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EE371-Electrical Machines I

Topic 1: Electro-Mechanical Fundamentals


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Electric Machines
An electric machine is a devise that can convert electrical energy
to mechanical or/and mechanical energy to electrical.
1.1. Generators convert mechanical energy from a prime mover to electrical
energy through the action of the magnetic field.

1.2. Motors convert electrical energy from a power source to mechanical energy
through the action of the magnetic field.
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Topic 1: Magnetic Circuits


1.3. Transformers convert AC electrical energy at one voltage
level to AC electrical energy at (an)other voltage level(s).
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Magnetic Circuits

1) i-H relation
2) B-H relation
3) Magnetic equivalent circuit
4) B-H relation (Magnetizing curve)
5) Magnetic circuit calculation
6) Inductance
7) Hysteresis and eddy losses
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Basic principles underlying usage of magnetic field
1. A wire carrying a current produces a magnetic field around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire
if it passes through that coil (transformer action).
3. A wire carrying a current in the presence of a magnetic field
experiences a force induced on it (motor action).
4. A wire moving in a presence of a magnetic field gets a voltage
induced in it (generator action).
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1. The magnetic field


1.1. Production of magnetic field
Magnetic field When a conductor carries current a magnetic field in
the area around it is produced.
The direction of H (magnetic field intensity) can be determined by
thumb rule.
Ampere’s circuit law The line integral of the
magnetic field intensity H around a closed
path is equal to the current enclosed.
Consider a conductor carries a current i
The field intensity H at distance r
i
Hl  i  H 
2 r
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1. The magnetic field


Ni
Magnetic flux density: B  H 
lc
where  = o r is the magnetic permeability of a material.
r – the relative permeability
o =410-7 H/m – the permeability of free space

The total flux in a given area:


   B.dA
A

If the magnetic flux density vector B is perpendicular


to a plane of the area:

NiA
  BA 
lc
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1. The magnetic field


The Ampere’s law:
   H.dl  I net
Where H [A-turns/m] is the intensity of the magnetic field produced by the
current Inet
For the ferromagnetic cores, almost all the
magnetic field produced by the current
remains inside the core, therefore the
integration path would be lc and the
current passes it N times.

Ni
I net  Ni  H 
lc
 Ni  NiA
B  H    BA 
lc lc
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1. The magnetic field


The magnetic field intensity H produce a magnetic flux
density B (Tesla) at every point given by

B   H wb / m 2 or Tesla Where:
= permeability of a material
B  0 r H wb / m 2 or Tesla r = Relative permeability
 = permeability of free-space

Permeability For ferromagnetic materials, r = 2000-6000 and for non-


magnetic materials, r = 1
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2. The Faradays law


If a flux passes through a turn of a coil of wire, a voltage will
be induced in that turn that is directly proportional to the rate of
change in the flux with respect to time:
d
eind 
dt
Or, for a coil having N turns:

d
eind  N
dt
eind – voltage induced in the coil
N – number of turns of wire in the coil
 - magnetic flux passing through the coil
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2. The Faradays law


The “minus” sign in the equation is a consequence of the Lentz’s law
stating that the direction of the voltage buildup in the coil is such that
if the coil terminals were short circuited, it would produce a current
that would cause a flux opposing the original flux change.
If the initial flux is
increasing, the voltage
buildup in the coil will
tend to establish a flux
that will oppose the
increase. Therefore, a
current will flow as
indicated and the polarity
of the induced voltage
can be determined.
The minus sign is frequently omitted since the polarity is easy to figure out.
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2. The Faradays law-Electromagnetic Induction


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3. Production of induced force on a wire


A second major effect of a magnetic field is that
it induces a force on a wire caring a current
within the field.
F  IB
Where I is a vector of current, B is the magnetic
flux density vector.
For a wire of length l caring a current i in a
magnetic field with a flux density B that makes an
angle  to the wire, the magnitude of the force is:

F  ilB sin 
This is a basis for a motor action.

In rotating electric machines, the


electromagnetic force is used to create torque.
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4. Induced voltage on a conductor moving in a


magnetic field

The third way in which a magnetic field interacts


with its surrounding is by an induction of voltage
in the wire with the proper orientation moving
through a magnetic field.

eind  (v  B)l

Where v is the velocity of the wire, l is its length in the magnetic field, B – the
magnetic flux density

This is a basis for a generator action.


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5. Magnetic circuits
Consider a toroid

 H  dl   i  Ni

Hl  Ni
Magneto-Motive Force (mmf) F= Ni is the external force required to set
up the magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material.

Where:
F NI F = Magneto-Motive Force (At)
H  H = Magnetizing Force (At/m)
l l
N = number of turns (turns, t)
NI B=magnetic flux density (T)
B L = is the mean length (m)
l
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5. Magnetic circuits
Magnetic Flux  (Webers) through a given surface is given
(All the flux is confined and no leakage flux)

   B dA  BA B
A
H 
NI NIA
  HA 
l l
NI NI
 
l / A  A

Where:
Φ = is the flux (wb)
B = is the average flux density
A = is cross-sectional area (m2)

 = is the reluctance
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5. Magnetic circuits
Reluctance is a measure of the opposition the
magnetic circuit offer to flux analogues to the
resistance in an electric circuit
l

Materials with high A
permeability such as
ferromagnetic materials
have small reluctance
and will result in
Where:
increased measure of
l = length of the circuit (m)
flux through the core. A = Cross-sectional area (m2)
 = permeability of the material
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5. Magnetic circuits

Electric Circuit Magnetic Circuit


Driving Force Emf (E) Mmf (F)
Produce Current i Flux Ф
Limited by Resistance R Reluctance
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5. Magnetic circuits

Similarly to electric circuits,


there are magnetic circuits …

Instead of electromotive force


(voltage) magnetomotive force
(mmf) is what drives magnetic
circuits. F  Ni
Direction of mmf is determined by RHR…
Like the Ohm’s law, the Hopkinson’s Law:

F  R F: mmf;
: magnetic flux
R: reluctance
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5. Magnetic circuits

1
Permeance: P =
R

 NiA A
Magnetic flux:  = F P = BA = F
lc lc
lc
Therefore, the reluctance: R 
A
Serial connection: R eq R 1 R 2  ...  R N

1 1 1 1
Parallel connection:    ... 
R eq R1 R 2 R N
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Relationship between B-H in Free Space


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5. Magnetic circuits

Calculations of magnetic flux are always approximations!

1. We assume that all flux is confined within the magnetic


core but a leakage flux exists outside the core since
permeability of air is non-zero!
2. A mean path length and cross-sectional area are
assumed…
3. In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with
the flux.
4. In air gaps, the cross-sectional area is bigger due to the
fringing effect.
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Core with Air-gap


Magnetic circuit with an air gap

lc lg
c  g 
c Ac 0 Ag

Ni

c   g

Ni  H c lc  H g l g
c g
Bc  Bg 
Ac Ag
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5. Magnetic circuits

Example 1: A ferromagnetic core with


a mean path length of 40 cm, an air gap
of 0.05 cm, a cross-section 12 cm2, and
r = 4000 has a coil of wire with 400
turns. Assume that fringing in the air
gap increases the cross-sectional area of
the gap by 5%, find (a) the total
reluctance of the system (core and gap),
(b) the current required to produce a
flux density of 0.5 T in the gap.

The equivalent circuit


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5. Magnetic circuits

(a) The reluctance of the core:


lc lc 0.4
R     66300 A  turns / Wb
c
 Ac 0 r Ac 4000  4 107  0.0012

Since the effective area of the air gap is 1.05 x 12 = 12.6 cm2, its reluctance:
la 0.0005
R    316000 A  turns / Wb
a
0 Aa 4 10  0.00126
7

The total reluctance:

R eq R c R a  66300  316000  382300 A  turns / Wb

The air gap contribute most of the reluctance!


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5. Magnetic circuits

(b) The mmf:


F  R  Ni  BAR

Therefore:
BAR 0.5  0.00126  383200
i   0.602 A
N 400

Since the air gap flux was required, the effective area of the gap was used.
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5. Magnetic circuits
Example 2: In a simplified rotor and
stator motor, the mean path length of
the stator is 50 cm, its cross-sectional
area is 12 cm2, and r = 2000. The mean
path length of the rotor is 5 cm and its
cross-sectional area is also 12 cm2, and
r = 2000. Each air gap is 0.05 cm wide,
and the cross-section of each gap
(including fringing) is 14 cm2. The coil
has 200 turns of wire. If the current in
the wire is 1A, what will the resulting
flux density in the air gaps be?

The equivalent circuit


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5. Magnetic circuits
The reluctance of the stator is:
ls 0.5
R    166000 A  turns / Wb
s
r 0 As 2000  4 107  0.0012

The reluctance of the rotor is:

lr 0.05
R    16600 A  turns / Wb
r
r 0 Ar 2000  4 10  0.0012
7

The reluctance of each gap is:

la 0.0005
R    284000 A  turns / Wb
a
0 Aa 4 10  0.0014
7

The total reluctance is:


R eq R s R a1 R r R a2  751000 A  turns / Wb
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5. Magnetic circuits

The net mmf is: F  Ni

The magnetic flux in the core is:

F Ni
 
R R

Finally, the magnetic flux density in the gap is:

 Ni 200 1
B    0.19T
A R A 751000  0.0014
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6. Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials

B
Magnetic permeability can be defined as: 
H
and was previously assumed as constant. However, for the ferromagnetic
materials (for which permeability can be up to 6000 times the permeability of
air), permeability is not a constant…

A saturation (magnetization) curve for a


DC source
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6. Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials

Magnetization Curve If the magnetic field intensity H in the core


increased (by increasing the current), the flux density increases almost
linearly at low values of H, but at higher values of H the magnetic
material shows the effect of Saturation i.e. the change of B is non-liner-
The relation is as shown in the B-H curve

B-H Curve (Magnetization Curve)


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6. Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials

The magnetizing intensity is: Ni F


H 
lc lc

The magnetic flux density:


  BA
Therefore, the magnetizing intensity is directly proportional to mmf and the
magnetic flux density is directly proportional to magnetic flux for any magnetic
core.

Ferromagnetic materials are essential since they allow to produce much more
flux for the given mmf than when air is used.
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6. Magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials

Magnetization curves of three different materials


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Magnetic Materials
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7. Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core

If instead of a DC, a sinusoidal


current is applied to a magnetic core,
a hysteresis loop will be observed…
If a large mmf is applied to a core and
then removed, the flux in a core does
not go to zero! A magnetic field (or
flux), called the residual field (or
flux), will be left in the material. To
force the flux to zero, an amount of
mmg (coercive mmf) is needed.
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7. Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core

Ferromagnetic materials
consist of small domains,
within which magnetic
moments of atoms are
aligned. However,
magnetic moments of
domains are oriented
randomly.
When an external magnetic field is applied, the domains pointing in the direction of that field
grow since the atoms at their boundaries physically switch their orientation and align
themselves in the direction of magnetic field. This increases magnetic flux in the material
which, in turn, causes more atoms to change orientation. As the strength of the external field
increases, more domains change orientation until almost all atoms and domains are aligned
with the field. Further increase in mmf can cause only the same flux increase as it would be in
a vacuum. This is a saturation.
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7. Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core

When the external field is removed, the domains do not


completely randomize again. Realigning the atoms would require
energy! Initially, such energy was provided by the external field.
Atoms can be realigned by an external mmf in other direction,
mechanical shock, or heating.
The hysteresis loss in the core is the energy required to reorient
domains during each cycle of AC applied to the core.
Another type of energy losses is an eddy currents loss, which will
be examined later.
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Hysteresis and eddy current losses
When a magnetic material undergoes cyclic magnetization,
two kind of power losses occur in it;
Hysteresis (Ph) and
Eddy current losses (Pe)
which known together as P P  P
c h e
Core losses (Pc)
 The core losses is the combination of hysteresis loss and
the eddy current loss in the material.

 The loss appears as a heat in the core and it is important in


determining, heating, temperature rise and efficiency.

In practice manufactures supply data used to estimate the core loss


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7.1 Hysteresis losses


Consider the coil core assembly initially un-magnetized 0, If H
increased by increasing i, results curve 0-a. If H decreased results
abc curve. when H = 0 the core retained
Br (residual flux density)
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7.1 Hysteresis losses


If H is reversed (by i) results
Hc (Coercivity or coercive force)
Br is removed c d. If H is further increased B increases (in the
reverse direction) e, if H decreased to 0, then to H1 results the
curve efga’, The loop does not close a’ and another cycle a’’
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7.1 Hysteresis losses


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7.1 Hysteresis losses


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7.1 Hysteresis losses


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7.2 Eddy Current Loss


• When a magnetic flux density varies, a
voltage is induced results circulating currents
known as eddy currents in the core
• Since all magnetic materials have resistance, a dB
iee 
power loss ie2R associated with them called dt
eddy current loss.
• Losses can be reduced by splitting the core
into sections (lamination)–subdividing causes
the losses to decrease progressively–varnish
coatings insulate the laminates from current
flows–silicon in the iron increases the
resistance.
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7.2 Eddy Current Loss


The eddy current loss can be reduced by:
Increasing the resistivity of the core material
Using a laminated core
The eddy current losses can be calculated
2 2
Pe  K e  B max f W / m3

Where:
Ke is constant depends on core material
and its lamination thicknesses
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7.2 Eddy Current Loss


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8. Inductance
A magnetic circuit excited by current i produces Φ
Each turn encloses or links the flux Φ

N
Flux Linkage

d
Faraday’s law eN
dt

Self inductance of the coil

 L
N2
L
i 
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8. Inductance
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Magnetic Circuits: Summary


EE371-Electrical Machines I
Topic 2: Transformers

1
Some history

Historically, the first electrical power distribution system developed by Edison in 1880s
was transmitting DC. It was designed for low voltages (safety and difficulties in voltage
conversion); therefore, high currents were needed to be generated and transmitted to
deliver necessary power. This system suffered significant energy losses!

The second generation of power distribution systems (what we are still using) was
proposed by Tesla few years later. His idea was to generate AC power of any
convenient voltage, step up the voltage for transmission (higher voltage implies lower
current and, thus, lower losses), transmit AC power with small losses, and finally step
down its voltage for consumption. Since power loss is proportional to the square of the
current transmitted, raising the voltage, say, by the factor of 10 would decrease the
current by the same factor (to deliver the same amount of energy) and, therefore, reduce
losses by factor of 100.

The step up and step down voltage conversion was based on the use of
transformers.
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Typical Power
Transmission and
Distribution System

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Preliminary considerations

A transformer is a device that converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at the same
frequency. It consists of one or more coil(s) of wire wrapped around a common
ferromagnetic core. These coils are usually not connected electrically together. However,
they are connected through the common magnetic flux confined to the core.

Assuming that the transformer has at


least two windings, one of them
(primary) is connected to a source of AC
power; the other (secondary) is
connected to the loads.

The invention of a transformer can be attributed to Faraday, who in 1831 used its principle
to demonstrate electromagnetic induction foreseen no practical applications of his
demonstration. 

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Types and construction
Power transformers
Core form Shell form

Windings are wrapped around two sides Windings are wrapped around the
of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.

Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease flux leakage and,
therefore, increase efficiency.
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Types and construction

Lamination
types

Laminated steel cores

Toroidal steel cores

Efficiency of
transformers with
toroidal cores is
usually higher.

6
Types and construction
Power transformers used in power distribution systems are sometimes
referred as follows:
A power transformer connected to the output of a generator and used
to step its voltage up to the transmission level (110 kV and higher) is
called a unit transformer.

A transformer used at a substation to step the voltage from the


transmission level down to the distribution level (2.3 … 34.5 kV) is
called a substation transformer.

A transformer converting the distribution voltage down to the final


level (110 V, 220 V, etc.) is called a distribution transformer.

In addition to power transformers, other types of transformers are used.

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Ideal transformer
We consider a lossless
transformer with an input
(primary) winding having Np
turns and a secondary
winding of Ns turns.
The relationship between the
voltage applied to the primary
winding vp(t) and the voltage
produced on the secondary v p (t ) N p
 a
winding vs(t) is vs (t ) N s

Here a is the turn ratio of the transformer.


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Ideal transformer
The relationship between the primary ip(t) and secondary is(t)
currents is
i p (t ) 1

is (t ) a

In the phasor notation: Vp Ip 1


a 
Vs Is a

The phase angles of primary and secondary voltages are the


same. The phase angles of primary and secondary currents are the
same also. The ideal transformer changes magnitudes of voltages
and currents but not their angles.
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Ideal transformer – Dot Convention

One winding’s terminal is usually marked


by a dot used to determine the polarity of
voltages and currents.

If the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary winding


at some moment of time, the voltage at the dotted end of the
secondary winding will also be positive at the same time instance.

