrument transformers
Two special-purpose transformers are uses to take measurements: potential and
current transformers.
1. Voltage (potential) Transformer (VT) or (PT)
2. Current Transformer (CT)
Primary terminal
Primary winding
Name
Plate Cast
resin
Terminal Core
box
Earthing
terminal
115
Instrument transformers
A current transformer samples the current in a line and reduces it to a safe and
measurable level. Such transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped
around a ferromagnetic ring with a single primary line (that may carry a large
current )running through its center. The ring holds a small sample of the flux
from the primary line. That flux induces a secondary voltage.
Sec ondary
Primary
2
Introduction
Electric Machines
v i≈T
3
Introduction
Generator : The electromechanical energy conversion is
from mechanical to electrical
Mechanical Electrical
Power Power
Electrical Mechanical
Power Power
Introduction
5
Application of DC Machines
Faraday’s law or
flux cutting rule e=Blv e N
e
Velocity, v
v v
B
Flux density, B
S
B
i i
F=Bli F F
N
B
S
B
Construction of DC Machines
Parts of a DC Machine
Armature core
Leading pole tip
Armature winding
Field coil
Rotation
Pole axis
10
11
Construction of a DC Machine
Shaft
Armature
Commutator
Stator
Field coil
2 Pole DC Machine
Construction of DC Machines
Field yoke
Armature winding
Field coil
Rotation
Pole axis
Pole face
Field yoke
The stator consist of poles cores attached to a steel ring called yoke.
The pole cores are usually made of steel plates. The pole faces are
usually laminated. The winding on the poles (field windings) produce
uniform magnetic field within which the armature rotates.
14
Construction of DC Machine: Armature
The rotor or the armature core, which carries the rotor or armature winding,
is made of sheet-steel laminations. The laminations are stacked together to
form a cylindrical structure
Teeth
Slots
Slots for wedges The armature coils that make
the armature winding are
located in the slots.
Armature of a DC Machine
16
Commutator
17
Construction of a DC Machine: Brush
The purpose of the brush is to ensure electrical connections between the
rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. It is made of carbon
and rest on the commutator.
End connection
Conductors
Top
coil sides
Top Bottom
coil sides coil sides
Commutator 1 2 3 1 2
Brush Brush
a b c d e Lap Winding a b c d e
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
N S N S
f g h f g h
19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
+ - + -
+ + Ia -
+ + +
+
- - - ab p
Icoil
// paths brushes poles
+ -
- -
21
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature Winding
Wave Winding
a b c d e a b c d e
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
N S N S
i j k f g h
h
g
f
i j k
17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
- + - +
+ Ia +
+ + - +
+
Icoil a2
- - Nb. of // paths
- -
-
The simplest DC machine
As a consequence, the magnetic flux is perpendicular to the rotor surface everywhere under
the pole faces.
Since the air gap is uniform, the reluctance is constant everywhere under the pole faces.
Therefore, magnetic flux density is also constant everywhere under the pole faces.
The simplest DC machine
eind v × B l
The simplest DC machine
1) ab: In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation. Under
the pole face, velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, and the vector product v
x B points into the page. Therefore, the voltage is
vBlintopageunderthepoleface
eba v × B l
0beyond the pole edges
2) bc: In this segment, vector product v x B is perpendicular to l. Therefore, the voltage is
zero.
3) cd: In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation. Under
the pole face, velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic flux density B, and the vector
product v x B points out of the page. Therefore, the voltage is
vBloutof pageunderthepoleface
edc v × B l
0beyond the pole edges
4) da: In this segment, vector product v x B is perpendicular to l. Therefore, the voltage is
zero.
The simplest DC machine
v r
where r is the radius from the axis of rotation to the
edge of the loop. The total induced voltage:
2
Ap Bunderthe pole faces
etot
0beyond the poleedges
The simplest DC machine
Assuming that the flux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole faces,
the total flux under each pole is
Ap B
The total voltage is
2
underthe pole faces
etot
0beyond the poleedges
The voltage generated in any real machine depends on the following factors:
commutator
segment/brush
circuitry to the
end of the loop.
Every time the
voltage of the loop
switches direction,
contacts switch
connection.
The simplest DC machine
F i l × B
And the torque on the segment is
rF sin
Where is the angle between r and F.
Therefore, the torque is zero when the
loop is beyond the pole edges.
The simplest DC machine
2
iunderthe pole faces
ind
0beyond the poleedges
p..N m Z p..Z .N m
Emf _ total
60 a 60a
where
p = number of poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
a = number of parallel paths, 2 for wave and p for lab.
= flux per pole (Weber)
Nm = speed of the motor in the revolutions per minute (rpm)
time of 1 revolution = 60/Nm (sec)
33
Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage
2N m m 60
But, m Nm
60 2
m= speed of the motor in radians per second
pZ 60m pZ
Emf _ total m
60a 2 2a
Solution: Ea K am
N m 1750rpm pZ
m
p4 2a
pZN m
25mWb
60a
a p4
728 25 103 1750
Z 728
60
530.83V
35
Developed (or Electromagnetic) Torque
Consider the turn shown in the following Figure.
2rl
Area per pole A =
p
p
Flux density B
A 2rl
l
I
Current / conductor is I c a
a
Ia
The force on a conductor is f c BlI c Bl
a
Ia pI a
The torque developed by a conductor is Tc f c r Bl r
a 2a
Zp I a E I
The total torque developed is Te ZT c K aIa a a
2 a m
36
Example 2
• A lap-wound armature has 567 conductors and carries an
armature current of 123.5A. If the flux per-pole is 20
mWb, calculate the electromagnetic torque.