If the primary current flows into the dotted end of the primary
winding, the secondary current will flow out of the dotted end of
the secondary winding.

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Power in an ideal transformer

Assuming that p and s are the angles between voltages and currents on the
primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:

Pin  V p I p cos  p
The power supplied to the output circuits is

Pout  Vs I s cos  s
Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:

 p  s  
Both windings of an ideal transformer have the same power factor.

11
Power in an ideal transformer
Since for an ideal transformer the following holds:
Vp
Vs  ;I s  aI p
a
Therefore:
Vp
Pout  Vs I s cos   aI p cos   V p I p cos   Pin
a

The output power of an ideal transformer equals to its input


power – to be expected since assumed no loss. Similarly, for
reactive and apparent powers:

Qout  Vs I s sin   V p I p sin   Qin Sout  Vs I s  V p I p  Sin

12
Impedance transformation

The impedance is defined as a following ratio of phasors:


Z L  VL I L
A transformer changes voltages and currents and, therefore, an apparent impedance of
the load that is given by
Z L  Vs I s
The apparent impedance of the primary
circuit is:
Z L '  Vp I p
which is
Vp aVs V
ZL '    a2 s  a2ZL
Ip Is a Is
It is possible to match magnitudes of impedances (load and a transmission line) by
selecting a transformer with the proper turn ratio.
13
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers

A simple method to analyze a circuit containing an ideal transformer is by


replacing the portion of the circuit on one side of the transformer by an equivalent
circuit with the same terminal characteristics.

Next, we exclude the transformer from the circuit and solve it for voltages and
currents.

The solutions obtained for the portion of the circuit that was not replaced will be
the correct values of voltages and currents of the original circuit.

Finally, the voltages and currents on the other side of the transformer (in the
original circuit) can be found by considering the transformer’s turn ratio.

This process is called referring of transformer’s sides.

14
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:
Example1: A single-phase power system consists of a 480-V 60-Hz generator
that is connected to the load Zload = 4 + j3  through the transmission line with
Zline = 0.18 + j0.24 . a) What is the voltage at the load? What are the
transmission line losses? b) If a 1:10 step up transformer and a 10:1 step down
transformer are placed at the generator and the load ends of the transmission
line respectively, what are the new load voltage and the new transmission line
losses?
a) Here:
V
I G  I line  I load 
Zline  Zload
4800

0.18  j 0.24  4  j 3
4800
  90.8  37.8 A
5.2937.8

15
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:

Therefore, the load voltage:

Vload  I load Zload   90.8  37.8  (4  j 3)   90.8  37.8  536.9   454  0.9V

The line losses are:


Ploss  I line
2
Rline  90.82  0.18  1484W
b) We will
1)eliminate transformer T2 by
referring the load over to the
transmission line’s voltage
level.
2)Eliminate transformer T1 by
referring the transmission
line’s
elements and the equivalent load at the transmission line’s voltage over to the source
side.

16
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:

The load impedance when referred to the transmission line (while the
transformer T2 is eliminated) is:
2
 10 
Zload
'
 a22 Zload     4  j 3  400  j 300
1
The total impedance on the
transmission line level is
Z eq  Zline  Zload
'

 400.18  j 300.24
 500.336.88

The total impedance is now referred across T1 to the source’s voltage level:
2
1
Z eq
'
 a12 Z eq     500.336.88   5.00336.88
 10 
17
Analysis of circuits containing ideal transformers
Example:

The generator’s current is


V 4800
IG  
Z 'eq 5.00336.88
 95.94  36.88 A
Knowing transformers’ turn ratios, we
can determine line and load currents:
I line  a1I G  0.1   95.94  36.88   9.594  36.88 A
I load  a2 I line  10   9.594  36.88   95.94  36.88 A
Therefore, the load voltage is:
Vload  I load Zload   95.94  36.88  5  36.87   479.7  0.01V
The losses in the line are: Ploss  I line
2
Rline  9.5942  0.18  16.7W
Note: transmission line losses are reduced by a factor nearly 90, the load voltage is much
closer to the generator’s voltage – effects of increasing the line’s voltage.
18
Theory of operation of real single-phase transformers

Real transformers approximate ideal ones to some degree.

The basis transformer operation can be


derived from Faraday’s law:
d
eind 
dt
Here  is the flux linkage in the coil across
which the voltage is induced:
N
   i
i 1
where I is the flux passing through the ith turn in a coil – slightly different for different turns.
However, we may use an average flux per turn in the coil having N turns:

  N
Therefore: d
eind  N
dt
19
The voltage ratio across a real transformer

If the source voltage vp(t) is applied to the primary winding, the average flux in the
primary winding will be:
1
 
Np  v p (t )dt

A portion of the flux produced in


the primary coil passes through
the secondary coil (mutual flux);
the rest is lost (leakage flux):

 p  m  Lp
average primary flux mutual flux
Similarly, for the secondary coil:

s  m  Ls
Average secondary flux
20
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
From the Faraday’s law, the primary coil’s voltage is:
d p dm dLp
v p (t )  N p  Np  Np  e p (t )  eLp (t )
dt dt dt
The secondary coil’s voltage is:
d s dm dLs
vs (t )  N s  Ns  Ns  es (t )  eLs (t )
dt dt dt
The primary and secondary voltages due to the mutual flux are:
dm
e p (t )  N p
dt
dLs
es (t )  N s
dt
Combining the last two equations:
e p (t ) dm es (t )
 
Np dt Ns
21
The voltage ratio across a real transformer
Therefore:
e p (t ) Np
 a
es (t ) Ns

That is, the ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage both caused by the
mutual flux is equal to the turns ratio of the transformer.

For well-designed transformers:

m Lp ;m Ls


Therefore, the following approximation normally holds:

v p (t ) Np
 a
vs (t ) Ns

22
The magnetization current in a real transformer

Even when no load is connected to the secondary coil of the transformer, a current will
flow in the primary coil. This current consists of:
1.The magnetization current im needed to produce the flux in the core;
2.The core-loss current ih+e hysteresis and eddy current losses.

Flux causing the


magnetization current

Typical magnetization curve


23
The magnetization current in a real transformer

Ignoring flux leakage and assuming time-harmonic primary voltage, the average flux is:

1 1 Vm
sin tWb 
Np  Np 
  v (t ) dt  V cos  tdt 
p m
N p
If the values of current are comparable to the flux they produce in the core, it is possible
to sketch a magnetization current. We observe:
1.Magnetization current is not sinusoidal: there are high frequency components;
2.Once saturation is reached, a small increase in flux requires a large increase in
magnetization current;
3.Magnetization current (its fundamental component) lags the voltage by 90o;
4.High-frequency components of the current may be large in saturation.
Assuming a sinusoidal flux in the core, the eddy currents will be largest when flux
passes zero.

24
The magnetization current in a real transformer

total excitation current in a transformer

Core-loss current

Core-loss current is:

1. Nonlinear due to nonlinear effects of hysteresis;


2. In phase with the voltage.

The total no-load current in the core is called the excitation current of the transformer:

iex  im  ih  e
25
The current ratio on a transformer

If a load is connected to the secondary coil, there will be a current flowing through it.

A current flowing into the dotted end of


a winding produces a positive
magnetomotive force F:
Fp  N p i p
Fs  N s is
The net magnetomotive force in the core
Fnet  N p i p  N s is  
where  is the reluctance of the transformer core. For well-designed transformer cores, the
reluctance is very small if the core is not saturated. Therefore:

Fnet  N p i p  N s is  0
26
The magnetization current in a real transformer

The last approximation is valid for well-designed unsaturated cores. Therefore:

ip Ns 1
N p i p  N s is   
is Np a
An ideal transformer (unlike the real one) can be
characterized as follows:

1.The core has no hysteresis or eddy currents.


2.The magnetization curve is
3.The leakage flux in the core is zero.
Magnetization curve of
4.The resistance of the windings is zero. an ideal transformer

27
The transformer’s equivalent circuit

To model a real transformer accurately, we need to account for the following


losses:

1.Copper losses – resistive heating in the windings: I2R.


2.Eddy current losses – resistive heating in the core: proportional to the square
of voltage applied to the transformer.
3.Hysteresis losses – energy needed to rearrange magnetic domains in the core:
nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4.Leakage flux – flux that escapes from the core and flux that passes through
one winding only.

28
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

Cooper losses are modeled by


the resistors Rp and Rs.
Leakage flux in a primary
winding produces the voltage:

dLp
eLp (t )  N p
dt
Since much of the leakage flux pass through air, and air has a constant reluctance that is
much higher than the core reluctance, the primary coil’s leakage flux is:

Lp  P N p i p
permeance of flux path
Therefore:
eLp (t )  N p P N p i p   N pP
d 2
di p
dt dt
29
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

Recognizing that the self-inductance of the primary coil is


L p  N p2P
The induced voltages are:

di p
Primary coil: eLp (t )  Lp
dt
dis
Secondary coil: eLs (t )  Ls
dt
The leakage flux can be modeled by primary and secondary inductors.
The magnetization current can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the
primary voltage source.
The core-loss current can be modeled by a resistance RC connected across the primary
voltage source.
Both currents are nonlinear; therefore, XM and RC are just approximations.
30
The exact equivalent circuit of a real transformer

The transformer’s
equivalent circuit

However, the exact circuit is not very


practical.

Therefore, the equivalent circuit is usually referred


to the primary side or the secondary side of the
transformer.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred


to its primary side.

Equivalent circuit of the transformer referred


to its secondary side.

31
Approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer

For many practical applications,


approximate models of transformers
are used.

Referred to the primary side.

Referred to the secondary side.

Without an excitation branch


referred to the primary side.

The values of components of the


transformer model can be determined Without an excitation branch
experimentally by an open-circuit test or by referred to the secondary side.
a short-circuit test.
32
Determining the values of components

The open-circuit test.


Full line voltage is applied to the primary side
of the transformer. The input voltage, current,
and power are measured.

From this information, the power factor of the input current and the magnitude and the angle
of the excitation impedance can be determined.
To evaluate RC and XM, we determine the conductance of the core-loss resistor is:
1
GC 
RC
The susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is:
1
BM 
XM
33
Determining the values of components

Since both elements are in parallel, their admittances add. Therefore, the total excitation
admittance is:
1 1
YE  GC  jBM  j
RC XM
The magnitude of the excitation admittance in the open-circuit test is:
I oc
YE 
Voc
The angle of the admittance in the open-circuit test can be found from the circuit power
factor (PF):
Poc
cos   PF 
Voc I oc

34
Determining the values of components

In real transformers, the power factor is always lagging, so the angle of the current always
lags the angle of the voltage by  degrees. The admittance is:
I oc I oc
YE       cos 1 PF
Voc Voc

Therefore, it is possible to determine values of RC and XM in the open-circuit test.

35
Determining the values of components

The short-circuit test.


Fairly low input voltage is applied to the primary
side of the transformer. This voltage is adjusted
until the current in the secondary winding equals
to its rated value.
The input voltage, current, and power are again measured.
Since the input voltage is low, the current flowing through the excitation branch is negligible;
therefore, all the voltage drop in the transformer is due to the series elements in the circuit.
The magnitude of the series impedance referred to the primary side of the transformer is:

VSC
Z SE 
I SC
The power factor of the current is given by:
PSC
PF  cos  
VSC I SC 36
Determining the values of components

Therefore:
VSC 0 VSC
Z SE    
I SC     I SC
Since the serial impedance ZSE is equal to
Z SE  Req  jX eq
Z SE   R p  a 2 RS   j  X p  a 2 X S 

it is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the primary side of the
transformer. However, there is no easy way to split the series impedance into primary
and secondary components.
The same tests can be performed on the secondary side of the transformer. The results
will yield the equivalent circuit impedances referred to the secondary side of the
transformer.

37
Determining the values of components
Example:
Example 2: We need to determine the equivalent circuit impedances of a 20 kVA,
8000/240 V, 60 Hz transformer. The open-circuit and short-circuit tests led to the
following data:
VOC = 8000 V VSC = 489 V
IOC = 0.214 A ISC = 2.5 A
POC = 400 W PSC = 240 W

The power factor during the open-circuit test is


POC 400
PF  cos     0.234lagging
VOC I OC 8000  0.214
The excitation admittance is

IOC 0.214 1 1
YE  cos1 PF  cos1 0.234  0.0000063 j0.0000261   j
VOC 8000 RC XM
38
Determining the values of components
Example:
1 1
Therefore: RC   159k ; X M   38.3k 
0.0000063 0.0000261
The power factor during the short-circuit test is
PSC 240
PF  cos     0.196lagging
VSC I SC 489  2.5
The series impedance is given by
VSC 1 489
Z SE   cos PF  78.7
I SC 2.5
 38.4  j192
Therefore:
Req  38.3; X eq  192
The equivalent circuit
39
The per-unit system

Another approach to solve circuits containing transformers is the per-unit system.


Impedance and voltage-level conversions are avoided. Also, machine and transformer
impedances fall within fairly narrow ranges for each type and construction of device
while the per-unit system is employed.

The voltages, currents, powers, impedances, and other electrical quantities are measured
as fractions of some base level instead of conventional units.
actualvalue
Quantity perunit
basevalueof quantity
Usually, two base quantities are selected to define a given per-unit system. Often, such
quantities are voltage and power (or apparent power). In a 1-phase system:

Pbase ,Qbase ,orSbase  Vbase I base


Vbase Vbase 
2

Z base  
I base Sbase
40
The per-unit system

I base
Ybase 
Vbase

Ones the base values of P (or S) and V are selected, all other base values can be
computed form the above equations.
In a power system, a base apparent power and voltage are selected at the specific point
in the system. Note that a transformer has no effect on the apparent power of the
system, since the apparent power into a transformer equals the apparent power out of a
transformer. As a result, the base apparent power remains constant everywhere in the
power system.
On the other hand, voltage (and, therefore, a base voltage) changes when it goes
through a transformer according to its turn ratio. Therefore, the process of referring
quantities to a common voltage level is done automatically in the per-unit system.

41
The per-unit system- Example:

Example 3: A simple power system is given by the circuit:

The generator is rated at 480 V and 10 kVA.


a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every points in the
power system;
b) Convert the system to its per-unit equivalent circuit;
c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system;
e) Find the power lost in the transmission line (Region 2).
42
The per-unit system: Example

a. In the generator region: Vbase 1 = 480 V and Sbase = 10 kVA

Sbase1 10000
I base1    20.83 A
Vbase1 480
Vbase1 480
Z base1    23.04
I base1 20.83
The turns ratio of the transformer T1 is a1 = 0.1; therefore, the voltage in the
transmission line region is
Vbase1 480
Vbase2    4800V
a1 0.1
The other base quantities are

43
The per-unit system: Example

Sbase2  10kVA
10000
I base2   2.083 A
4800
4800
Z base2   2304
2.083
The turns ratio of the transformer T2 is a2 = 20; therefore, the voltage in the load region
is
Vbase 4800
Vbase    240V
a2 20
The other base quantities are

44
The per-unit system: Example

Sbase  10kVA
10000
I base   41.67 A
240
240
Z base   5.76
41.67
b. To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each component must be divided by
its base value in its region. The generator’s per-unit voltage is
4800
VG , pu   1.00 pu
480
The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is

20  j 60
Z line, pu   0.0087  j 0.026 pu
2304
45
The per-unit system: Example

The load’s per-unit


impedance is

1030
Z load , pu 
5.76
 1.73630 pu
The per-unit equivalent
circuit

c. The current flowing in this per-unit power system is

V pu 10
I pu    0.569  30.6 pu
Z tot , pu 0.0087  j 0.026  1.73630

46
The per-unit system: Example

Therefore, the per-unit power on the load is


Pload , pu  I pu
2
R pu  0.5692 1.503  0.487
The actual power on the load is
Pload  Pload , pu Sbase  0.487 10000487W
d. The per-unit power lost in the transmission line is

Pline, pu  I pu
2
Rline, pu  0.5692  0.0087  0.00282
The actual power lost in the transmission line

Pline  Pline, pu Sbase  0.00282 100008.2W

47
The per-unit system

When only one device (transformer or motor) is analyzed, its own ratings are used as the
basis for per-unit system. When considering a transformer in a per-unit system,
transformer’s characteristics will not vary much over a wide range of voltages and powers.
For example, the series resistance is usually from 0.02 to 0.1 pu; the magnetizing reactance
is usually from 10 to 40 pu; the core-loss resistance is usually from 50 to 200 pu. Also, the
per-unit impedances of synchronous and induction machines fall within relatively narrow
ranges over quite large size ranges.
If more than one transformer is present in a system, the system base voltage and power can
be chosen arbitrary. However, the entire system must have the same base power, and the
base voltages at various points in the system must be related by the voltage ratios of the
transformers.
System base quantities are commonly chosen to the base of the largest component in the
system.

48
The per-unit system

Per-unit values given to another base can be converted to the new base either
through an intermediate step (converting them to the actual values) or directly
as follows:

Sbase
 P, Q, S  pu ,base2   P, Q, S  pu ,base
Sbase
Vbase
V pu ,base2  V pu ,base
Vbase
2
Vbase 1 Sbase
 R, X , Z  pu ,base2   R, X , Z  pu ,base 2
Vbase Sbase

49
The per-unit system: Example

Example 4: Sketch the appropriate per-unit equivalent circuit for the 8000/240 V, 60 Hz, 20
kVA transformer with Rc = 159 k, XM = 38.4 k, Req = 38.3 , Xeq = 192 .

To convert the transformer to per-unit system, the primary circuit base impedance needs to
be found.
Vbase1  8000V ;Sbase1  20000VA
2
Vbase 8000 2
Z base1  1
  3200
Sbase1 20000
38.4  j192
Z SE , pu   0.012  j 0.06 pu
3200
159000
RC , pu   49.7 pu
3200
00
X M , pu   12 pu
3200
50
The per-unit system: Example

Therefore, the per-unit equivalent circuit is shown below:

51
Voltage regulation and efficiency

Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformer’s output voltage
varies with the load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this
respect, the quantity called a full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows:

Vs ,nl  Vs , fl V p a  Vs , fl
VR  100%  100%
Vs , fl Vs , fl
In a per-unit system:
V p , pu  Vs , fl , pu
VR  100%
Vs , fl , pu

Where Vs,nl and Vs,fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.
Note, the VR of an ideal transformer is zero.

52
The transformer phasor diagram
To determine the VR of a transformer, it is necessary to understand the voltage drops
within it. Usually, the effects of the excitation branch on transformer VR can be ignored
and, therefore, only the series impedances need to be considered. The VR depends on the
magnitude of the impedances and on the current phase angle.
A phasor diagram is often used in the VR determinations. The phasor voltage Vs is assumed
to be at 00 and all other voltages and currents are compared to it.

Considering the diagram and by applying the Kirchhoff’s


voltage law, the primary voltage is:
Vp
 Vs  Req I s  jX eq I s
a
A transformer phasor diagram is a graphical representation
of this equation.

53
The transformer phasor diagram

A transformer operating at a lagging power factor:

It is seen that Vp/a > Vs, VR > 0

A transformer operating at a
unity power factor:
It is seen that VR > 0

A transformer operating at a leading


power factor:
If the secondary current is leading, the
secondary voltage can be higher than
the referred primary voltage; VR < 0.

54
The transformer efficiency

The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:

Pout Pout
 100%  100%
Pin Pout  Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.
Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:
1. Copper (I2R) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance
2. Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.
3. Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor Rc.

Since the output power is Pout  Vs I s cos  s


The transformer efficiency is
Vs I s cos 
 100%
PCu  Pcore  Vs I s cos 
55
The transformer efficiency: Example

Example 5: A 15 kVA, 2300/230 V transformer was tested to by open-circuit and closed-


circuit tests. The following data was obtained:

VOC = 2300 V VSC = 47 V


IOC = 0.21 A ISC = 6.0 A
POC = 50 W PSC = 160 W

a. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the high-voltage side.
b. Find the equivalent circuit of this transformer referred to the low-voltage side.
c. Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor, at 1.0 power
factor, and at 0.8 leading power factor.
d. Plot the voltage regulation as load is increased from no load to full load at power
factors of 0.8 lagging, 1.0, and 0.8 leading.
e. What is the efficiency of the transformer at full load with a power factor of 0.8 lagging?

56
The transformer efficiency: Example

a. The excitation branch values of the equivalent circuit can be determined as:
Poc 50
 oc  cos 1  cos 1  84
Voc I oc 2300  0.21
The excitation admittance is:
I oc 0.21
YE    84    84  0.0000095  j 0.0000908S
Voc 2300
The elements of the excitation branch referred to the primary side are:
1
Rc   105k 
0.0000095
1
XM   11k 
0.0000908

57
The transformer efficiency: Example

From the short-circuit test data, the short-circuit impedance angle is


PSC 160
 SC  cos 1  cos 1  55.4
VSC I SC 47  6
The equivalent series impedance is thus
VSC 47
Z SE   SC  55.4  4.45  j 6.45
I SC 6
The series elements referred to the
primary winding are:

Req  4.45; X eq  6.45

The equivalent circuit

58
The transformer efficiency: Example

b. To find the equivalent circuit referred to the low-voltage side, we need to divide the
impedance by a2. Since a = 10, the values will be:

RC  1050 X M  110 Req  0.0445 X eq  0.0645


The equivalent circuit will be

59
The transformer efficiency: Example

c. The full-load current on the secondary side of the transformer is


S rated 15000
I S ,rated    65.2 A
VS ,rated 230
Vp
Since:  VS  Req I S  jX eq I S
a
1
At PF = 0.8 lagging, current I s  65.2  cos (0.8)  65.2  36.9 A
Vp
and  2300  0.0445   65.2  36.9   j 0.0645   65.2  36.9   234.850.40V
a
The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:
V p a  VS , fl
VR  100%
VS , fl
234.85  230
 100%
230
 2.1%
60
The transformer efficiency: Example

At PF = 1.0, current I s  65.2 cos 1 (1.0)  65.20 A


Vp
and  2300  0.0445   65.20   j 0.0645   65.20   232.941.04V
a

The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:


V p a  VS , fl 232.94  230
VR  100%  100%  1.28%
VS , fl 230

61
The transformer efficiency: Example

At PF = 0.8 leading, current I s  65.2 cos 1 (0.8)  65.236.9 A


Vp
and  2300  0.0445   65.236.9   j 0.0645   65.236.9   229.851.27V
a

The resulting voltage regulation is, therefore:


V p a  VS , fl 229.85  230
VR  100%  100%  0.062%
VS , fl 230

62
The transformer efficiency: Example

Similar computations can be


repeated for different values of
load current. As a result, we
can plot the voltage regulation
as a function of load current for
the three Power Factors.

63
The transformer efficiency: Example

e. To find the efficiency of the transformer, first calculate its losses.


The copper losses are:
PCu  I S2 Req  65.22  0.0445  189W
The core losses are:
Vp a 
2
234.852
Pcore    52.5W
RC 1050
The output power of the transformer at the given Power Factor is:
Pout  VS I S cos   230  65.2  cos 36.9  12000W
Therefore, the efficiency of the transformer is
Pout
 100%  98.03%
PCu  Pcore  Pout

64
Transformer taps and voltage regulation

We assumed before that the transformer turns ratio is a fixed (constant) for the given
transformer. Frequently, distribution transformers have a series of taps in the windings to
permit small changes in their turns ratio. Typically, transformers may have 4 taps in
addition to the nominal setting with spacing of 2.5 % of full-load voltage. Therefore,
adjustments up to 5 % above or below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer are
possible.

Example 6: A 500 kVA, 13 200/480 V transformer has four 2.5 % taps on its primary winding.
What are the transformer’s voltage ratios at each tap setting?

+ 5.0% tap 13 860/480 V


+ 2.5% tap 13 530/480 V
Nominal rating 13 200/480 V
- 2.5% tap 12 870/480 V
- 5.0% tap 12 540/480 V

65
Transformer taps and voltage regulation

Taps allow adjustment of the transformer in the field to accommodate for local voltage
variations.
Sometimes, transformers are used on a power line, whose voltage varies widely with the
load (due to high line impedance, for instance). Normal loads need fairly constant input
voltage though…
One possible solution to this problem is to use a special transformer called a tap changing
under load (TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator. TCUL is a transformer with the
ability to change taps while power is connected to it. A voltage regulator is a TCUL with
build-in voltage sensing circuitry that automatically changes taps to keep the system
voltage constant.
These “self-adjusting” transformers are very common in modern power systems.

66
The autotransformer

Sometimes, it is desirable to change the voltage by a small amount (for instance, when
the consumer is far away from the generator and it is needed to raise the voltage to
compensate for voltage drops).
In such situations, it would be expensive to wind a transformer with two windings of
approximately equal number of turns. An autotransformer (a transformer with only one
winding) is used instead.
Diagrams of step-up and step-down autotransformers:

Series Series
winding winding

Common Common
winding winding

Output (up) or input (down) voltage is a sum of voltages across common and series windings.
67
The autotransformer
Since the autotransformer’s coils are physically connected, a different terminology is used
for autotransformers:
The voltage across the common winding is called a common voltage VC, and the current
through this coil is called a common current IC. The voltage across the series winding is
called a series voltage VSE, and the current through that coil is called a series current ISE.
The voltage and current on the low-voltage side are called VL and IL; the voltage and current
on the high-voltage side are called VH and IH.
For the autotransformers:

VC N
 C
VSE N SE
N C I C  N SE I SE

VL  VC I L  I C  I SE
VH  VC  VSE I H  I SE
68
Voltage and Current relationships in an
Autotransformer
for the high-side voltage, we arrive at
N SE N SE
VH  VC  VC  VL  VL
NC NC

VL NC
Therefore: 
VH N C  N SE

The current relationship will be:


N SE N SE
I L  I SE  I SE  I H  IH
NC NC

I L N C  N SE
Therefore: 
IH NC

69
The apparent power advantage
Not all the power traveling from the primary to the secondary winding of the
autotransformer goes through the windings. As a result, an autotransformer can handle
much power than the conventional transformer (with the same windings).

Considering a step-up autotransformer, the apparent input and output powers are:
SSSin VVVL IIIL
in
in
in LLL LLL

out 
SSSout
out
out VVVHHHHIIIHHHH
It is easy to show that SSininin  SSout
out 
out  SSIOIO
IO

where SIO is the input and output apparent powers of the autotransformer.
However, the apparent power in the autotransformer’s winding is
SSWWW VVCCCIICCC VVSE
SEIISE
SE SE
SE

Which is: SSWW VVLL  IILL  IIHH  VVLLIILL VVLLIIHH


NNCC N
NSE
VVLLIILL VVLLIILL  SSIOIO SE

N SE 
NSE N NCC N SE 
NSE NNCC
70
The apparent power advantage
Therefore, the ratio of the apparent power in the primary and secondary of the
autotransformer to the apparent power actually traveling through its windings is

S IO N SE  N C

SW N SE

The last equation described the apparent power rating advantage of an


autotransformer over a conventional transformer.
SW is the apparent power actually passing through the windings. The rest passes from
primary to secondary parts without being coupled through the windings.
Note that the smaller the series winding, the greater the advantage!

71
The apparent power advantage
For example, a 5 MVA autotransformer that connects a 110 kV system to a 138 kV system
would have a turns ratio (common to series) 110:28. Such an autotransformer would
actually have windings rated at:

N SE 28
SW  S IO  5  1.015MVA
N SE  N C 28  110
Therefore, the autotransformer would have windings rated at slightly over 1 MVA instead
of 5 MVA, which makes is 5 times smaller and, therefore, considerably less expensive.

However, the construction of autotransformers is usually slightly different. In particular, the


insulation on the smaller coil (the series winding) of the autotransformer is made as strong
as the insulation on the larger coil to withstand the full output voltage.

The primary disadvantage of an autotransformer is that there is a direct physical


connection between its primary and secondary circuits. Therefore, the electrical
isolation of two sides is lost.
72
The apparent power advantage: Ex
Example 7: A 100 VA, 120/12 V transformer will be connected to form a step-up
autotransformer with the primary voltage of 120 V.
a.What will be the secondary voltage?
b.What will be the maximum power rating?
c.What will be the power rating advantage?

a. The secondary voltage:


N C  N SE 120  12
VH  VL  120  132V
NC 120
b. The max series winding current: Smax 100
I SE ,max    8.33 A
VSE 12
The secondary apparent power: Sout  VS I S  VH I H  132  8.33  1100VA
c. The power rating advantage: S IO 1100
  11
SW 100
S IO N SE  N C 120  12 132
or     11
SW N SE 12 12 73
Variable-voltage autotransformers
The effective per-unit impedance of an autotransformer is smaller than of a conventional
transformer by a reciprocal to its power advantage. This is an additional disadvantage of
autotransformers.

It is a common practice to make


variable voltage autotransformers.

74
3-phase transformers
The majority of the power generation/distribution systems in the world are 3-phase systems.
The transformers for such circuits can be constructed either as a 3-phase bank of independent
identical transformers (can be replaced independently) or as a single transformer wound on a
single 3-legged core (lighter, cheaper, more efficient).

75
3-phase transformers

76
3-phase transformer connections

We assume that any single transformer in a 3-phase transformer


(bank) behaves exactly as a single-phase transformer. The impedance,
voltage regulation, efficiency, and other calculations for 3-phase
transformers are done on a per-phase basis, using the techniques
studied previously for single-phase transformers.

Four possible connections for a 3-phase transformer bank are:


1.Y-Y
2.Y-
3.- 
4.-Y

77
3-phase transformer connections

1. Y-Y connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
V P 
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS  3V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3V P
 a
VLS 3V S

78
3-phase transformer connections
The Y-Y connection has two very serious problems:
1.If loads on one of the transformer circuits are unbalanced, the voltages on the
phases of the transformer can become severely unbalanced.
2.The third harmonic issue. The voltages in any phase of an Y-Y transformer are
1200 apart from the voltages in any other phase. However, the third-harmonic
components of each phase will be in phase with each other. Nonlinearities in the
transformer core always lead to generation of third harmonic! These components
will add up resulting in large (can be even larger than the fundamental component)
third harmonic component.
Both problems can be solved by one of two techniques:
1.Solidly ground the neutral of the transformers (especially, the primary side). The third
harmonic will flow in the neutral and a return path will be established for the unbalanced
loads.
2.Add a third -connected winding. A circulating current at the third harmonic will flow
through it suppressing the third harmonic in other windings.
79
3-phase transformer connections

2. Y- connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is
VLP
V P 
3
The secondary phase voltage is
VLS  V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP 3V P
  3a
VLS V S

80
3-phase transformer connections
The Y- connection has no problem with third harmonic
components due to circulating currents in . It is also more stable to
unbalanced loads since the  partially redistributes any imbalance
that occurs.
One problem associated with this connection is that the secondary
voltage is shifted by 300 with respect to the primary voltage. This
can cause problems when paralleling 3-phase transformers since
transformers secondary voltages must be in-phase to be paralleled.
Therefore, we must pay attention to these shifts.
In the U.S., it is common to make the secondary voltage to lag the
primary voltage. The connection shown in the previous slide will do
it.

81
3-phase transformer connections

3.  -Y connection:

The primary voltage on each phase of the


transformer is

V P  VLP

The secondary phase voltage is


VLS  3V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP V P a
 
VLS 3V S 3

The same advantages and the same phase


shift as the Y- connection.
82
3-phase transformer connections

4.  -  connection:
The primary voltage on each phase of the
transformer is

V P  VLP

The secondary phase voltage is


VLS  V S

The overall voltage ratio is

VLP V P
 a
VLS V S

No phase shift, no problems with


unbalanced loads or harmonics.
83
Transformer Vector Group
 A vector group is the IEC method of categorizing the primary and secondary
winding configurations of three-phase transformers. It indicates the windings
configurations and the difference in phase angle between them.
 The vector group is indicated by a code consisting of two or three letters,
followed by one or two digits. The letters indicate the winding configuration as
follows:
 D: Delta winding,
 Y: Wye winding,
 Z: Zigzag winding.
 In the IEC vector group code, each letter stands for one set of windings. The
HV winding is designated with a capital letter, followed by medium or low
voltage windings designated with a lowercase letter. The digits following
the letter codes indicate the difference in phase angle between the windings,
with HV winding is taken as a reference. The number is in units of 30o.

84
Transformer Vector Group
 Phase rotation is always anti-clockwise.

 For example, a transformer with a vector group of has a Delta-connected HV


winding and a Y-connected LV winding. The phase angle of the LV winding
leads the HV by 30o.

Dy11

85
Transformer Vector Group

Dy1 Dy11
Hour Hand

Yy0
Yy6
Dd0

Clock convention representing vector groups

86
Transformer Vector Group
 The hour indicator indicates phase displacement angle. Because there are
12 hours on a clock, and a circle consists out of 360°, each hour represents
30°. Thus 1=30°, 2=60°, 3=90°, 6= 180°, 11=330° (-30°) and 12=0° (360°).

 The minute hand is set on 12 o'clock and replaces the line to neutral
voltage of the HV winding. This position is always the reference point.

 Because rotation is anti-clockwise, 1=30° lagging (LV lags HV with 30°)


and 11=330° lagging or 30° leading (LV leads HV with 30°).