Solution: Te K aI a
pZ
a p I a
2a
20mWb
576 20 10 3 123.5
Z 576
2
I a 123.5 A 226.43Nm
37
Production of Unidirectional Torque and
Operation of an elementary dc motor
F S F
N N S
+ +
a 1 2 b b 2 a
F F 1
I I
1 2 1 2
Position of conductor a under N-pole Position of conductor a under S-pole
B
I
38
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
Commutation is the process of converting the AC voltages and currents in
the rotor of a DC machine to DC voltages and currents at its terminals.
eind v × B × l vBl
positive, out of the page
The voltage in each of 1’, 2’, 3, and 4 ends is
eind v × B × l vBl positive, intothe page
If the induced voltage on any side of a loop is (5.16.1), the total voltage at the brushes of the
DC machine is
E 4eatt 0
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
We notice that there are two parallel paths for current through the
machine! The existence of two or more parallel paths for rotor
current is a common feature of all commutation schemes.
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
If the machine keeps rotating, at t = 450, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the gap
between poles, so the voltage across each of them is zero. At the same time, the
brushes short out the commutator segments ab and cd.
E 2eatt 45
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
At t = 900, the loop ends 1’, 2, 3, and 4’ are under
the north pole face, and the loop ends 1, 2’, 3’, and
4 are under the south pole face. The voltages are
built up out of page for the ends under the north
pole face and into the page for the ends under the
south pole face. Four voltage-carrying ends in each
parallel path through the machine lead to the
terminal voltage of
E 4eatt 90
When the voltage reverses in a loop, the connections of the loop are also switched to keep
the polarity of the terminal voltage the same.
Commutator segments are usually made out of copper bars and the brushes are made of a
mixture containing graphite to minimize friction between segments and brushes.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines
1. Armature reaction
If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to the power
source and the rotor is turned by an external means, a voltage will be
induced in the conductors of the rotor. This voltage is rectified and can be
supplied to external loads. However, if a load is connected, a current will
flow through the armature winding. This current produces its own
magnetic field that distorts the original magnetic field from the machine’s
poles. This distortion of the machine’s flux as the load increases is called
armature reaction and can cause two problems:
1) neutral-plane shift: The magnetic neutral plane is the plane within the
machine where the velocity of the rotor wires is exactly parallel to the
magnetic flux lines, so that the induced voltage in the conductors in the
plane is exactly zero.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines
2) Flux weakening.
3. L di/dt voltages
di 400
266667 A / s
dt 0.0015
To avoid sparkling at the brushes while the machine’s load changes, instead of adjusting the
brushes’ position, it is possible to introduce small poles (commutating poles or interpoles)
between the main ones to make the voltage in the commutating wires to be zero. Such poles
are located directly over the conductors being commutated and provide the flux that can
exactly cancel the voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. Interpoles do not change the
operation of the machine
since they are so small that only affect few
conductors being commutated. Flux weakening is
unaffected.
Interpole windings are connected in series with the
rotor windings. As the load increases and the rotor
current increases, the magnitude of neutral-plane
shift and the size of Ldi/dt effects increase too
increasing the voltage in the conductors
undergoing commutation.
Solutions to the problems with commutation
However, the interpole flux increases too producing a larger voltage in the
conductors that opposes the voltage due to neutral-plane shift. Therefore,
both voltages cancel each other over a wide range of loads. This approach
works for both DC motors and generators.
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole
in a generator;
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a
motor.
The use of interpoles is very common because they correct the sparkling
problems of DC machines at a low cost. However, since interpoles do
nothing with the flux distribution under the pole faces, flux-weakening
problem is still present.
Solutions to the problems with commutation
2. Compensating windings
Rotor
Pole and
flux comp.
fluxes
A stator of a
six-pole DC
machine with
interpoles and
compensating
windings.
pole
Interpole
Power flow and losses in DC machines
Unfortunately, not all electrical power is converted to mechanical
power by a motor and not all mechanical power is converted to
electrical power by a generator…
Pin Ploss
or
100%
Pin
The losses in DC machines
1. Electrical or copper losses – the resistive losses in the armature and field windings of
the machine.
Armature loss: PA I A2 RA
Field loss: PF I F2 RF
Where IA and IF are armature and field currents and RA and RF are armature and field
(winding) resistances usually measured at normal operating temperature.
The losses in DC machines
2. Brush (drop) losses – the power lost across the contact potential at the brushes of the
machine.
PBD VBD I A
Where IA is the armature current and VBD is the brush voltage drop. The voltage drop across
the set of brushes is approximately constant over a large range of armature currents and it is
usually assumed to be about 2 V.
3. Core losses – hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B2 (square
of flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).
For a DC
motor:
Electrical power is input to the machine, and the electrical and brush losses must be
subtracted. The remaining power is ideally converted from electrical to mechanical form at
the point labeled as Pconv.
The power-flow diagram
Pconv E A I A
Pconv ind m
After the power is converted to mechanical form, the stray losses, mechanical losses, and
core losses are subtracted, and the remaining mechanical power is output to the load.
Classification of DC Machine
Separately
Long Short
excited Shunt Shunt Shunt
DC Machine Self-excited
Series
Cumulative Differential
Permanent
magnet Compound
65
Classification of DC Machine
A1 A1
ff fs ff fs
S1 S2 F2 S1 S2
F1 F2 F1
A2 A2
Long-shunt
Short-shunt
Motor operation
Generator operation
66
Classification of DC Machine
A1
A1 fs
ff fs ff
F2 S1 S2
S1 S2 F1
F1 F2
A2
A2
Motor operation
Generator operation
67
DC Machine Representation
Field
Armature
q-axis
d-axis
Field mmf
Armature mmf
fa Armature mmf
F Saturation
Fp
68
Magnetization (or Saturation) Curve
of a DC Machine
Ea
F
Saturation Speed wm
Linear
0.5 wm
If Nf
Flux-mmf relation in If
a dc machine
Magnetization curve
69
DC Generators
Five major types of dc generators, classified according to the manner in which
their field flux is produced:
• Shunt generator: In a shunt generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the
field circuit directly across the terminals of the generators.
• Series generator: In a series generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the
field circuit in series with the armature of the generator.
70
DC Generators
Five major types of dc generators, classified according to the manner in
which their field flux is produced:
Vnl V fl
VR 100%
V fl
71
Equivalent Circuit of DC Generator
The equivalent circuit of a DC
generator
72
Separately Excited of DC Generator
IL I A
• For DC generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage and line
current. The terminal voltage is VT = EA – IARA (IA = IL)
74
The Terminal Characteristic of a Separately Excited DC Generator
75
Control of Terminal Voltage
VT = EA – IARA
• If EA increases, VT will increase, and if EA decreases, VT will decreases. Since
the internal generated voltage, EA = KΦω, there are two possible ways to
control the voltage of this generator:
2. Change the field current. If RF is decreased, then the field current increases
(IF =VF/RF ). Therefore, the flux Φ in the machine increases. As the flux rises,
EA= K ω must rise too, so VT = EA – IARA increases.
76
The Shunt DC Generator
A shunt DC generator : DC generator that supplies its own field current
by having its field connected directly across the terminals of the
machine.
IA IF IL
VT E A I A R A
VT
IF
RF
Because the generator supplies it
own field current, it requires voltage
buildup
77
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
• Assume the DC generator has no load connected to it and that the prime mover
starts to turn the shaft of the generator. The voltage buildup in a DC generator
depends on the presence of a residual flux in the poles of the generator.
• EA, then VT increase and cause further increase IF, which further
increasing the flux and so on.
Voltage buildup
occurred in discrete
steps
EA may be a volt or
two appear at the
terminal during
start-up
79
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
Several causes for the voltage to fail to build up during starting which are :
• Residual magnetism. If there is no residual flux in the poles, there is no Internal
generated voltage, EA = 0V and the voltage will never build up.
Critical resistance
80
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
81
The Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Generator
When IF , the machine’s flux , causing the internal generated voltage
EA. EA causes the terminal voltage of the generator to increase as well.
83
The Series DC Generator
84
Terminal Characteristic of DC Series Generator
•The magnetization curve of a series DC
generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other
generator. At no load, however, there is
no field current, so VT is reduced to a
very small level given by the residual
flux in the machine. As the load
increases, the field current rises, so EA
rises rapidly. The IA (RA + RS) drop
goes up too, but at the first the increase
in EA goes up more rapidly than the
IA(RA + RS) drop rises, so VT
increases. After a while, the machine
approaches saturation, and EA
becomes almost constant. At that
point, the resistive drop is the
predominant effect, and VT starts to
fall.
85
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
86
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
N SE FAR
I *
F IF IA
NF NF
87
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
The other voltage and current relationships for this generator are
I A IF IL
VT E A I A ( RA RS )
VT
IF
RF
88
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator
When the load on the generator is increased, the load current IL also
increases.
Since IA = IF + IL, the armature current IA increases too. At this point
two effects
occur in the generator:
91
The Differentially Compounded DC Generator
I A IL IF
VT
IF
RF
VT E A I A ( RA RF )
92
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
Two effects occur in the terminal characteristic of a differentially
compounded DC generator are
Since both effects tend to decrease VT, the voltage drop drastically as
the load is increased on the generator as shown in next slide
93
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
94
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
The techniques available for adjusting terminal voltage are exactly
the same as those for shunt and cumulatively compounded DC
generator:
95
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
E A K
The induced torque developed by the machine is
ind K I A
Here K is the constant depending on the design of a particular DC machine (number and
commutation of rotor coils, etc.) and is the total flux inside the machine.
The internal generated voltage EA is directly proportional to the flux in the machine and
the speed of its rotation.
The field current in a DC machine produces a field mmf F = NFIF, which produces a flux
in the machine according to the magnetization curve.
or in terms
of internal
voltage vs.
field
current for
a given
speed.
To get the maximum possible power per weight out of the machine, most motors and
generators are operating near the saturation point on the magnetization curve. Therefore,
when operating at full load, often a large increase in current IF may be needed for small
increases in the generated voltage EA.
DC Motors Equations
Separately Excited DC Motor
It
Ia + Vf Rf I f
Ra
Ea Vt I a Ra
Rfw
wm
Vt E a K a m
Rfc Te K a I a
If -
+ Vf -
VT E A I A RA
DC Motors Equations
If
Shunt or Self-Excited DC Motor It
Ia +
Ra
Rfc
Rfw +
V f R f I f Vt Vt
m
Ea Vt I a Ra
E a K a m , Te K a I a
I a It I f
It : line current
Ia : armature current
If : field current
101
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
If the load on the shaft increases, the load torque load will exceed the induced torque ind,
and the motor will slow down. Slowing down the motor will decrease its internal
generated voltage (since EA = K), so the armature current increases (IA = (VT –
EA)/RA). As the armature current increases, the induced torque in the motor increases
(since ind = KIA), and the induced torque will equal the load torque at a lower speed .
VT RA
K K 2 ind
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Assuming that the terminal voltage and other terms are constant, the motor’s speed vary
linearly with torque.