 The point of confusion is in how to use this notation in a step-up


transformer. As the IEC60076-1 standard has stated, the notation is HV-
LV in sequence. For example, a step-up transformer with a delta-
connected primary, and star-connected secondary, is not written as 'dY11',
but 'Yd11'. The 11 indicates the LV winding leads the HV by 30 degrees.

 The phase-bushings on a three phase transformer are marked either ABC,


UVW or 123 (HV-side capital, LV-side small letters)
87
Transformer Vector Group
 Dd0: Delta connected
HV winding, delta
connected LV winding,
no phase shift between
HV and LV.

88
Transformer Vector Group

 Yy0: Y connected
HV winding, y
connected LV
winding, no phase
shift between HV
and LV.
 Yy6: Y connected
HV winding, y
connected LV
winding, 180o
phase shift
between HV and
LV.

89
Transformer Vector Group
 Wye - Delta Connection for Yd1 Vector Group.

 Wye - Delta Connection for Yd11 Vector Group.

90
Transformer Vector Group

 Dyn1: Delta connected HV winding,


star connected LV winding.with
neutral brought out, LV is lagging HV
with 30° (-30°) .

91
Transformer Vector Group

 Dyn11: Delta connected HV


winding; star connected LV winding
with neutral brought out, LV is
leading HV with 30° (+30°).

92
Transformer Vector Group

• YNd1: Star connected HV


winding with neutral brought
out, delta connected LV winding,
LV lags HV with 30° (-30°) .

93
Transformer Vector Group

• YNd11: Star connected HV


winding with neutral brought out,
delta connected LV winding, LV
leads HV with 30° (+30°) .

94
Transformer Vector Group

 YNd5: Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, delta


connected LV winding, LV lags HV with 150°.

95
Transformer Vector Group
 Two winding, three phase transformers can be divided into four main
categories (Clock hour number and phase displacement of those most
frequently encountered in practice in brackets)

 Group I - (0 o'clock, 0°) - delta/delta, star/star


 Group II - (6 o'clock, 180°) - delta/delta, star/star
 Group III - (1 o'clock, -30°) - star/delta, delta/star
 Group IV - (11 o'clock, +30°) - star/delta, delta/star

 (Minus indicates LV lagging HV, plus indicates LV leading HV)

 The conventional method is to connect the red phase on A/a,


Yellow phase on B/b, and the Blue phase on C/c .

96
Transformer Vector Group

To summarise:
• Dd0:Delta connected HV winding, delta connected LV winding, no
phase shift between HV and LV.
• Dyn11:Delta connected HV winding, star connected LV winding with
neutral brought out, LV is leading HV with 30°.
• YNd5: Star connected HV winding with neutral brought out, delta
connected LV winding, LV lags HV with 150° .
97
Common Transformer Connections (IEC 60076-1)

98
Common Transformer Connections (IEC 60076-1)

99
Transformer Vector Group
 In ANSI standards, it is possible to connect the transformers
appropriately so that voltages and currents on the H.V. side
always lead corresponding on the L.V. side. The convention to
label (and connect) Y-Δ and Δ-Y transformers so that the high-
side quantities LEAD low side quantities by 30º is referred to as
the “American Standard Thirty-Degree” connection convention.
 Under this convention, high-side currents also lead low side
currents by 30º.
 Other phase displacements are possible with unconventional
connections (for instance red on b, yellow on c and blue on a).

100
Transformer Vector Group
 By doing some unconventional connections externally on both
sides of the transformer, an internal connected group III or
group IV transformer can be changed to any of these two
groups.
 Thus, an internal connected Dyn1 transformer can be changed
to either a: Dyn3, Dyn5, Dyn7, Dyn9 or Dyn11 transformer, by
doing external changes on both sides of the transformer. This is
just true for star/delta or delta/star connections.

101
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
The per-unit system applies to the 3-phase transformers as well as
to single-phase transformers. If the total base VA value of the
transformer bank is Sbase, the base VA value of one of the
transformers will be
Sbase
S1 ,base 
3

Therefore, the base phase current and impedance of the


transformer are
S1 ,base Sbase
I ,base  
V ,base 3V ,base

  3 V ,base 
2 2
V  ,base
Z base  
S1 ,base Sbase

102
3-phase transformer: per-unit system

The line quantities on 3-phase transformer banks can also be represented in per-unit
system. If the windings are in :
VL ,base  V ,base

If the windings are in Y:

VL ,base  3V ,base


And the base line current in a 3-phase transformer bank is

Sbase
I L ,base 
3VL ,base
The application of the per-unit system to 3-phase transformer problems is similar to its
application in single-phase situations. The voltage regulation of the transformer bank is
the same.
103
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
Example 8: A 50 kVA, 13 800/208 V -Y transformer has a resistance of 1% and
a reactance of 7% per unit.
a.What is the transformer’s phase impedance referred to the high voltage side?
b.What is the transformer’s voltage regulation at full load and 0.8 PF lagging,
using the calculated high-side impedance?
c.What is the transformer’s voltage regulation under the same conditions, using the
per-unit system?

a. The high-voltage side of the transformer has the base voltage 13 800 V and a
base apparent power of 50 kVA. Since the primary side is -connected, its phase
voltage and the line voltage are the same. The base impedance is:

3 V ,base  3 13800 


2 2

Z base    11426
Sbase 50000
104
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
The per-unit impedance of the transformer is:
Z eq , pu  0.01  j 0.07 pu
Therefore, the high-side impedance in ohms is:

Z eq  Z eq , pu Z base   0.01  j 0.07  11426  114  j800


b. The voltage regulation of a 3-phase transformer equals to a voltage regulation of a single
transformer:
V P  aV S
VR  100%
aV S
The rated phase current on the primary side can be found as:
S 50000
I    1.208 A
3V 3 13800

105
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
The rated phase voltage on the secondary of the transformer is
208
V S   120V
3
When referred to the primary (high-voltage) side, this voltage becomes
V S '  aV S  13800V
Assuming that the transformer secondary winding is working at the rated voltage and
current, the resulting primary phase voltage is

 0114.21.208cos1(0.8)  j  8001.208cos1(0.8)
VP  aVS  Req I  jXeq I 13800
14490
  j690.3 14506
 2.73V
The voltage regulation, therefore, is
V P  aV S 14506  13800
VR  100%  100%  5.1%
aV S 13800
106
3-phase transformer: per-unit system
Example:
c. In the per-unit system, the output voltage is 100, and the current is 1cos-1
(-0.8). Therefore, the input voltage is

V P  10  0.011 cos 1 (0.8)  j 0.07 1 cos 1 (0.8)  1.0512.73


Thus, the voltage regulation in per-unit system will be

1.051  1.0
VR  100%  5.1%
1.0
The voltage regulation in per-unit system is the same as computed in volts…

107
Transformer ratings

Transformers have the following major ratings:


1. Apparent power;
2. Voltage;
3. Current;
4. Frequency.

108
Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency

The voltage rating is a) used to protect the winding insulation from breakdown; b)
related to the magnetization current of the transformer (more important)
flux
If a steady-state voltage
v(t )  VM sin t
is applied to the transformer’s primary
winding, the transformer’s flux will be

1 VM
Np 
 (t )  v (t )dt   cos t
N p
Magnetization
An increase in voltage will lead to a current
proportional increase in flux. However,
after some point (in a saturation
region), such increase in flux would
require an unacceptable increase in
magnetization current!
109
Transformer ratings: Voltage and Frequency

Therefore, the maximum applied voltage (and thus the rated voltage) is set by the
maximum acceptable magnetization current in the core.
We notice that the maximum flux is also related to the frequency:

Vmax
max 
Np
Therefore, to maintain the same maximum flux, a change in frequency (say, 50 Hz
instead of 60 Hz) must be accompanied by the corresponding correction in the
maximum allowed voltage. This reduction in applied voltage with frequency is called
derating. As a result, a 50 Hz transformer may be operated at a 20% higher voltage on
60 Hz if this would not cause insulation damage.

110
Transformer ratings: Apparent Power

The apparent power rating sets (together with the voltage rating) the current
through the windings. The current determines the i2R losses and, therefore, the
heating of the coils. Remember, overheating shortens the life of transformer’s
insulation!
In addition to apparent power rating for the transformer itself, additional
(higher) rating(s) may be specified if a forced cooling is used. Under any
circumstances, the temperature of the windings must be limited.
Note, that if the transformer’s voltage is reduced (for instance, the transformer is
working at a lower frequency), the apparent power rating must be reduced by an
equal amount to maintain the constant current.

111
Transformer ratings: Current inrush

Assuming that the following voltage is applied to the transformer at the moment it is
connected to the line:

v(t )  VM sin t   


The maximum flux reached on the first half-cycle depends on the phase of the voltage at
the instant the voltage is applied. If the initial voltage is

v(t )  VM sin t  90   VM cos t


and the initial flux in the core is zero, the maximum flux during the first half-cycle is
equals to the maximum steady-state flux (which is ok):
VM
max 
N p
However, if the voltage’s initial phase is zero, i.e.

v(t )  VM sin t 


112
Transformer ratings: Current inrush
the maximum flux during the first half-cycle will be
   
1 VM 2VM
max   VM sin t  dt   cos t  
Np 0
Np 0
Np
Which is twice higher than a normal steady-state flux!
Doubling the maximum flux in the core can
bring the core in a saturation and, therefore,
may result in a huge magnetization current!
Normally, the voltage phase angle cannot be
controlled. As a result, a large inrush current
is possible during the first several cycles after
the transformer is turned ON.
The transformer and the power system must
be able to handle these currents.

113
Transformer ratings: Name Plate

Rated voltage, currents, and (or)


power is typically shown on the
transformer’s information plate.

Additional information, such as per-unit


series impedance, type of cooling, etc.
can also be specified on the plate.

114
Instrument transformers
Two special-purpose transformers are uses to take measurements: potential and
current transformers.
1. Voltage (potential) Transformer (VT) or (PT)
2. Current Transformer (CT)

A potential transformer has a high-voltage primary, low-voltage secondary, and very


low power rating. It is used to provide an accurate voltage samples to instruments
monitoring the power system.

Primary terminal
Primary winding
Name
Plate Cast
resin

Terminal Core
box
Earthing
terminal

Cable Secondary winding


Secondary terminal
bushing

115
Instrument transformers
A current transformer samples the current in a line and reduces it to a safe and
measurable level. Such transformer consists of a secondary winding wrapped
around a ferromagnetic ring with a single primary line (that may carry a large
current )running through its center. The ring holds a small sample of the flux
from the primary line. That flux induces a secondary voltage.

Sec ondary
Primary

Current transformers must be short-circuited at all times since


very high voltages can appear across their terminals. 116
116
EE371-Electrical Machines I
Topic 3: DC Machines
DC Machines
LEARNING GOALS

Introduction DC Machine Representation


Application of DC Machine Magnetization Curve (Saturation)
Advantages & Disadvantages of DC Machine
DC Motor Equations
Construction of DC Machine
Field System Power Flow & Efficiency
Armature Torque-Speed Characteristics
Commutator
Brush Starting of DC Machine
Principle of Operation
Faraday’s Law
Armature Voltage & Developed Torque
Classification of DC Machine
Permanent Magnet
Self-Excited
Separately-Excited

2
Introduction

Electric Machines

Mechanical Electrical Electrical Mechanical


Generator Motor
Input Output Input Output

Electromechanical Energy Conversion


i
+ Ideal w T Mechanical system
Electrical system v Electric Machine
_
Motor
Energy Flow
Generator

v i≈T 
3
Introduction
 Generator : The electromechanical energy conversion is
from mechanical to electrical

Mechanical Electrical
Power Power

 Motor: The electromechanical energy conversion is from


electrical to mechanical

Electrical Mechanical
Power Power
Introduction

 Most of the electrical machines in service are AC type.


 DC machines are of considerable industrial importance.
 DC motors provides a fine control of the speed which can not
be attained by AC motors.
 DC motors can develop rated torque at all speeds from
standstill to rated speed.
 Developed torque at standstill is several times greater than
the torque developed by an AC motor of equal power and
speed rating.

5
Application of DC Machines

The DC machine can operate as either a motor or a generator.


At present, its use as a generator is limited because of the
widespread use of ac power and power electronics converters.

Large DC motors are used in machine tools, printing presses,


fans, pumps, cranes, paper mill, traction, textile mills and so
forth.

Small DC machines (fractional horsepower rating) are used


primarily as control devices such as tachogenerators for speed
sensing and servomotors for position and tracking.
6
Preliminary notes
 DC power systems are not very common in the contemporary
engineering practice. However, DC motors still have many
practical applications, such automobile, aircraft, and portable
electronics, in speed control applications…
 An advantage of DC motors is that it is easy to control their
speed in a wide diapason.
 DC generators are quite rare.
 Most DC machines are similar to AC machines: i.e. they have
AC voltages and current within them. DC machines have DC
outputs just because they have a mechanism converting AC
voltages to DC voltages at their terminals. This mechanism is
called a commutator; therefore, DC machines are also called
commutating machines.
Principle of Operation

If a conductor of length l moves at a linear speed v in a


magnetic field the induced voltage in the conductor is

Faraday’s law or
flux cutting rule e=Blv e N
e
Velocity, v
v v
B
Flux density, B
S
B

Right hand rule


emf, e
Principle of Operation

For the current carrying conductor of length l the force


known as Lorentz force produced is

i i
F=Bli F F
N

B
S
B
Construction of DC Machines

Parts of a DC Machine
Armature core
Leading pole tip
Armature winding

Field coil

Rotation
Pole axis

Shaft Pole core

Trailing pole tip


Pole face
Field yoke

10
11
Construction of a DC Machine
Shaft
Armature

Commutator

Stator

Field coil

2 Pole DC Machine
Construction of DC Machines

• Stator is the stationary part of the machine. The stator


carries a field winding that is used to produce the required
magnetic field by DC excitation. Often know as the field.

Field yoke

Field yoke: Acts as a mechanical support of the machine


Construction of a DC Machine

Carbon brush Armature core

Armature winding

Field coil

Rotation
Pole axis

Shaft Pole core

Pole face
Field yoke

The stator consist of poles cores attached to a steel ring called yoke.
The pole cores are usually made of steel plates. The pole faces are
usually laminated. The winding on the poles (field windings) produce
uniform magnetic field within which the armature rotates.
14
Construction of DC Machine: Armature

The rotor or the armature core, which carries the rotor or armature winding,
is made of sheet-steel laminations. The laminations are stacked together to
form a cylindrical structure

Teeth
Slots
Slots for wedges The armature coils that make
the armature winding are
located in the slots.

Cooling ducts for


air circulation

Portion of an armature lamination of a dc machine showing slots and teeth


15
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature

Armature of a DC Machine
16

Construction of a DC Machine: Commutator


Commutator: is a mechanical rectifier, which converts the alternating voltage
generated in the armature winding into direct voltage across the brush. It is
made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica and mounted on
the shaft of the machine. The armature windings are connected to the
commutator segments.

Commutator
17
Construction of a DC Machine: Brush
The purpose of the brush is to ensure electrical connections between the
rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. It is made of carbon
and rest on the commutator.

Commutator and Brushes


18
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature Winding

End connection

Conductors

Turn Coil Winding


19
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature Winding

Top
coil sides

Top Bottom
coil sides coil sides

Commutator 1 2 3 1 2
Brush Brush

Elements of Lap Winding Elements of Wave Winding


20
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature Winding

a b c d e Lap Winding a b c d e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

N S N S
f g h f g h

19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
+ - + -

+ + Ia -
+ + +
+
- - - ab p
Icoil
// paths brushes poles
+ -
- -
21
Construction of a DC Machine: Armature Winding

Wave Winding
a b c d e a b c d e

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21

N S N S

i j k f g h
h
g
f
i j k
17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
- + - +

+ Ia +
+ + - +
+

Icoil a2
- - Nb. of // paths
- -
-
The simplest DC machine

The simplest DC rotating machine


consists of a single loop of wire rotating
about a fixed axis. The magnetic field is
supplied by the North and South poles of
the magnet.
Rotor is the rotating part;
Stator is the stationary part.
The simplest DC machine

We notice that the rotor lies in a slot curved in a


ferromagnetic stator core, which, together with
the rotor core, provides a constant-width air gap
between the rotor and stator.
The reluctance of air is much larger than the
reluctance of core. Therefore, the magnetic flux
must take the shortest path through the air gap.

As a consequence, the magnetic flux is perpendicular to the rotor surface everywhere under
the pole faces.
Since the air gap is uniform, the reluctance is constant everywhere under the pole faces.
Therefore, magnetic flux density is also constant everywhere under the pole faces.
The simplest DC machine

1. Voltage induced in a rotating loop

If a rotor of a DC machine is rotated, a voltage will be induced…


The loop shown has sides ab and cd perpendicular to the figure plane,
bc and da are parallel to it.
The total voltage will be a sum of voltages induced on each segment of
the loop.