However, if a motor has an armature reaction, flux-weakening reduces the flux when
torque increases. Therefore, the motor’s speed will increase. If a shunt (or separately
excited) motor has compensating windings, and the motor’s speed and armature current
are known for any value of load, it’s possible to calculate the speed for any other value of
load.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example 1: A 50 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with compensating windings has
an armature resistance (including the brushes, compensating windings, and interpoles) of
0.06 . Its field circuit has a total resistance Radj + RF of 50 , which produces a no-load
speed of 1200 rpm. The shunt field winding has 1200 turns per pole. a) Find the motor speed
when its input current is 100 A.
b) Find the motor speed when its input current is 200 A.
c) Find the motor speed when its input current is 300 A.
d) Plot the motor torque-speed characteristic.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
The internal generated voltage of a DC machine (with its speed expressed in rpm):
E A K
Since the field current is constant (both field resistance and VT are constant) and since
there are no armature reaction (due to compensating windings), we conclude that the flux
in the motor is constant. The speed and the internal generated voltages at different loads
are related as
E A 2 K2 n2
E A1 K1 n1
EA2
Therefore: n2 n1
E A1
At no load, the armature current is zero and therefore EA1 = VT = 250 V.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
a) Since the input current is 100 A, the armature current is
VT 250
I A IL IF IL 100 95 A
RF 50
Therefore: E A VT I A RA 250 95 0.06 244.3V
and the resulting motor speed is:
EA2 244.3
n2 n1 1200 1173rpm
E A1 250
b) Similar computations for the input current of 200 A lead to n2 = 1144 rpm.
c) Similar computations for the input current of 300 A lead to n2 = 1115 rpm.
d) To plot the output characteristic of the motor, we need to find the torque corresponding
to each speed. At no load, the torque is zero.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
Since the induced torque at any load is related to the power converted in a DC motor:
Pconv
Pconv EA
ind
E A II AA
ind
E AAI AA
the induced torque is ind
ind
2443 95
2443 95
For the input current of 100 A: ind
ind 190 N - m
2 1173 / 60
2383 195
For the input current of 200 A: ind 388 N - m
2 1144 / 60
2323 295
For the input current of 300 A: ind 587 N - m
2 1115 / 60
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
The torque-speed
characteristic of the
motor is:
Shunt motor: Speed Control
There are two methods to control the speed of a shunt DC motor:
1. Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature
Some small DC motors used in control circuits may operate at speeds close to stall
conditions. For such motors, an increase in field resistance may have no effect (or
opposite to the expected effect) on the motor speed. The result of speed control by
field resistance is not predictable and, thus, this type of control is not very common.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
2. Changing the armature voltage
This method implies changing the voltage applied to the armature of the motor
without changing the voltage applied to its field. Therefore, the motor must be
separately excited to use armature voltage control.
Armature voltage
speed control
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
1) Increasing the armature voltage VA increases the armature current (IA = (VA - EA)/RA);
2) Increasing armature current IA increases the induced torque ind (ind = KIA);
3) Increased induced torque ind is now larger than the load torque load and, therefore, the
speed ;
4) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage (EA = K);
5) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA…
6) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until ind = load at a higher speed .
Field resistance control can be used for speeds above the base speed but not below
it. Trying to achieve speeds slower than the base speed by the field circuit control,
requires large field currents that may damage the field winding.
Since the armature voltage is limited to its rated value, no speeds exceeding the
base speed can be achieved safely while using the armature voltage control.
Therefore, armature voltage control can be used to achieve speeds below the base
speed, while the field resistance control can be used to achieve speeds above the
base speed.
For the armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant. Therefore, the
maximum torque in the motor will be constant too regardless the motor speed:
max K I A,max
Since the maximum power of the motor is
Pmax max
The maximum power out of the motor is directly proportional to its speed.
For the field resistance control, the maximum power out of a DC motor is constant, while
the maximum torque is reciprocal to the motor speed.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
shunt separately-excited
For the given initial line current of 126 A, the initial armature current will be
250
I A1 I L1 I F 1 126 120 A
41.67
Therefore, the initial generated voltage for the shunt motor will be
After the field resistance is increased to 50 Ω, the new field current will be
250
IF 2 5 A
50
The ratio of the two internal generated voltages is
E A 2 K22 2 n2
E A1 K11 1n1
Since the armature current is assumed constant, EA1 = EA2 and, therefore
1n1
n2
2
The values of EA on the magnetization curve are directly proportional to the flux.
Therefore, the ratio of internal generated voltages equals to the ratio of the fluxes within
the machine. From the magnetization curve, at IF = 5A, EA1 = 250V, and at IF = 6A, EA1
= 268V. Thus:
Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example
b) A speed vs. RF
characteristic is shown
below:
Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example
E A1 VT 1 I A1 RA
E A 2 K22 2 n2
Since
E A1 K11 1n1
E A 2 n1
and since the flux is constant n2
E A1
Since the both the torque and the flux are constants, the armature current IA is also
constant. Then
If the field circuit is left open on a shunt motor, its field resistance
will be infinite. Infinite field resistance will cause a drastic flux drop
and, therefore, a drastic drop in the generated voltage. The armature
current will be increased enormously increasing the motor speed.
A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are made out
of permanent magnets.
Advantages:
1. Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit copper losses;
2. Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable smaller.
Disadvantages:
1. Since permanent magnets produces weaker flux
densities then externally supported shunt fields, such
motors have lower induced torque.
2. There is always a risk of demagnetization from
extensive heating or from armature reaction effects
(via armature mmf).
Motor types: The Permanent-Magnet DC Motor
The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is quite different from that of the shunt
motor since the flux is directly proportional to the armature current (assuming no
saturation). An increase in motor flux causes a decrease in its speed; therefore, a series
motor has a dropping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque in a series machine is
ind K I A
Since the flux is proportional to the armature current:
cI A
where c is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the torque is
ind KcI A2
Torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature current. Series motors
supply the highest torque among the DC motors. Therefore, they are used as car starter
motors, elevator motors etc.
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Assuming first that the magnetization curve is linear and no saturation occurs, flux is
proportional to the armature current:
cI A
Since the armature current is
ind
IA
Kc
and the armature voltage E A K
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law would be
ind
VT E A I A ( RA RS ) K RA RS
Kc
K 2
Since, the torque: ind KcI
2
A
c
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Therefore, the flux in the motor is c
ind
K
The voltage equation then becomes
c
VT K ind ind RA RS
K Kc
which can be solved for the speed:
VT 1 RA RS
Kc ind Kc
E a Vt I a ( Ra Rs )
E a K a m
Neglecting saturation K1 I f K1 I a
E a K a K1 I a m K s I a m
Vt Ra Rs
m
KsIa Ks
But T K a I a K a K1 I a2 K s I a2
Vt Ra Rs
m
Ks T Ks
129
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
One serious disadvantage of
a series motor is that its
speed goes to infinity for a
zero torque.
Steps must be taken to ensure that a series motor always has a load! Therefore, it
is not a good idea to connect such motors to loads by a belt or other mechanism
that could break.
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example 3: A 250 V series DC motor with compensating windings has a total series
resistance RA + RS of 0.08 . The series field consists of 25 turns per pole and the
magnetization curve is
F NI 25 50 1250 A turns
From the magnetization curve, at this mmf, the internal generated voltage is
EA0 = 80 V. Since the motor has compensating windings, the correct speed of the motor
will be
EA 246
n n0 1200 3690rpm
E A0 80
-
EA I A 246 50
The resulting torque: ind 31.8 N m
3690 2 60
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example:
b) The complete torque-
speed characteristic
We notice severe over-
speeding at low torque
values.
Speed Control
The only way to control speed
of a series DC motor is by
changing its terminal voltage,
since the motor speed is
directly proportional to its
terminal voltage for any Ra R s
Vt
given torque. m
Ks T Ks
Motor types: Compounded DC motor
VT E A I A RA RS
The currents in a compounded DC motor are
I A IL IF
VT
IF
RF
Cumulatively compounded
The mmf of a compounded DC motor:
F net F F F SE F AR
Differentially compounded
Cumulative Compound
Differential Compound
t shunt series
Shunt motor
Vt Ra
m T
K a t (K a t ) 2
137
Differentially Compounded Motors:
Torque-Speed Characteristic
Since the shunt mmf and series mmf subtract from each other in a differentially
compounded motor, increasing load increases the armature current IA and decreases the
flux. When flux decreases, the motor speed increases further increasing the load. This
results in an instability (much worse than one of a shunt motor) making differentially
compounded motors unusable for any applications.
The same two techniques that have been discussed for a shunt motor are also
available for speed control of a cumulatively compounded motor.
The details of these methods are very similar to already discussed for shunt
DC motors.
DC Motor Starters
In order for DC motors to function properly, they must have some special
control and protection equipment associated with them. The purposes of this
equipment are:
At starting conditions, the motor is not turning, therefore the internal generated
voltage EA = 0V. Since the internal resistance of a normal DC motor is very low
(3-6 % pu), a very high current flows.
For instance, for a 50 hp, 250 V DC motor with armature resistance RA of 0.06 and a
full-load current about 200 A, the starting current is
VT E A 250 0
IA 4167
A
RA 0.06
This current is over 20 times the motor’s rated full-load current and may severely damage
the motor.
A solution to the problem of excessive starting current is to insert a starting resistor in
series with the armature to limit the current until EA can build up to limit the armature
current. However, this resistor must be removed from the circuit as the motor speed is
high since otherwise such resistor would cause losses and would decrease the motor’s
torque-speed characteristic.
DC Motor Problems on Starting
Vt E a
Ia at starting 0 Ea 0
Ra
Vt
Ia Starting
ra
Since Ra is small, the starting current is
very large.
The starting current can be limited by the
following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at start, as
shown in the Figure.
143
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
Example 6: A 100 hp, 250 V 350 A shunt DC motor with an armature resistance of 0.05
needs a starter circuit that will limit the max starting current to twice its rated value and
which will switch out sections of resistor once the armature current decreases to its rated
value.
VT
Rtot R1 R2 ... RA
I max
After the stages 1 through i are shorted out, the total resistance left in the starting circuit is
Rtot ,i Ri 1 ... RA
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
The resistance R1 must be switched out of the circuit when the armature current falls to
VT E A,1
I A,min I min 350 A
Rtot
After the resistance R1 is out of the circuit, the armature current must increase to
VT E A,2
I A,max I max 700 A
Rtot ,1
Since EA = K, the quantity VT – EA must be constant when the resistance is switched
out. Therefore
I min Rtot VT E A I max Rtot ,1
The resistance left in the circuit is
n
I min I min
Rtot ,1 Rtot Rtot ,n Rtot
I max I max
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
The starting process is completed when Rtot,n is not greater than the internal armature
resistance RA. At the boundary:
n
I min
RA Rtot ,n Rtot
I max
log RA Rtot
Solving for n: n
log I min I max
Notice that the number of stages n must be rounded up to the next integer.
VT 250
Rtot 0.357
I max 700
log RA Rtot log 0.05 0.357
n 2.84 3
log I min I max log 350 700
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
b. The armature circuit will contain the armature resistance RA and three starting resistors.
At first, EA = 0, IA = 700 A, and the total resistance is 0.357 . The total resistance will be
in the circuit until the current drops to 350 A. This occurs when
Paper Mills
Robots
Steel Mills
Mining
Machine Tools Petrochemical 151
Example 1
• Determine the induced voltage induced in the armature of a dc
machine running at 1750 rpm and having four poles. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is lap-wound with 728
conductors.
Ea K am
Solution pZ
m
N m 1750rpm 2a
p4 pZN m
60a
25mWb
a p4 728 25 103 1750
60
Z 728
530.83V
152
Example 2
• A lap-wound armature has 567 conductors and carries an
armature current of 123.5A. If the flux per-pole is 20 mWb,
calculate the electromagnetic torque.