Voltage on each segment is:

eind   v × B   l
The simplest DC machine
1) ab: In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation. Under
the pole face, velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B, and the vector product v
x B points into the page. Therefore, the voltage is

vBlintopageunderthepoleface
eba   v × B   l  
0beyond the pole edges
2) bc: In this segment, vector product v x B is perpendicular to l. Therefore, the voltage is
zero.
3) cd: In this segment, the velocity of the wire is tangential to the path of rotation. Under
the pole face, velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic flux density B, and the vector
product v x B points out of the page. Therefore, the voltage is
vBloutof pageunderthepoleface
edc   v × B   l  
0beyond the pole edges
4) da: In this segment, vector product v x B is perpendicular to l. Therefore, the voltage is
zero.
The simplest DC machine

The total induced voltage on the loop is:


etot  eba  ecb  edc  ead
2vBlunderthe pole faces
etot  
0beyond the poleedges
When the loop rotates through 1800,
segment ab is under the north pole face
instead of the south pole face. Therefore,
the direction of the voltage on the
segment reverses but its magnitude
reminds constant, leading to the total
induced voltage to be
The simplest DC machine
The tangential velocity of the loop’s edges is

v  r
where r is the radius from the axis of rotation to the
edge of the loop. The total induced voltage:

2r Blunderthe pole faces


etot  
0beyond the poleedges
The rotor is a cylinder with surface area 2rl. Since
there are two poles, the area of the rotor under each
pole is Ap = rl. Therefore:

2
 Ap Bunderthe pole faces
etot   
0beyond the poleedges
The simplest DC machine

Assuming that the flux density B is constant everywhere in the air gap under the pole faces,
the total flux under each pole is
  Ap B
The total voltage is
2
 underthe pole faces
etot   
0beyond the poleedges

The voltage generated in any real machine depends on the following factors:

1. The flux inside the machine;


2. The rotation speed of the machine;
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine.
The simplest DC machine
2. Getting DC voltage out of a rotating loop

A voltage out of the loop is alternatively a


constant positive value and a constant negative
value.
One possible way to convert an alternating
voltage to a constant voltage is by adding a

commutator
segment/brush
circuitry to the
end of the loop.
Every time the
voltage of the loop
switches direction,
contacts switch
connection.
The simplest DC machine

3. The induced torque in the rotating


loop
Assuming that a battery is connected to
the DC machine, the force on a segment
of a loop is:

F  i l × B
And the torque on the segment is

  rF sin 
Where  is the angle between r and F.
Therefore, the torque is zero when the
loop is beyond the pole edges.
The simplest DC machine

The resulting total induced torque is


 ind   ab   bc   cd   da

2rilBunderthe pole faces


 ind 
0beyond the poleedges
Since Ap  rl and   Ap B

2
  iunderthe pole faces
 ind  
0beyond the poleedges

The torque in any real machine depends on the following factors:


1. The flux inside the machine;
2. The current in the machine;
3. A constant representing the construction of the machine.
The simplest DC machine
Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage

Flux / Re v. p. p..N m


Emf _ conductor   
time / Re v. 60 / N m  60
Emf _ total  Emf _ conductor  Number of conductor / path

 p..N m   Z  p..Z .N m
Emf _ total     
 60   a  60a
where
p = number of poles
Z = total number of armature conductors
a = number of parallel paths, 2 for wave and p for lab.
 = flux per pole (Weber)
Nm = speed of the motor in the revolutions per minute (rpm)
time of 1 revolution = 60/Nm (sec)

33
Principle of Operation: Armature Voltage

2N m m 60
But, m   Nm 
60 2
m= speed of the motor in radians per second

pZ 60m pZ
Emf _ total      m
60a 2 2a

Emf _ total  K a m pZ


Ka: armature constant Ka 
2a

Generated voltage : generator operation


Back emf : motor operation
34
Example 1
• Determine the induced voltage induced in the armature of
a dc machine running at 1750 rpm and having four poles.
The flux per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is lap-
wound with 728 conductors.

Solution: Ea  K am
N m  1750rpm pZ
 m
p4 2a
pZN m
  25mWb 
60a
a p4
728  25  103  1750
Z  728 
60
 530.83V
35
Developed (or Electromagnetic) Torque
Consider the turn shown in the following Figure.

2rl
Area per pole A =
p
 p
Flux density B 
A 2rl
l
I
Current / conductor is I c  a
a
Ia
The force on a conductor is f c  BlI c  Bl
a

Ia pI a
The torque developed by a conductor is Tc  f c r  Bl r
a 2a

Zp  I a E I
The total torque developed is Te  ZT c   K aIa  a a
2 a m

36
Example 2
• A lap-wound armature has 567 conductors and carries an
armature current of 123.5A. If the flux per-pole is 20
mWb, calculate the electromagnetic torque.

Solution: Te  K aI a
pZ
a p  I a
2a
  20mWb
576  20 10 3 123.5
Z  576 
2
I a  123.5 A  226.43Nm
37
Production of Unidirectional Torque and
Operation of an elementary dc motor

 

F S F
N N S
+ +
a 1 2 b b 2 a
F F 1
I I
1 2 1 2
Position of conductor a under N-pole Position of conductor a under S-pole

B
I

With this configuration the torque is unidirectional


and independent of conductor position
F
Left-hand rule

38
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
Commutation is the process of converting the AC voltages and currents in
the rotor of a DC machine to DC voltages and currents at its terminals.

A simple 4-loop DC machine has four complete loops buried in slots


curved in the laminated steel of its rotor. The pole faces are curved to
make a uniform air-gap. The four loops are laid into the slots in a special
manner: the innermost wire in each slot (end of each loop opposite to the
“unprimed”) is indicated by a prime.
Loop 1 stretches
between
commutator
segments a and b,
loop 2 stretches
between segments
b and c…
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
At a certain time instance, when t
= 00, the 1, 2, 3’, and 4’ ends of the
loops are under the north pole face
and the 1’, 2’, 3, and 4 ends of the
loops are under the south pole face.
The voltage in each of 1, 2, 3’, and
4’ ends is given by

eind   v × B  × l  vBl
 positive, out of the page
The voltage in each of 1’, 2’, 3, and 4 ends is
eind   v × B  × l  vBl positive, intothe page
If the induced voltage on any side of a loop is (5.16.1), the total voltage at the brushes of the
DC machine is
E  4eatt  0
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine

We notice that there are two parallel paths for current through the
machine! The existence of two or more parallel paths for rotor
current is a common feature of all commutation schemes.
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
If the machine keeps rotating, at t = 450, loops 1 and 3 have rotated into the gap
between poles, so the voltage across each of them is zero. At the same time, the
brushes short out the commutator segments ab and cd.

This is ok since the


voltage across loops
1 and 3 is zero and
only loops 2 and 4
are under the pole
faces. Therefore,
the total terminal
voltage is

E  2eatt  45
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine
At t = 900, the loop ends 1’, 2, 3, and 4’ are under
the north pole face, and the loop ends 1, 2’, 3’, and
4 are under the south pole face. The voltages are
built up out of page for the ends under the north
pole face and into the page for the ends under the
south pole face. Four voltage-carrying ends in each
parallel path through the machine lead to the
terminal voltage of

E  4eatt  90

We notice that the voltages in loops 1 and 3 have


reversed compared to t = 00. However, the loops’
connections have also reversed, making the total
voltage being of the same polarity.
Commutation in a simple 4-loop DC machine

When the voltage reverses in a loop, the connections of the loop are also switched to keep
the polarity of the terminal voltage the same.

The terminal voltage of this 4-loop DC


machine is still not constant over time,
although it is a better approximation to a
constant DC level than what is produced by a
single rotating loop.

Increasing the number of loops on the rotor,


we improve our approximation to perfect DC
voltage.

Commutator segments are usually made out of copper bars and the brushes are made of a
mixture containing graphite to minimize friction between segments and brushes.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines
1. Armature reaction
If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to the power
source and the rotor is turned by an external means, a voltage will be
induced in the conductors of the rotor. This voltage is rectified and can be
supplied to external loads. However, if a load is connected, a current will
flow through the armature winding. This current produces its own
magnetic field that distorts the original magnetic field from the machine’s
poles. This distortion of the machine’s flux as the load increases is called
armature reaction and can cause two problems:

1) neutral-plane shift: The magnetic neutral plane is the plane within the
machine where the velocity of the rotor wires is exactly parallel to the
magnetic flux lines, so that the induced voltage in the conductors in the
plane is exactly zero.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

A two-pole DC machine: initially, the pole flux is


uniformly distributed and the magnetic neutral plane is
vertical.

The effect of the air gap on the pole flux.

When the load is connected, a current – flowing


through the rotor – will generate a magnetic field from
the rotor windings.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

This rotor magnetic field will affect the original


magnetic field from the poles. In some places
under the poles, both fields will sum together, in
other places, they will subtract from each other

Therefore, the net magnetic field will not be


uniform and the neutral plane will be shifted.

In general, the neutral plane shifts in the direction


of motion for a generator and opposite to the
direction of motion for a motor. The amount of
the shift depends on the load of the machine.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines
The commutator must short out the commutator segments right at the
moment when the voltage across them is zero. The neutral-plane shift may
cause the brushes short out commutator segments with a non-zero voltage
across them. This leads to arcing and sparkling at the brushes!
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

2) Flux weakening.

Most machines operate at flux densities


near the saturation point.
At the locations on the pole surfaces
where the rotor mmf adds to the pole
mmf, only a small increase in flux occurs
(due to saturation).
However, at the locations on the pole
surfaces where the rotor mmf subtracts
from the pole mmf, there is a large
decrease in flux.
Therefore, the total average flux under
the entire pole face decreases.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

In generators, flux weakening


reduces the voltage supplied by a
generator.
In motors, flux weakening leads to
increase of the motor speed.
Increase of speed may increase the
load, which, in turns, results in
more flux weakening. Some shunt
DC motors may reach runaway
conditions this way…

Observe a considerable decrease in


the region where two mmfs are
subtracted and a saturation…
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

3. L di/dt voltages

This problem occurs in commutator


segments being shorten by brushes
and is called sometimes an
inductive kick.
Assuming that the current in the
brush is 400 A, the current in each
path is 200 A. When a commutator
segment is shorted out, the current
flow through that segment must
reverse.
Assuming that the machine is
running at 800 rpm and has 50
commutator segments, each
segment moves under the brush and
clears it again in 0.0015 s.
Problems with commutation in real DC machines

The rate of change in current in the shorted loop averages

di 400
  266667 A / s
dt 0.0015

Therefore, even with a small


inductance in the loop, a very
large inductive voltage kick
Ldi/dt will be induced in the
shorted commutator segment.

This voltage causes sparkling at


the brushes.
Solutions to the problems with commutation
1. Commutating poles or interpoles

To avoid sparkling at the brushes while the machine’s load changes, instead of adjusting the
brushes’ position, it is possible to introduce small poles (commutating poles or interpoles)
between the main ones to make the voltage in the commutating wires to be zero. Such poles
are located directly over the conductors being commutated and provide the flux that can
exactly cancel the voltage in the coil undergoing commutation. Interpoles do not change the
operation of the machine
since they are so small that only affect few
conductors being commutated. Flux weakening is
unaffected.
Interpole windings are connected in series with the
rotor windings. As the load increases and the rotor
current increases, the magnitude of neutral-plane
shift and the size of Ldi/dt effects increase too
increasing the voltage in the conductors
undergoing commutation.
Solutions to the problems with commutation

However, the interpole flux increases too producing a larger voltage in the
conductors that opposes the voltage due to neutral-plane shift. Therefore,
both voltages cancel each other over a wide range of loads. This approach
works for both DC motors and generators.
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the next upcoming main pole
in a generator;
The interpoles must be of the same polarity as the previous main pole in a
motor.
The use of interpoles is very common because they correct the sparkling
problems of DC machines at a low cost. However, since interpoles do
nothing with the flux distribution under the pole faces, flux-weakening
problem is still present.
Solutions to the problems with commutation

2. Compensating windings

The flux weakening problem can be very severe for large DC


motors. Therefore, compensating windings can be placed in slots
carved in the faces of the poles parallel to the rotor conductors.
These windings are connected in series with the rotor windings, so
when the load changes in the rotor, the current in the compensating
winding changes too…
Solutions to the problems with commutation

Rotor
Pole and
flux comp.
fluxes

Sum of these three fluxes equals to the


original pole flux.
Solutions to the problems with commutation

The mmf due to the compensating


windings is equal and opposite to
the mmf of the rotor. These two
mmfs cancel each other, such that
the flux in the machine is
unchanged.

The main disadvantage of


compensating windings is that
they are expensive since they must
be machined into the faces of the
poles. Also, any motor with
compensative windings must have
interpoles to cancel L di/dt effects.
Solutions to the problems with commutation

A stator of a
six-pole DC
machine with
interpoles and
compensating
windings.

pole
Interpole
Power flow and losses in DC machines
Unfortunately, not all electrical power is converted to mechanical
power by a motor and not all mechanical power is converted to
electrical power by a generator…

The efficiency of a DC machine is: Pout


 100%
Pin

Pin  Ploss
or
 100%
Pin
The losses in DC machines

There are five categories of losses occurring in DC machines.

1. Electrical or copper losses – the resistive losses in the armature and field windings of
the machine.

Armature loss: PA  I A2 RA
Field loss: PF  I F2 RF

Where IA and IF are armature and field currents and RA and RF are armature and field
(winding) resistances usually measured at normal operating temperature.
The losses in DC machines

2. Brush (drop) losses – the power lost across the contact potential at the brushes of the
machine.

PBD  VBD I A
Where IA is the armature current and VBD is the brush voltage drop. The voltage drop across
the set of brushes is approximately constant over a large range of armature currents and it is
usually assumed to be about 2 V.

Other losses are exactly the same as in AC machines…


The losses in DC machines

3. Core losses – hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They vary as B2 (square
of flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of the magnetic field).

4. Mechanical losses – losses associated with mechanical effects: friction (friction


of the bearings) and windage (friction between the moving parts of the machine
and the air inside the casing). These losses vary as the cube of rotation speed n3.

5. Stray (Miscellaneous) losses – losses that cannot be classified in any of the


previous categories. They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For many
machines, stray losses are assumed as 1% of full load.
The power-flow diagram
On of the most convenient technique to account for power losses
in a machine is the power-flow diagram.

For a DC
motor:

Electrical power is input to the machine, and the electrical and brush losses must be
subtracted. The remaining power is ideally converted from electrical to mechanical form at
the point labeled as Pconv.
The power-flow diagram

The electrical power that is converted is

Pconv  E A I A

And the resulting mechanical power is

Pconv   ind m

After the power is converted to mechanical form, the stray losses, mechanical losses, and
core losses are subtracted, and the remaining mechanical power is output to the load.
Classification of DC Machine

Separately
Long Short
excited Shunt Shunt Shunt

DC Machine Self-excited
Series
Cumulative Differential

Permanent
magnet Compound

65
Classification of DC Machine

Field Armature Field Field


Armature Armature

Separately excited Shunt Series

A1 A1
ff fs ff fs

S1 S2 F2 S1 S2
F1 F2 F1

A2 A2

Long-shunt
Short-shunt

Motor operation
Generator operation
66
Classification of DC Machine

A1
A1 fs
ff fs ff

F2 S1 S2
S1 S2 F1
F1 F2
A2
A2

Cumulative compound Differential compound

Motor operation
Generator operation

67
DC Machine Representation

q-axis The mmf’s produced by the field circuit and


d-axis the armature circuit are in quadrature.

Field
Armature

q-axis
d-axis

Field mmf

Armature mmf
fa Armature mmf
F Saturation

Field mmf Linear


ff Flux-mmf relation in
a dc machine

Fp
68
Magnetization (or Saturation) Curve
of a DC Machine
Ea
F
Saturation Speed wm

Linear
0.5 wm

If Nf
Flux-mmf relation in If
a dc machine
Magnetization curve

The magnetizing curve is obtained experimentally by rotating the the dc


machine at a given speed and measuring the open-circuit armature terminal
voltage as the current in the field winding is changed.

Magnetization Represents the saturation level in the magnetic system of


Curve the dc machine for various values of excitation mmf .

69
DC Generators
Five major types of dc generators, classified according to the manner in which
their field flux is produced:

• Separately excited generator: In separately excited generator, the field flux is


derived from a separately power source independent of the generator itself.

• Shunt generator: In a shunt generator, the field flux is derived by connecting the
field circuit directly across the terminals of the generators.

• Series generator: In a series generator, the field flux is produced by connecting the
field circuit in series with the armature of the generator.