Solution Te K aI a
a p pZ
I a
20mWb 2a
Z 576 576 20 10 3 123.5
I a 123.5 A 2
226.43Nm
153
Example 3
• A 250V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.25W and
a field resistance of 125W. At no-load the motor takes a line
current of 5A while running at 1200 rpm. If the line current at
full-load is 52A, what is the full-load speed? If I t
Ia +
Solution Rfc
Ra
Rfw +
At no-load: m
Vt
It 5 A
1200 2
N m 1200rpm m 125.66rad / sec
Vt 250 60
If 2 A , I a _ NL I t _ NL I f 5 2 3 A
R f 125
154
Solution
Ea _ NL Vt I a _ NL Ra 250 3 0.25 249.25V
Ea _ NL 249.25
K a 1.984 V.sec/rad
m _ NL 125.66
At full-load: I L 52 A
Ea Vt I a Ra 250 50 0.25 237.5V
Ea _ FL K am _ FL
Ea _ FL
237.5
m _ FL 119.71 rad/sec
K a 1.984
m _ FL 60
N m _ FL 1142.4 rpm
2
155
Example 4
A 230V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.05 and a field
resistance of 75. The motor draws 7A of line current while running at
1120 rpm. This line current at a certain load is 46A.
A. What is the motor speed at this load?
A. At this load, if the field-circuit resistance is increased to 100 , what is the
new speed of the motor? Assume the line current to remain unchanged.
Solution
A: at light load: I t1 7 A N m1 1120rpm If
It
Ia +
Vt 230 Rfc
Ra
If 3.07 A
R f 1 75 Rfw +
Vt
m
I a1 I t1 I f 7 3.07 3.93 A
Ea1 Vt I a1 Ra 230 3.93 0.05 229.8V
156
At an other load:
I t 2 46 A I a 2 I t 2 I f 46 3.07 42.93 A
Ea1 N m1
Ea 2 N m 2
N m1 Ea 2 1120 227.85
N m2 1110.5 rpm
Ea1 229.8
2N m 2 1110.5 2
m 2 116.3 rad/sec
60 60
157
230 I a 3 I t 2 I f 3 46 2.3 43.7 A
B: I f 3 2.3 A
100
Ea 3 Vt I a 3 Ra 230 43.7 0.05 227.815 V
Ea 3
m3 I f K a3 K f I f 3
K a3
Assuming
Assuminglinear
linearpart
partofof
Ea 3 magnetization
magnetizationcurve
m3 curve
Kf If3
Ea 2 227.85
From A) Kf 0.638
m 2 I f 116.3 3.07
227.815
m3 155.3rad/sec N m 3 1483 rpm
0.638 2.3
158
Example 5
A 12hp 230V shunt motor takes a full-load line current of
40A. The armature and field resistance are 0.25 and 230
, respectively. The total brush-contact drop is 2V and the
core and friction losses are 380W. Calculate the efficiency
of the motor.
Solution
If
It
I t 40A, Pin Vt I t 230 40 9200 W Ia +
Ra
Vt 230 Rfc
If 1A
R f 230 Rfw +
Vt
m
I a I t I f 40 1 39 A
Ea Vt I a Ra Vb 230 39 0.25 - 2 218.25A
159
Solution
Ea I a 218.25 39 8511.75W
Pout Ea I a Prot 8511.75 380 8131.75W
Pout 8131.75
100 88.39%
Pin 9200
EE371-Electrical Machines I
Topic 4: Synchronous Generators
Slip
rings
Pole
DC excitation
winding
Fan
1
Introduction
AC
Electric Machine
Synchronous Induction
Induction Synchronous
2
Synchronous Machine
LEARNING GOALS
Introduction
Facts about SM
Construction
1. Stator
2. Rotor: Cylindrical - Salient
Principle of Operation
Equivalent Circuit
Phasor Diagram
Voltage Regulation
Operation of Synchronous Generator
Power-angle and other Performance Characteristics (Generator)
Synchronization
Excitation System
3
Facts about Synchronous Machine
Synchronous machines can be operated as generators or
motors.
It is used primarily as synchronous generator “ alternator”.
99+ % of all power are generated by the synchronous generators.
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Construction of Synchronous Machine
Stator Rotor
5
Synchronous Machine: Stator
A three-phase windings is placed in slots cut on the inner surface of the
stationary part. The ends of these windings can be connected in star or
delta to form a three phase connection. These windings are fed from a
three-phase ac supply (Motor) or connected to a three-phase ac load (Gen)
.
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Construction (Cont.)
7
Synchronous Machine: Rotor
The Rotor winding is known as the field winding or excitation winding
8
Synchronous Machine: Rotor
2-Pole Cylindrical
Rotor
4-pole Salient
Rotor
9
Construction (Cont.)
10
48-pole Salient
11 rotor
Synchronous Machine: Rotor
a N
b X X
c
c b Rotor
X
Stator a 12
Synchronous Machine: Rotor
S
c b
X
a
13
Principle of Operation: Generator
When a dc field current flows through
the rotor field winding it establishes a
flux in the air-gap.
If the rotor is now rotated by a prime
mover a revolving field is produced in
the air-gap.
The rotating flux will link the armature
windings aa’, bb’, and cc’ and will
induce voltages in these stator windings.
These induced voltages have the same
magnitudes but are phase-shifted by 120
electrical degrees.
The rotor speed and the frequency of the
induced voltages are related by:
120 f s where
ns fs is the frequency of the induced voltage.
p p is the total number of poles. 14
Example 1
• For 60 Hz generator list three possible combination of
number of poles and speeds.