• Cumulatively compounded generator: In a cumulatively compounded generator,


both a shunt and series field is present, and their effects are additive.

• Differentially compounded generator: In differentially compounded generator: In a


differentially compounded generator, both a shunt and a series field are present,
but their effects are subtractive.

70
DC Generators
Five major types of dc generators, classified according to the manner in
which their field flux is produced:

• These various types of dc generator differ in their terminal (voltage-


current) characteristic, and the application is depending to which is suited.
• DC generators are compared by their voltages, power ratings, efficiencies
and voltage regulations:

Vnl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl

+VR = Drooping characteristics


-VR = Rising characteristic

71
Equivalent Circuit of DC Generator
The equivalent circuit of a DC
generator

A simplified equivalent circuit


of a DC generator, with RF combining the
resistances of the field coils and the
variable control resistor

72
Separately Excited of DC Generator

IL  I A

A separately excited DC generator is a generator whose field current is


supplied by a separately external DC voltage source

VT = Actual voltage measured at the terminals of the generator


IL = current flowing in the lines connected to the terminals.
EA = Internal generated voltage.
IA = Armature current.
73
The Terminal Characteristic of a Separately Excited DC Generator

The terminal characteristic of a separately excited dc generator (a) with


compensating windings
and (b) without compensating windings (EA = K)

• For DC generator, the output quantities are its terminal voltage and line
current. The terminal voltage is VT = EA – IARA (IA = IL)

• Since the internal generated voltage EA is independent of IA, the terminal


characteristic of the separately excited generator is a straight line.

74
The Terminal Characteristic of a Separately Excited DC Generator

• When the load is supplied by the generator is increased, IL (and


therefore IA) increase. As the armature current increase, the IARA
drop increase, so the terminal voltage of the generator falls. (Figure
(a) PREVIOUS SLIDE)

• This terminal characteristic is not always entirely accurate. In the


generators without compensating windings, an increase in IA causes
an increase in the armature reaction, and armature reaction causes
flux weakening. This flux weakening causes a decrease in EA =
Kω which further decreases the terminal voltage of the
generator. The resulting terminal characteristic is shown in Figure
(b) PREVIOUS SLIDE)

75
Control of Terminal Voltage

The terminal voltage of a separately excited DC generator can be controlled by


changing the internal generated voltage EA of the machine.

VT = EA – IARA
• If EA increases, VT will increase, and if EA decreases, VT will decreases. Since
the internal generated voltage, EA = KΦω, there are two possible ways to
control the voltage of this generator:

1. Change the speed of rotation. If ω increases, then EA = KΦω increases, so


VT = EA - IARA increases too.

2. Change the field current. If RF is decreased, then the field current increases
(IF =VF/RF ). Therefore, the flux Φ in the machine increases. As the flux rises,
EA= K ω must rise too, so VT = EA – IARA increases.

76
The Shunt DC Generator
A shunt DC generator : DC generator that supplies its own field current
by having its field connected directly across the terminals of the
machine.

IA  IF  IL
VT  E A  I A R A
 VT 
IF   
 RF 
Because the generator supplies it
own field current, it requires voltage
buildup

77
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
• Assume the DC generator has no load connected to it and that the prime mover
starts to turn the shaft of the generator. The voltage buildup in a DC generator
depends on the presence of a residual flux in the poles of the generator.

This voltage is given by E A  K res 

• This voltage, EA (a volt of two appears at terminal of generators), and it


causes a current IF to flow in the field coils. This field current produces a
magnetomotive force in the poles, which increases the flux in them.

• EA, then VT increase and cause further increase IF, which further
increasing the flux  and so on.

• The final operating voltage is determined by intersection of the field


resistance line and saturation curve. This voltage buildup process is
depicted in the next slide
78
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator

Voltage buildup
occurred in discrete
steps

EA may be a volt or
two appear at the
terminal during
start-up

79
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator
Several causes for the voltage to fail to build up during starting which are :
• Residual magnetism. If there is no residual flux in the poles, there is no Internal
generated voltage, EA = 0V and the voltage will never build up.

• Critical resistance. Normally, the shunt generator builds up to a voltage determined


by the intersection of the field resistance line and the saturation curve. If the field
resistance is greater than critical resistance, the generator fails to build up and the
voltage remains at the residual level. To solve this problem, the field resistance is
reduced to a value less than critical resistance.
Refer Figure 9-51 page 605 (Chapman)

Critical resistance

80
Voltage Buildup in a Shunt Generator

• The direction of rotation of the generator may have been


reversed, or the connections of the field may have been
reversed. In either case, the residual flux produces an
internal generated voltage EA. The voltage EA produce a field
current which produces a flux opposing the residual flux,
instead of adding to it.
Under these conditions, the flux actually decreases below
res and no voltage can ever build up.

81
The Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Generator

• As the load on the generator is increased, IL increases and so IA = IF +


IL also increase. An increase in IA increases the armature resistance
voltage drop IARA, causing VT = EA -IARA to decrease.

• However, when VT decreases, the field current IF in the machine


decreases with it. This causes the flux in the machine to decrease;
decreasing EA. Decreasing EA causes a further decrease in the terminal
voltage, VT = EA - IARA
82
Volatge Control of a DC Shunt Generator

• There are two ways to control the voltage of a shunt generator:


1. Change the shaft speed, ωm of the generator.
2. Change the field resistor of the generator, thus changing the field current.

Changing the field resistor is the principal method used to control


terminal
voltage in real shunt generators. If the field resistor RF is decreased, then
the field current IF = VT/RF increases.

When IF , the machine’s flux , causing the internal generated voltage
EA. EA causes the terminal voltage of the generator to increase as well.

83
The Series DC Generator

•A series DC generator is a generator


whose field is connected in series with
its armature. Because the field
winding has to carry the rated load
current, it usually have few turns of
heavy wire.
Clear distinction, shunt generator
tends to maintain a constant terminal
voltage while the series generator has
tendency to supply a constant load
current.

The Kirchhoff’s voltage law for this


equation :
VT  EA  I A (RA  RS )

84
Terminal Characteristic of DC Series Generator
•The magnetization curve of a series DC
generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other
generator. At no load, however, there is
no field current, so VT is reduced to a
very small level given by the residual
flux in the machine. As the load
increases, the field current rises, so EA
rises rapidly. The IA (RA + RS) drop
goes up too, but at the first the increase
in EA goes up more rapidly than the
IA(RA + RS) drop rises, so VT
increases. After a while, the machine
approaches saturation, and EA
becomes almost constant. At that
point, the resistive drop is the
predominant effect, and VT starts to
fall.
85
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator

The equivalent circuit


of a cumulatively compounded
DC generator with a long shunt
connection

A cumulatively compounded DC generator is a DC generator with both


series and shunt fields, connected so that the magnetomotive forces from
the two fields are additive.

86
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator

The total magnetomotive force on this machine is given by


Fnet = FF + FSE - FAR

where FF = the shunt field magnetomotive force


FSE = the series field magnetomotive force
FAR = the armature reaction magnetomotive force

NFI*F = NFIF + NSEIA - FAR

N SE FAR
I *
F  IF  IA 
NF NF

87
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator

The other voltage and current relationships for this generator are

I A  IF  IL
VT  E A  I A ( RA  RS )
VT
IF 
RF

88
The Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator

Another way to hook up a cumulatively compounded generator. It is the


“short-shunt” connection, where series field is outside the shunt field
circuit and has current IL flowing through it instead of IA.

The equivalent circuit of a cumulatively DC generator with a


short shunt connection
89
The Terminal Characteristic of a Cumulatively DC Generator

When the load on the generator is increased, the load current IL also
increases.
Since IA = IF + IL, the armature current IA increases too. At this point
two effects
occur in the generator:

1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well. This


tends to cause a decrease in the terminal voltage,
VT = EA –IA (RA + RS).

1. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive force FSE = NSEIA


increases too. This increases the total magnetomotive force
Ftot = NFIF + NSEIA which increases the flux in the generator. The
increased flux in the generator increases EA, which in turn tends to
make
VT = EA – IA (RA + RS) rise.
90
Voltage Control of Cumulatively Compounded DC Generator

The techniques available for controlling the terminal voltage of a


cumulatively compounded DC generator are exactly the same as the
technique for controlling the voltage of a shunt DC generator:

1. Change the speed of rotation. An increase in  causes EA = K


to increase, increasing the terminal voltage
VT = EA – IA (RA + RS).

2. Change the field current. A decrease in RF causes IF = VT/RF to


increase, which increase the total magnetomotive force in the
generator. As Ftot increases, the flux  in the machine increases,
and EA = K increases. Finally, an increase in EA raises VT.

91
The Differentially Compounded DC Generator

A differentially compounded DC generator is a generator with both


shunt and series fields, but this time their magnetomotive forces
subtract from each other.

I A  IL  IF
VT
IF 
RF
VT  E A  I A ( RA  RF )

92
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
Two effects occur in the terminal characteristic of a differentially
compounded DC generator are

1. As IA increases, the IA (RA + RS) voltage drop increases as well.


This increase tends to cause the terminal voltage to decrease VT.

2. As IA increases, the series field magnetomotive FSE = NSEIA


increases too. This increases in series field magnetomotive force
reduces the net magnetomotive force on the generator, (Ftot = NFIF
– NSEIA), which in turn reduces the net flux in the generator. A
decrease in flux decreases EA, which in turn decreases VT.

Since both effects tend to decrease VT, the voltage drop drastically as
the load is increased on the generator as shown in next slide

93
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator

Terminal Characteristic of a Differentially Compounded DC Generator

94
Voltage Control of Differentially Compounded
DC Generator
The techniques available for adjusting terminal voltage are exactly
the same as those for shunt and cumulatively compounded DC
generator:

1. Changing the speed of rotation, m.


2. Changing the field current, IF.

95
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor

The armature circuit (the entire rotor


structure) is represented by an ideal
voltage source EA and a resistor RA.

A battery Vbrush in the opposite to a


current flow in the machine direction
indicates brush voltage drop.

The field coils producing the


magnetic flux are represented by
inductor LF and resistor RF.

The resistor Radj represents an


external variable resistor (sometimes
lumped together with the field coil
resistance) used to control the amount
of current in the field circuit.
Equivalent circuit of a DC motor
Sometimes, when the brush drop voltage is small, it may be left out. Also, some DC
motors have more than one field coil…

The internal generated voltage in the machine is

E A  K
The induced torque developed by the machine is

 ind  K I A
Here K is the constant depending on the design of a particular DC machine (number and
commutation of rotor coils, etc.) and  is the total flux inside the machine.

Note that for a single rotating loop K = /2.


Magnetization curve of a DC machine

The internal generated voltage EA is directly proportional to the flux in the machine and
the speed of its rotation.
The field current in a DC machine produces a field mmf F = NFIF, which produces a flux
in the machine according to the magnetization curve.

or in terms
of internal
voltage vs.
field
current for
a given
speed.

To get the maximum possible power per weight out of the machine, most motors and
generators are operating near the saturation point on the magnetization curve. Therefore,
when operating at full load, often a large increase in current IF may be needed for small
increases in the generated voltage EA.
DC Motors Equations
Separately Excited DC Motor
It
Ia + Vf  Rf I f
Ra
Ea  Vt  I a Ra
Rfw

wm
Vt E a  K a  m
Rfc Te  K a I a
If -
+ Vf -

 Rfw: resistance of field winding.


 Rfc: resistance of control rheostat used in field circuit.
 Rf=Rfw+Rfc: total field resistance
 Ra: resistance of armature circuit, including the effect of brushes.
Sometimes Ra is shown as the resistance of armature winding alone; the
brush-contact voltage drop is considered separately and is usually
assumed to be about 2V.
99
Motor types
Separately excited and Shunt DC motors
Note: when the
voltage to the
field circuit is
assumed
constant, there
is no difference
between
them…

Separately excited DC motor:


a field circuit is supplied from a Shunt DC motor:
separate constant voltage power source. a field circuit gets its power from the
armature terminals of the motor.
For the armature circuit of these motors:

VT  E A  I A RA
DC Motors Equations

If
Shunt or Self-Excited DC Motor It
Ia +
Ra
Rfc

Rfw +
V f  R f I f  Vt Vt
m
Ea  Vt  I a Ra 

E a  K a  m , Te  K a I a 

I a  It  I f

It : line current
Ia : armature current
If : field current

101
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic

A terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine’s output quantities


vs. each other.
For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed. Therefore, the terminal
characteristic of a motor is its output torque vs. speed.

If the load on the shaft increases, the load torque load will exceed the induced torque ind,
and the motor will slow down. Slowing down the motor will decrease its internal
generated voltage (since EA = K), so the armature current increases (IA = (VT –
EA)/RA). As the armature current increases, the induced torque in the motor increases
(since ind = KIA), and the induced torque will equal the load torque at a lower speed .

VT RA
  
K  K  2 ind
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic

Assuming that the terminal voltage and other terms are constant, the motor’s speed vary
linearly with torque.

However, if a motor has an armature reaction, flux-weakening reduces the flux when
torque increases. Therefore, the motor’s speed will increase. If a shunt (or separately
excited) motor has compensating windings, and the motor’s speed and armature current
are known for any value of load, it’s possible to calculate the speed for any other value of
load.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example 1: A 50 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with compensating windings has
an armature resistance (including the brushes, compensating windings, and interpoles) of
0.06 . Its field circuit has a total resistance Radj + RF of 50 , which produces a no-load
speed of 1200 rpm. The shunt field winding has 1200 turns per pole. a) Find the motor speed
when its input current is 100 A.
b) Find the motor speed when its input current is 200 A.
c) Find the motor speed when its input current is 300 A.
d) Plot the motor torque-speed characteristic.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
The internal generated voltage of a DC machine (with its speed expressed in rpm):

E A  K
Since the field current is constant (both field resistance and VT are constant) and since
there are no armature reaction (due to compensating windings), we conclude that the flux
in the motor is constant. The speed and the internal generated voltages at different loads
are related as
E A 2 K2 n2
 
E A1 K1 n1
EA2
Therefore: n2  n1
E A1
At no load, the armature current is zero and therefore EA1 = VT = 250 V.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
a) Since the input current is 100 A, the armature current is
VT 250
I A  IL  IF  IL   100   95 A
RF 50
Therefore: E A  VT  I A RA  250  95  0.06  244.3V
and the resulting motor speed is:
EA2 244.3
n2  n1  1200  1173rpm
E A1 250
b) Similar computations for the input current of 200 A lead to n2 = 1144 rpm.
c) Similar computations for the input current of 300 A lead to n2 = 1115 rpm.
d) To plot the output characteristic of the motor, we need to find the torque corresponding
to each speed. At no load, the torque is zero.
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
Since the induced torque at any load is related to the power converted in a DC motor:

Pconv
Pconv  EA
  ind
 E A II AA  
ind 

E AAI AA
the induced torque is  ind 
ind


2443  95
2443 95
For the input current of 100 A:  ind
ind   190 N - m
2 1173 / 60
2383 195
For the input current of 200 A:  ind   388 N - m
2 1144 / 60
2323  295
For the input current of 300 A:  ind   587 N - m
2 1115 / 60
Shunt Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example
The torque-speed
characteristic of the
motor is:
Shunt motor: Speed Control
There are two methods to control the speed of a shunt DC motor:
1. Adjusting the field resistance RF (and thus the field flux)
2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature

1. Adjusting the field resistance


1) Increasing field resistance RF decreases the field current (IF = VT/RF);
2) Decreasing field current IF decreases the flux ;
3) Decreasing flux decreases the internal generated voltage (EA = K);
4) Decreasing EA increases the armature current (IA = (VT – EA)/RA);
5) Changes in armature current dominate over changes in flux; therefore, increasing IA
increases the induced torque (ind = KIA);
6) Increased induced torque is now larger than the load torque load and, therefore, the
speed  increases;
7) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage EA;
8) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA…
9) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until ind = load at a higher speed .
Shunt motor: Speed Control

The effect of increasing the field


resistance within a normal load
range: from no load to full load.

Increase in the field resistance


increases the motor speed.
Observe also that the slope of
the speed-torque curve becomes
steeper when field resistance
increases.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
The effect of increasing the field
resistance with over an entire load
range: from no-load to stall.

At very slow speeds (overloaded motor), an


increase in the field resistance decreases
the speed. In this region, the increase in
armature current is no longer large enough
to compensate for the decrease in flux.

Some small DC motors used in control circuits may operate at speeds close to stall
conditions. For such motors, an increase in field resistance may have no effect (or
opposite to the expected effect) on the motor speed. The result of speed control by
field resistance is not predictable and, thus, this type of control is not very common.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
2. Changing the armature voltage
This method implies changing the voltage applied to the armature of the motor
without changing the voltage applied to its field. Therefore, the motor must be
separately excited to use armature voltage control.