120 f s
ns
p
Number of poles (p) Speed ns (rpm)
2 3600
4 1800
6 1200
15
Open Stator
f
If N
s Ef
Vf
df
Ef ~
S dt
d
eN
dt
Let m sin( t )
e N m cos( t )
E rms 4 . 44 f N ph pK w
where
Nph is the number of turns in series per phase
f is the frequency
p is the flux per pole
Kw is the winding factor
17
Loaded Stator
Ia
a
b c
X X Zload
N
S
c b
X
a'
18
Loaded Stator
f s
Ia
If N
Vf
g Vt
S
g f s
s is the stator flux or the armature reaction flux
g is the net magnetic field in the airgap
19
Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator
Xa Xl Ra Ia XS R a Ia
If If
Ef Er V V
Ef
Vf Vf
Where:
V = Terminal voltage per phase
Ef = Induced emf per phase
Ia = armature current
Ra= Armature resistance / phase
Xl= Leakage reactance / phase
Xa= armature reaction reactance / phase
Xs = Xl + Xa =Synchronous reactance / phase
21
Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator
XS Ra Ia
The per-phase voltage equation is:
If
E f Vt I a ( Ra jX s ) +
_ Ef
Vt
Leading p.f Vf
E f Vt 0 I a Ra I a X s ( 90 )
Lagging p.f
Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are usually
expressed as phasors. A vector plot of voltages and currents within one phase is
called a phasor diagram.
Pin appm
is partially converted to electricity
E A sin
I A cos
XS
Parameters Determination and Generator Performance
1.The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between the
field current IF and the internal generated voltage EA);
2.The synchronous reactance;
3.The armature resistance.
Vdc 2 3 Vdc
For -Connection Rdc Rdc
I dc 3 2 I dc
Open circuit Characteristics
The resulting
phasor diagram
The magnetic
fields during
Since BS almost cancels BR, the short-circuit test
net field Bnet is very small.
3
3
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
An approximate method to determine the synchronous reactance XS at a
given field current:
1.Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at that field current.
2.Get the short-circuit current IA,SC at that field current from the SCC.
3.Find XS from
EA
XS
I A, SC
Since the internal machine impedance is
EA
ZS R X
2
A
2
S X S since X S RA
I A, SC
3
4
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
Example 7.1:
A 200 kVA, 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a rated field
current of 5 A was tested and the following data were obtained:
1. VT,OC = 540 V at the rated IF.
2. IL,SC = 300 A at the rated IF.
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to two of the terminals, a current of 25 A
was measured.
Find the generator’s model at the rated conditions (i.e., the armature resistance and
the approximate synchronous reactance).
VT 540
E A V ,OC 311.8V
3 3
The synchronous reactance at the rated field current is precisely
E A2 311.8 2
X S Z S2 RA2 RA2 0.2 2
1.02
I A2 , SC 300 2
We observe that if XS was estimated via the approximate formula, the result would be:
EA 311.8
XS 1.04
I A, SC 300
Ef Ia(sc)
E f I a ( SC ) ( R a jX s ) I a ( SC ) Z s
Ef
Zs
I a ( SC )
Xs Z s2 R a2 Z s ( If R a is neglected )
E ac E ad
X s(Sat.) Xs , X s (Unsat .)
I ab I ab 37
The Synchronous generator operating alone
3
8
The Synchronous generator operating alone
E A V jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
39
The Synchronous generator operating alone
E A V jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
40
Operation of Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Generator feeds individual load (Independent
Gen), ( Isolated System)
An electrical system supplied by only one generator is known as
an isolated system. In such a system, the terminal voltage tends to
change with varying load.
Xs Ra Ia
ns
+
If _ Ef Vt
Vf
Xs Ra Ia
ns
+
If _ Ef Vt
Vf
E f 4.44 f N ph f K w
E f Vt I a ( Ra jX s ) Vt I a Z s
Vt I a Z L
Ef ZL E f
Ia Vt V E f I a jX s
Zs ZL Zs ZL
42
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Vnl V fl
VR 100%
V fl
Where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is its full-load
voltage.
43
Voltage Regulation
44
Calculation of No-Load Voltage
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Increase load effect on generators with
Leading PF
Lagging PF
Unity PF 46
The Synchronous generator operating alone
A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly
large positive voltage regulation. A synchronous generator operating at a
unity power factor has a small positive voltage regulation. A synchronous
generator operating at a leading power factor often has a negative voltage
regulation.
Normally, a constant terminal voltage supplied by a generator is desired. Since the
armature reactance cannot be controlled, an obvious approach to adjust the
terminal voltage is by controlling the internal generated voltage EA = K. This
may be done by changing flux in the machine while varying the value of the field
resistance RF, which is summarized:
1. Decreasing the field resistance increases the field current in the generator.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increased flux leads to the increase in the internal generated voltage.
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage increases the terminal voltage of
the generator.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the generator can be changed by adjusting the
field resistance. 47
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Example 7.2:
A 480 V, 60 Hz, Y-connected six-pole synchronous generator has a per-phase
synchronous reactance of 1.0 . Its full-load armature current is 60 A at 0.8 PF
lagging. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW and core losses are 1.0 kW at 60
Hz at full load. Assume that the armature resistance (and, therefore, the I2R losses)
can be ignored. The field current has been adjusted such that the no-load terminal
voltage is 480 V.
V VT 3 277V
At no load, the armature current IA = 0 and the internal generated voltage is EA =
277 V and it is constant since the field current was initially adjusted that way.
a. The speed of rotation of a synchronous generator is
120 120
nm fe 60 1200rpm
P 6
1200
which is m 2 125.7rad s
60
b.1. For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8
PF lagging, the phasor diagram is shown. The phase
voltage is at 00, the magnitude of EA is 277 V,
49
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Two unknown quantities are the magnitude of V and the angle of EA. From the
phasor diagram:
Then:
V E X S I A cos X S I A sin 236.8V
2 2
A
VT 3V 410V
50
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Pin 36.6
app 291.2 N - m
m 125.7
52
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Pconv 34.1
app 271.3 N - m
m 125.7
e. The voltage regulation of the generator is
480 410
Lagging PF: VR 100% 17.1%
410
480 468
Unity PF: VR 100% 2.6%
468
480 535
Lagging PF: VR 100% 10.3%
535
53
Operation of Synchronous Generators
a b c
Syn.