Armature voltage
speed control
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
1) Increasing the armature voltage VA increases the armature current (IA = (VA - EA)/RA);
2) Increasing armature current IA increases the induced torque ind (ind = KIA);
3) Increased induced torque ind is now larger than the load torque load and, therefore, the
speed ;
4) Increasing speed increases the internal generated voltage (EA = K);
5) Increasing EA decreases the armature current IA…
6) Decreasing IA decreases the induced torque until ind = load at a higher speed .

Increasing the armature voltage of a


separately excited DC motor does not
change the slope of its torque-speed
characteristic.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
If a motor is operated at its rated terminal voltage, power, and field current, it will
be running at the rated speed also called a base speed.

Field resistance control can be used for speeds above the base speed but not below
it. Trying to achieve speeds slower than the base speed by the field circuit control,
requires large field currents that may damage the field winding.

Since the armature voltage is limited to its rated value, no speeds exceeding the
base speed can be achieved safely while using the armature voltage control.

Therefore, armature voltage control can be used to achieve speeds below the base
speed, while the field resistance control can be used to achieve speeds above the
base speed.

Shunt and separately excited DC motors have excellent speed control


characteristic.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control

For the armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant. Therefore, the
maximum torque in the motor will be constant too regardless the motor speed:

 max  K I A,max
Since the maximum power of the motor is

Pmax   max
The maximum power out of the motor is directly proportional to its speed.

For the field resistance control, the maximum power out of a DC motor is constant, while
the maximum torque is reciprocal to the motor speed.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control

Torque and power limits as functions of motor speed for a shunt


(or separately excited) DC motor.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control
Example 2: A 100 hp, 250 V, 1200 rpm DC shunt motor with an armature resistance of
0.03  and a field resistance of 41.67 . The motor has compensating windings, so armature
reactance can be ignored. Mechanical and core losses may be ignored also. The motor is
driving a load with a line current of 126 A and an initial speed of 1103 rpm. Assuming that
the armature current is constant and the magnetization curve is

a) What is the motor speed if the field resistance


is increased to 50 ?
b) Calculate the motor speed as a function of the
field resistance, assuming a constant-current
load.
c) Assuming that the motor next is connected as
a separately excited and is initially running
with VA = 250 V, IA = 120 A and at n = 1103
rpm while supplying a constant-torque load,
estimate the motor speed if VA is reduced to
200 V.
Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example

shunt separately-excited
For the given initial line current of 126 A, the initial armature current will be
250
I A1  I L1  I F 1  126   120 A
41.67
Therefore, the initial generated voltage for the shunt motor will be

E A1  VT  I A1 RA  250  120  0.03  246.4V


Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example

After the field resistance is increased to 50 Ω, the new field current will be

250
IF 2   5 A
50
The ratio of the two internal generated voltages is
E A 2 K22 2 n2
 
E A1 K11 1n1
Since the armature current is assumed constant, EA1 = EA2 and, therefore
1n1
n2 
2
The values of EA on the magnetization curve are directly proportional to the flux.
Therefore, the ratio of internal generated voltages equals to the ratio of the fluxes within
the machine. From the magnetization curve, at IF = 5A, EA1 = 250V, and at IF = 6A, EA1
= 268V. Thus:
Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example

1n1 E A1n1 268


n2    1103  1187rpm
2 EA2 250

b) A speed vs. RF
characteristic is shown
below:
Shunt Motor: Speed Control-Example

c) For a separately excited motor, the initial generated voltage is

E A1  VT 1  I A1 RA
E A 2 K22 2 n2
Since  
E A1 K11 1n1
E A 2 n1
and since the flux  is constant n2 
E A1
Since the both the torque and the flux are constants, the armature current IA is also
constant. Then

VT 2  I A 2 RA 200  120  0.03


n2  n1  1103  879rpm
VT 1  I A1 RA 250  120  0.03
Shunt Motor
The effect of an open field circuit

If the field circuit is left open on a shunt motor, its field resistance
will be infinite. Infinite field resistance will cause a drastic flux drop
and, therefore, a drastic drop in the generated voltage. The armature
current will be increased enormously increasing the motor speed.

A similar effect can be caused by armature reaction. If the armature


reaction is severe enough, an increase in load can weaken the flux
causing increasing the motor speed. An increasing motor speed
increases its load, which increases the armature reaction weakening
the flux again. This process continues until the motor overspeeds.
This condition is called runaway.
Motor types: The Permanent-Magnet DC Motor

A permanent magnet DC (PMDC) motor is a motor whose poles are made out
of permanent magnets.
Advantages:
1. Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit copper losses;
2. Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable smaller.

Disadvantages:
1. Since permanent magnets produces weaker flux
densities then externally supported shunt fields, such
motors have lower induced torque.
2. There is always a risk of demagnetization from
extensive heating or from armature reaction effects
(via armature mmf).
Motor types: The Permanent-Magnet DC Motor

Normally (for cores), a ferromagnetic However, a maximally large residual flux


material is selected with small residual flux Bres and large coercive magnetizing
Bres and small coercive magnetizing intensity HC are desirable for permanent
intensity HC. magnets forming the poles of PMDC
motors…
Motor types: The series DC motor

A series DC motor is a DC motor whose field windings consists


of a relatively few turns connected in series with armature circuit.
Therefore:
VT  E A  I A ( RA  Rs )
Series Motor: Induced Torque

The terminal characteristic of a series DC motor is quite different from that of the shunt
motor since the flux is directly proportional to the armature current (assuming no
saturation). An increase in motor flux causes a decrease in its speed; therefore, a series
motor has a dropping torque-speed characteristic.
The induced torque in a series machine is

 ind  K I A
Since the flux is proportional to the armature current:
  cI A
where c is a proportionality constant. Therefore, the torque is

 ind  KcI A2
Torque in the motor is proportional to the square of its armature current. Series motors
supply the highest torque among the DC motors. Therefore, they are used as car starter
motors, elevator motors etc.
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Assuming first that the magnetization curve is linear and no saturation occurs, flux is
proportional to the armature current:
  cI A
Since the armature current is
 ind
IA 
Kc
and the armature voltage E A  K
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law would be
 ind
VT  E A  I A ( RA  RS )  K   RA  RS 
Kc
K 2
Since, the torque:  ind  KcI  
2
A
c
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Therefore, the flux in the motor is c
  ind
K
The voltage equation then becomes

c 
VT  K  ind   ind  RA  RS 
K Kc
which can be solved for the speed:

VT 1 RA  RS
 
Kc  ind Kc

The speed of unsaturated series motor inversely proportional to the


square root of its torque.
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Series motors

E a  Vt  I a ( Ra  Rs )
E a  K a  m
Neglecting saturation   K1 I f  K1 I a
E a  K a K1 I a m  K s I a m
Vt Ra  Rs
m  
KsIa Ks
But T  K a I a  K a K1 I a2  K s I a2
Vt Ra  Rs
 m  
Ks T Ks

129
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
One serious disadvantage of
a series motor is that its
speed goes to infinity for a
zero torque.

In practice, however, torque


never goes to zero because
of the mechanical, core, and
stray losses. Still, if no other
loads are attached, the motor
will be running fast enough
to cause damage.

Steps must be taken to ensure that a series motor always has a load! Therefore, it
is not a good idea to connect such motors to loads by a belt or other mechanism
that could break.
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example 3: A 250 V series DC motor with compensating windings has a total series
resistance RA + RS of 0.08 . The series field consists of 25 turns per pole and the
magnetization curve is

a) Find the speed and induced torque of


this motor when its armature current
is 50 A.
b) Calculate and plot its torque-speed
characteristic.
a) To analyze the behavior of a series
motor with saturation, we pick points
along the operating curve and find the
torque and speed for each point. Since the
magnetization curve is given in units of
mmf (ampere-turns) vs. EA for a speed of
1200 rpm, calculated values of EA must be
compared to equivalent values at 1200
rpm.
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example:
For IA = 50 A

E A  VT  I A ( RA  RS )  250  50  0.08  246V


Since for a series motor IA = IF = 50 A, the mmf is

F  NI  25  50  1250 A  turns
From the magnetization curve, at this mmf, the internal generated voltage is
EA0 = 80 V. Since the motor has compensating windings, the correct speed of the motor
will be
EA 246
n n0  1200  3690rpm
E A0 80

-
EA I A 246  50
The resulting torque:  ind    31.8 N m
 3690  2 60
Series Motor: Terminal Characteristic
Example:
b) The complete torque-
speed characteristic
We notice severe over-
speeding at low torque
values.

Speed Control
The only way to control speed
of a series DC motor is by
changing its terminal voltage,
since the motor speed is
directly proportional to its
terminal voltage for any Ra  R s
Vt
given torque. m  
Ks T Ks
Motor types: Compounded DC motor

A compounded DC motor is a motor with both a shunt and a series field.

Current flowing into a dotted


end of a coil (shunt or series)
produces a positive mmf.
Long-shunt
connection
If current flows into the dotted
ends of both coils, the resulting
mmfs add to produce a larger
total mmf – cumulative
compounding.

If current flows into the dotted end of one


coil and out of the dotted end of another Short-shunt
coil, the resulting mmfs subtract – connection
differential compounding.
Motor types: Compounded DC Motor
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation for a compounded DC motor is

VT  E A  I A  RA  RS 
The currents in a compounded DC motor are
I A  IL  IF
VT
IF 
RF
Cumulatively compounded
The mmf of a compounded DC motor:

F net F F  F SE  F AR
Differentially compounded

The effective shunt field current in a compounded DC motor:


N SE F AR
I  IF 
*
F IA 
NF NF Number of turns
Cumulatively Compounded Motors:
Torque-Speed Characteristic
In a cumulatively compounded motor, there is a constant component of flux and a component
proportional to the armature current (and thus to the load). These motors have a higher
starting torque than shunt motors (whose flux is constant) but lower than series motors
(whose flux is proportional to the armature current).
The series field has a small effect at light loads – the motor behaves as a shunt motor. The
series flux becomes quite large at large loads – the motor acts like a series motor.

Similar (to the previously discussed) approach is


used for nonlinear analysis of compounded
motors.
Compound Motors: Torque-Speed Characteristics

Cumulative Compound

ATt  ATshunt  ATseries

Differential Compound

t   shunt   series
Shunt motor

Vt Ra
m   T
K a  t (K a  t ) 2

137
Differentially Compounded Motors:
Torque-Speed Characteristic
Since the shunt mmf and series mmf subtract from each other in a differentially
compounded motor, increasing load increases the armature current IA and decreases the
flux. When flux decreases, the motor speed increases further increasing the load. This
results in an instability (much worse than one of a shunt motor) making differentially
compounded motors unusable for any applications.

In addition to that, these motors are not easy


to start… The motor typically remains still
or turns very slowly consuming enormously
high armature current.

Stability problems and huge starting


armature current lead to these motors being
never used intentionally.
Cumulatively Compounded Motors:
Speed Control

The same two techniques that have been discussed for a shunt motor are also
available for speed control of a cumulatively compounded motor.

1.Adjusting the field resistance RF;


2.Adjusting the armature voltage VA.

The details of these methods are very similar to already discussed for shunt
DC motors.
DC Motor Starters
In order for DC motors to function properly, they must have some special
control and protection equipment associated with them. The purposes of this
equipment are:

1. To protect the motor against damage due to short circuits in


the equipment;
2. To protect the motor against damage from long-term
overloads;
3. To protect the motor against damage from excessive starting
currents;
4. To provide a convenient manner in which to control the
operating speed of the motor.
DC Motor Problems on Starting

At starting conditions, the motor is not turning, therefore the internal generated
voltage EA = 0V. Since the internal resistance of a normal DC motor is very low
(3-6 % pu), a very high current flows.
For instance, for a 50 hp, 250 V DC motor with armature resistance RA of 0.06  and a
full-load current about 200 A, the starting current is
VT  E A 250  0
IA    4167
 A
RA 0.06
This current is over 20 times the motor’s rated full-load current and may severely damage
the motor.
A solution to the problem of excessive starting current is to insert a starting resistor in
series with the armature to limit the current until EA can build up to limit the armature
current. However, this resistor must be removed from the circuit as the motor speed is
high since otherwise such resistor would cause losses and would decrease the motor’s
torque-speed characteristic.
DC Motor Problems on Starting

In practice, a starting resistor is made up of a series of resistors that can be successively


removed from the circuit as the motor speeds up.

A shunt motor with an extra starting


resistor that can be cut out of the
circuit in segments by closing the 1A,
2A, and 3A contacts.

Therefore, two considerations are


needed to be taken into account:
Select the values and the number of
resistor segments needed to limit the
starting current to desired
ranges; Design a control circuit shutting the resistor bypass contacts at the proper time to
remove particular parts of the resistor from the circuit.
Starting of DC Machine

If a d.c. motor is directly connected to a d.c.


power supply, the starting current will be
dangerously high.

Vt  E a
Ia  at starting   0  Ea  0
Ra

Vt
Ia Starting

ra
Since Ra is small, the starting current is
very large.
The starting current can be limited by the
following methods:
1- Use a variable-voltage supply.
2- Insert an external resistance at start, as
shown in the Figure.
143
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example

Example 6: A 100 hp, 250 V 350 A shunt DC motor with an armature resistance of 0.05
 needs a starter circuit that will limit the max starting current to twice its rated value and
which will switch out sections of resistor once the armature current decreases to its rated
value.

a. How many stages of starting


resistance will be required to limit
the current to the specified range?
b. What must the value of each segment
of the resistor to be? At what voltage
should each stage of the starting
resistance be cut out?
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
a. The starting resistor must be selected such that the current flow at the start equals twice
the rated current. As the motor speeds up, an internal voltage EA (which opposes the
terminal voltage of the motor and, therefore, limits the current) is generated. When the
current falls to the rated value, a section of the starting resistor needs to be taken out to
increase the current twice. This process (of taking out sections of the starting resistor)
repeats until the entire starting resistance is removed. At this point, the motor’s armature
resistance will limit the current to safe values by itself.

The original resistance in the starting circuit is

VT
Rtot  R1  R2  ...  RA 
I max
After the stages 1 through i are shorted out, the total resistance left in the starting circuit is

Rtot ,i  Ri 1  ...  RA
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
The resistance R1 must be switched out of the circuit when the armature current falls to
VT  E A,1
I A,min   I min  350 A
Rtot
After the resistance R1 is out of the circuit, the armature current must increase to

VT  E A,2
I A,max   I max  700 A
Rtot ,1
Since EA = K, the quantity VT – EA must be constant when the resistance is switched
out. Therefore
I min Rtot  VT  E A  I max Rtot ,1
The resistance left in the circuit is
n
I min  I min 
Rtot ,1  Rtot Rtot ,n    Rtot
I max  I max 
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
The starting process is completed when Rtot,n is not greater than the internal armature
resistance RA. At the boundary:

n
 I min 
RA  Rtot ,n   Rtot
 I max 
log  RA Rtot 
Solving for n: n
log  I min I max 
Notice that the number of stages n must be rounded up to the next integer.
VT 250
Rtot    0.357
I max 700
log  RA Rtot  log  0.05 0.357 
n   2.84  3
log  I min I max  log  350 700 
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
b. The armature circuit will contain the armature resistance RA and three starting resistors.
At first, EA = 0, IA = 700 A, and the total resistance is 0.357 . The total resistance will be
in the circuit until the current drops to 350 A. This occurs when

E A,1  VT  I A,min Rtot  250  350  0.357  125V


At this time, the starting resistor R1 will be taken out making
VT  E A,1 250  125
Rtot ,1  RA  R2  R3    0.1786
I max 700
This (new) total resistance will be in the circuit until the current drops again to 350 A. This
occurs when
E A,2  VT  I A,min Rtot ,1  250  350  0.1786  187.5V
At this time, the starting resistor R2 will be taken out leaving
VT  E A,2 250  187.5
Rtot ,2  RA  R3    0.0893
I max 700
DC Motor Problems on Starting: Example
This total resistance will be in the circuit until the current drops again to 350 A. This occurs
when
E A,3  VT  I A,min Rtot ,2  250  350  0.0893  218.75V
At this time, the starting resistor R3 will be taken out leaving only RA in the circuit. The
motor’s current at that moment will increase to

VT  E A,3 250  218.75


I A,3    625 A
RA 0.05
which is less than the allowed value. Therefore, the resistances are
R3  Rtot ,3  RA  0.0893  0.05  0.0393
R2  Rtot ,2  R3  RA  0.1786  0.0393  0.05  0.0893
R1  Rtot ,1  R2  R3  RA  0.357  0.1786  0.0393  0.05  0.1786
The resistors R1, R2, and R3 are cut out when EA reaches 125 V, 187.5 V, and 218.75 V,
respectively.
DC Motor Efficiency Calculations

To estimate the efficiency of a DC motor, the following losses must be determined:


1. Copper losses;
2. Brush drop losses;
3. Mechanical losses;
4. Core losses;
5. Stray losses.
To find the copper losses, we need to know the currents in the motor and two resistances. In
practice, the armature resistance can be found by blocking the rotor and a small DC voltage
to the armature terminals: such that the armature current will equal to its rated value. The
ratio of the applied voltage to the armature current is approximately RA.
The field resistance is determined by supplying the full-rated field voltage to the field
circuit and measuring the resulting field current. The field voltage to field current ratio
equals to the field resistance.
Application of DC Motors
DC Motor

Paper Mills

Robots

Steel Mills

Mining
Machine Tools Petrochemical 151
Example 1
• Determine the induced voltage induced in the armature of a dc
machine running at 1750 rpm and having four poles. The flux
per pole is 25 mWb, and the armature is lap-wound with 728
conductors.
Ea  K am
Solution pZ
 m
N m  1750rpm 2a
p4 pZN m

60a
  25mWb
a p4 728  25  103  1750

60
Z  728
 530.83V

152
Example 2
• A lap-wound armature has 567 conductors and carries an
armature current of 123.5A. If the flux per-pole is 20 mWb,
calculate the electromagnetic torque.