Gen.
54
Generator Equivalent Circuit
Ia
+
_ E Vt
E Vt I a X s
55
Generator Equivalent Circuit
Xs
Ia Ef
+ Ia X s
_ Ef Vt
Vt
Ia
Vt is Fixed (infinite Bus)
Ef is function of If
Magnitude and phase of Ia E f Vt I a X s
are dependant variables
56
Generator Equivalent Circuit
E Vt I a X s
E Vt 0 I a X s ( 90)
E
The angle δ is called the Ia Xs
power angle. For
Synchronous generator it
is always positive that is Vt
the generated voltage Ia
leads the terminal voltage
by angle δ
57
Power equations
Xs
Ef
Ia
+
Ia Xs
_ Ef
Vt
Vt
Ia
E Vt I a X s
P 3 Vt I a cos
Vt and Ef are phase quantities
Qt 3 Vt I a sin
58
Example
59
SOLUTION:
15
E Vt I a X s 0 (1 cos 1 0.9) 590 11.7422.54kV
3
B. The real power delivered is:
Ef
I a X s cos E f sin
Ia Xs
E f sin
Vt
I a cos Ia
Xs
P 3 Vt I a cos
3 Vt E f
P sin
Xs
δ is the power angle
61
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator
P 3 Vt E f
P sin
Xs
Pmax
3 Vt E f
Pmax
Xs
l 90 o
62
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator
P 3 Vt E
Pullover power
P sin
Xs
Pmax
Pm 3V E
Mechanical
input power
Operating point Pmax
(no losses)
Xs
l 90 o
63
Effect of Increasing Excitation
P
E f2
E f1
Pm
E f2 > E f1
1
2
• The maximum power that CAN be delivered increases
• The real power is unchanged (Pm unchanged)
• The power angle decrease 64
Reactive Power Equations
Xs
Ef
Ia Xs
Ia
+
_ Ef Vt
Vt
Ia
Vt and Ef are phase quantities
Qt
3Vt
E f cos Vt
Xs
If Ef cos > Vt ; Qt is positive and Current is lagging
If Ef cos < Vt ; Qt is negative and Current is leading
If Ef cos = Vt ; Qt is zero and Current is in phase 65
Example
66
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator
P 3 Vt E
Pullover power P sin
Pmax Xs
3V E
Pmax
Xs
90o
230
3 203.8
Pmax 3 54.13MW
1.5 67
Synchronous Generator Connected to
Infinite Bus Through Transmission Lines
Xs Vt Vo
Pm Xl
G
Ia
Ef Vt Vo
68
Phasor Diagram
Xs Vt Vo
Pm Ia Xl
G
Ia Xs
Ef
Ia Vt
Ia Xl
Vo 69
Phasor Diagram
Xs Vt Vo
Pm Ia Xl
G
Ia (Xs+Xl)
Ef
Ia
Vo 70
Power equation
I a X cos E f sin Ef
Ia ( Xs+Xl )
E f sin
I a cos
X Vo
Ia
P 3 Vo I a cos
X X s Xl
3 Vo E f
P sin
X
71
Power Characteristics of Generator
P
Pmax
3 Vo E f
P sin
X
l 90o
Q
3Vo
X
E f cos Vo
72
Maximum Power
P
Ia X
Pmax Ef
Ia
Pm
Vo
Phasor Diagram at Pmax
l 90
o
73
Operation of Synchronous Generators
A B C Infinite Bus:
Constant Voltage
a b c Constant Frequency
Syn.
Gen.
74
Parallel operation of synchronous generators
Most of synchronous generators are operating in
parallel with other synchronous generators to supply
power to the same power system. Obvious
advantages of this arrangement are:
1.Several generators can supply a bigger load;
2.A failure of a single generator does not result in a total power loss
to the load increasing reliability of the power system;
3.Individual generators may be removed from the power system for
maintenance without shutting down the load;
4.A single generator not operating at near full load might be quite
inefficient. While having several generators in parallel, it is possible
to turn off some of them when operating the rest at near full-load
condition.
75
Conditions required for paralleling
A diagram shows that Generator 2
(oncoming generator) will be
connected in parallel when the
switch S1 is closed.
However, closing the switch at an
arbitrary moment can severely
damage both generators!
If voltages are not exactly the same in both lines (i.e. in a and a’, b and b’ etc.), a
very large current will flow when the switch is closed. Therefore, to avoid this,
voltages coming from both generators must be exactly the same. Therefore, the
following conditions must be met:
1.The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2.The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
3.The phase angles of two a phases must be equal.
4.The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly higher than the
frequency of the running system.
76
Conditions required for paralleling
If the phase sequences are
different, then even if one pair
of voltages (phases a) are in
phase, the other two pairs will
be 1200 out of phase creating
huge currents in these phases.
The simplest way to determine the moment when two generators are in phase is by
observing the same three light bulbs. When all three lights go out, the voltage
across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.
80
Three dark lamp method
One dark, Two bright lamp method
Synchroscope
Synchronoscope
84
Excitation Systems
Excitation Systems
Brush Brushless
85
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)
86
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)
87
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)
88
Rotating Exciter (Brushless-type)
89
Static-Type Exciters
90
Static-Type Exciters (cont.)
A brushless exciter:
a low 3-phase current
is rectified and used
to supply the field
circuit of the exciter
(located on the
stator). The output of
the exciter’s armature
circuit (on the rotor)
is rectified and used
as the field current of
the main machine.
Construction of synchronous machines