Solution Te  K aI a
a p pZ
 I a
  20mWb 2a
Z  576 576  20  10 3  123.5

I a  123.5 A 2
 226.43Nm

153
Example 3
• A 250V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.25W and
a field resistance of 125W. At no-load the motor takes a line
current of 5A while running at 1200 rpm. If the line current at
full-load is 52A, what is the full-load speed? If I t
Ia +
Solution Rfc
Ra

Rfw +
At no-load: m
Vt


It  5 A 
1200  2
N m  1200rpm  m   125.66rad / sec
Vt 250 60
If    2 A , I a _ NL  I t _ NL  I f  5  2  3 A
R f 125

154
Solution
Ea _ NL  Vt  I a _ NL Ra  250  3  0.25  249.25V
Ea _ NL 249.25
K a    1.984 V.sec/rad
m _ NL 125.66
At full-load: I L  52 A
Ea  Vt  I a Ra  250  50  0.25  237.5V
Ea _ FL  K am _ FL
Ea _ FL
237.5
 m _ FL    119.71 rad/sec
K a 1.984
m _ FL  60
N m _ FL   1142.4 rpm
2
155
Example 4
 A 230V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.05  and a field
resistance of 75. The motor draws 7A of line current while running at
1120 rpm. This line current at a certain load is 46A.
A. What is the motor speed at this load?
A. At this load, if the field-circuit resistance is increased to 100 , what is the
new speed of the motor? Assume the line current to remain unchanged.

Solution
A: at light load: I t1  7 A N m1  1120rpm If
It
Ia +
Vt 230 Rfc
Ra
If    3.07 A
R f 1 75 Rfw +
Vt
m
I a1  I t1  I f  7  3.07  3.93 A 

Ea1  Vt  I a1 Ra  230  3.93  0.05  229.8V
156
At an other load:

I t 2  46 A I a 2  I t 2  I f  46  3.07  42.93 A

Ea 2  Vt  I a 2 Ra  230  42.93  0.05  227.85V

Ea1 N m1

Ea 2 N m 2

N m1 Ea 2 1120  227.85
N m2    1110.5 rpm
Ea1 229.8
2N m 2 1110.5  2
m 2    116.3 rad/sec
60 60
157
230 I a 3  I t 2  I f 3  46  2.3  43.7 A
B: I f 3   2.3 A
100
Ea 3  Vt  I a 3 Ra  230  43.7  0.05  227.815 V
Ea 3
m3    I f  K a3  K f I f 3
K a3
Assuming
Assuminglinear
linearpart
partofof
Ea 3 magnetization
magnetizationcurve
m3  curve

Kf If3
Ea 2 227.85
From A) Kf    0.638
m 2 I f 116.3  3.07
227.815
 m3   155.3rad/sec N m 3  1483 rpm
0.638  2.3
158
Example 5
 A 12hp 230V shunt motor takes a full-load line current of
40A. The armature and field resistance are 0.25  and 230
, respectively. The total brush-contact drop is 2V and the
core and friction losses are 380W. Calculate the efficiency
of the motor.
Solution
If
It
I t  40A, Pin  Vt I t  230  40  9200 W Ia +
Ra
Vt 230 Rfc
If    1A
R f 230 Rfw +
Vt
m
I a  I t  I f  40  1  39 A 

Ea  Vt  I a Ra  Vb  230  39  0.25 - 2  218.25A

159
Solution
Ea I a  218.25  39  8511.75W
Pout  Ea I a  Prot  8511.75  380  8131.75W

Pout 8131.75
   100  88.39%
Pin 9200
EE371-Electrical Machines I
Topic 4: Synchronous Generators
Slip
rings

Pole

DC excitation
winding
Fan

1
Introduction

AC
Electric Machine

Mechanical Electrical Electrical Mechanical


Generator Motor
Input Output Input Output

Synchronous Induction

Induction Synchronous

2
Synchronous Machine
LEARNING GOALS
Introduction
Facts about SM
Construction
1. Stator
2. Rotor: Cylindrical - Salient
Principle of Operation
Equivalent Circuit
Phasor Diagram
Voltage Regulation
Operation of Synchronous Generator
Power-angle and other Performance Characteristics (Generator)
Synchronization
Excitation System

3
Facts about Synchronous Machine
Synchronous machines can be operated as generators or
motors.
It is used primarily as synchronous generator “ alternator”.
99+ % of all power are generated by the synchronous generators.

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Construction of Synchronous Machine

Synchronous machine is a doubly excited machine,


it consists of:

Stator Rotor

5
Synchronous Machine: Stator
A three-phase windings is placed in slots cut on the inner surface of the
stationary part. The ends of these windings can be connected in star or
delta to form a three phase connection. These windings are fed from a
three-phase ac supply (Motor) or connected to a three-phase ac load (Gen)
.

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Construction (Cont.)

7
Synchronous Machine: Rotor
The Rotor winding is known as the field winding or excitation winding

Synchronous machine rotor consists of even numbers of poles


excited from a dc supply. It can be either:
A) Cylindrical rotor
B) Salient rotor

8
Synchronous Machine: Rotor

2-Pole Cylindrical
Rotor

4-pole Salient
Rotor

9
Construction (Cont.)

Salient pole Rotor

10
48-pole Salient
11 rotor
Synchronous Machine: Rotor

The Rotor winding is known as the field winding or excitation winding

a N
b X X
c

c b Rotor

X
Stator a 12
Synchronous Machine: Rotor

a Vaa’ Vbb’ Vcc’


f c
b X X
N Time

S
c b
X
a
13
Principle of Operation: Generator
When a dc field current flows through
the rotor field winding it establishes a
flux in the air-gap.
If the rotor is now rotated by a prime
mover a revolving field is produced in
the air-gap.
The rotating flux will link the armature
windings aa’, bb’, and cc’ and will
induce voltages in these stator windings.
These induced voltages have the same
magnitudes but are phase-shifted by 120
electrical degrees.
The rotor speed and the frequency of the
induced voltages are related by:
120 f s where
ns  fs is the frequency of the induced voltage.
p p is the total number of poles. 14
Example 1
• For 60 Hz generator list three possible combination of
number of poles and speeds.

120 f s
ns 
p
Number of poles (p) Speed ns (rpm)
2 3600
4 1800
6 1200

15
Open Stator

f

If N
s Ef
Vf
df
Ef ~
S dt

E f is directly proportional to the excitation current If


The frequency of E f is proportional to the synchronous speed  s

f is the excitation field


16
Induced EMF
The instantaneous value of the induced voltage in N turns coil is given by:

d
eN
dt
Let    m sin( t )

e  N  m cos( t )

The r.m.s. value of the induced voltage per phase is

E rms  4 . 44 f N ph  pK w
where
Nph is the number of turns in series per phase
f is the frequency
p is the flux per pole
Kw is the winding factor
17
Loaded Stator
Ia
a
b c
X X Zload
N

S
c b
X

a'

18
Loaded Stator

f s
Ia

If N

Vf
g Vt

S
 g   f  s
s is the stator flux or the armature reaction flux
g is the net magnetic field in the airgap
19
Equivalent circuit of a synchronous generator

A synchronous generator can be Y- or -connected:


Equivalent Circuit per phase

Xa Xl Ra Ia XS R a Ia

If If

Ef Er V V
Ef

Vf Vf

Where:
V = Terminal voltage per phase
Ef = Induced emf per phase
Ia = armature current
Ra= Armature resistance / phase
Xl= Leakage reactance / phase
Xa= armature reaction reactance / phase
Xs = Xl + Xa =Synchronous reactance / phase
21
Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Generator
XS Ra Ia
The per-phase voltage equation is:
If
E f  Vt  I a ( Ra  jX s ) +
_ Ef
Vt

Leading p.f Vf

E f    Vt 0   I a Ra      I a X s (   90 )

Lagging p.f

a- Lagging power factor b- Leading power factor


Ef
Ef
Ia Ia Xs
 Ia Xs
 Vt I a Ra  
Ia I a Ra
Vt
22
Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

Since the voltages in a synchronous generator are AC voltages, they are usually
expressed as phasors. A vector plot of voltages and currents within one phase is
called a phasor diagram.

A phasor diagram of a synchronous generator


with a unity power factor (resistive load)

Lagging power factor (inductive load): a larger


than for leading PF internal generated voltage EA
is needed to form the same phase voltage.

Leading power factor (capacitive load).

For a given field current and magnitude of load


current, the terminal voltage is lower for lagging
loads and higher for leading loads.
Power and torque in synchronous generators

A synchronous generator needs to be connected to a prime mover whose speed is


reasonably constant (to ensure constant frequency of the generated voltage) for
various loads.
The applied mechanical power

Pin   appm
is partially converted to electricity

Pconv   ind m  3E A I A cos 


Where  is the angle between EA
and IA.

The power-flow diagram of a


synchronous generator.
Power and torque in synchronous generators

The real output power of the synchronous generator is

Pout  3VT I L cos   3V I A cos 


The reactive output power of the synchronous generator is

Qout  3VT I L sin   3V I A sin 


Recall that the power factor angle  is the angle between V and IA and not the angle
between VT and IL.

In real synchronous machines of any size, the


armature resistance RA << XS and, therefore, the
armature resistance can be ignored. Thus, a
simplified phasor diagram indicates that

E A sin 
I A cos  
XS
Parameters Determination and Generator Performance

Measuring parameters of synchronous generator


• Open circuit characteristics
• Short circuit characteristics
• Resistance determination
• Voltage regulation
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
The three quantities must be determined in order to describe the generator
model:

1.The relationship between field current and flux (and therefore between the
field current IF and the internal generated voltage EA);
2.The synchronous reactance;
3.The armature resistance.

We conduct first the open-circuit test on the synchronous generator: the


generator is rotated at the rated speed, all the terminals are disconnected
from loads, the field current is set to zero first. Next, the field current is
increased in steps and the phase voltage (whish is equal to the internal
generated voltage EA since the armature current is zero) is measured.

Therefore, it is possible to plot the dependence of the internal generated


voltage on the field current – the open-circuit characteristic (OCC) of the
generator.
2
7
Resistance Determination
The winding’s resistance can be approximated by applying a DC
voltage to a stationary machine’s winding and measuring the
current. However, AC resistance is slightly larger than DC
resistance (skin effect).
For Y-Connection Vdc 1 Vdc
 2 Rdc  Rdc 
I dc 2 I dc

Vdc 2 3 Vdc
For -Connection  Rdc  Rdc 
I dc 3 2 I dc
Open circuit Characteristics

• In this test the machine is driven externally


at synchronous speed. The field system is
fed from controllable dc supply with its
field current is recorded in steps.
• The corresponding open circuit armature
voltage is recorded at each value of the
field current in condition the speed is
constant at each recorded point
Open circuit Test
Since the unsaturated core of the
machine has a reluctance thousands
times lower than the reluctance of the air-
gap, the resulting flux increases linearly
first. When the saturation is reached, the
core reluctance greatly increases causing
the flux to increase much slower with the
increase of the mmf.
Short circuit Characteristics
• In this test the machine is also driven at synchronous
speed.
• The armature is short circuited and armature current is
measured.
• For every point of field current record the armature
current. The result is expected to be straight line
because of at this case the ampere turn from the field
equals the armature reaction.
Short circuit Test
We conduct next the short-circuit test on the
synchronous generator: the generator is
rotated at the rated speed, all the terminals
are short-circuited through ammeters, the
field current is set to zero first. Next, the field
current is increased in steps and the
armature current IA is measured as the field
current is increased.

The plot of armature current (or line current)


vs. the field current is the short-circuit
characteristic (SCC) of the generator.
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator

The SCC is a straight line since, for the


short-circuited terminals, the magnitude of
the armature current is
EA
IA 
RA2  X S2
The equivalent generator’s circuit during SC

The resulting
phasor diagram

The magnetic
fields during
Since BS almost cancels BR, the short-circuit test
net field Bnet is very small.
3
3
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
An approximate method to determine the synchronous reactance XS at a
given field current:

1.Get the internal generated voltage EA from the OCC at that field current.
2.Get the short-circuit current IA,SC at that field current from the SCC.
3.Find XS from
EA
XS 
I A, SC
Since the internal machine impedance is

EA
ZS  R  X 
2
A
2
S  X S since X S RA 
I A, SC

3
4
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
Example 7.1:
A 200 kVA, 480 V, 50 Hz, Y-connected synchronous generator with a rated field
current of 5 A was tested and the following data were obtained:
1. VT,OC = 540 V at the rated IF.
2. IL,SC = 300 A at the rated IF.
3. When a DC voltage of 10 V was applied to two of the terminals, a current of 25 A
was measured.
Find the generator’s model at the rated conditions (i.e., the armature resistance and
the approximate synchronous reactance).

Since the generator is Y-connected, a DC


voltage was applied between its two
phases. Therefore:
VDC
2 RA 
I DC
VDC 10
RA    0.2
2 I DC 2  25
3
5
Measuring parameters of synchronous generator
The internal generated voltage at the rated field current is

VT 540
E A  V ,OC    311.8V
3 3
The synchronous reactance at the rated field current is precisely

E A2 311.8 2
X S  Z S2  RA2   RA2   0.2 2
 1.02
I A2 , SC 300 2

We observe that if XS was estimated via the approximate formula, the result would be:

EA 311.8
XS    1.04
I A, SC 300

Which is close to the previous result.


The error ignoring RA is much smaller
than the error due to core saturation. The equivalent circuit 3
6
Determination of Synchronous reactance Xs
• Synchronous reactance is an important parameter in the
equivalent circuit of synchronous machine. This reactance can
be determined from the open circuit and short circuit curves as
follows:
XS Ra
For short circuit

Ef Ia(sc)

E f  I a ( SC ) ( R a  jX s )  I a ( SC ) Z s
Ef
Zs 
I a ( SC )
Xs  Z s2  R a2  Z s ( If R a is neglected )
E ac E ad
 X s(Sat.)  Xs  , X s (Unsat .) 
I ab I ab 37
The Synchronous generator operating alone

The behavior of a synchronous generator varies greatly under


load depending on the power factor of the load and on
whether the generator is working alone or in parallel with other
synchronous generators.

Although most of the synchronous generators in the world


operate as parts of large power systems, we start our
discussion assuming that the synchronous generator works
alone.

Unless otherwise stated, the speed of the generator is


assumed constant.

3
8
The Synchronous generator operating alone

Effects of load changes


A increase in the load is an
increase in the real and/or
reactive power drawn from the
generator.
Since the field resistor is unaffected, the field current is constant and, therefore, the
flux  is constant too. Since the speed is assumed as constant, the magnitude of
the internal generated voltage is constant also.
Assuming the same power factor of the load, change in load will change the
magnitude of the armature current IA. However, the angle will be the same (for a
constant PF). Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be larger for the
increased load. Since the magnitude of the internal generated voltage is constant

E A  V  jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
39
The Synchronous generator operating alone

Effects of load changes


A increase in the load is an
increase in the real and/or
reactive power drawn from the
generator.
Since the field resistor is unaffected, the field current is constant and, therefore, the
flux  is constant too. Since the speed is assumed as constant, the magnitude of
the internal generated voltage is constant also.
Assuming the same power factor of the load, change in load will change the
magnitude of the armature current IA. However, the angle will be the same (for a
constant PF). Thus, the armature reaction voltage jXSIA will be larger for the
increased load. Since the magnitude of the internal generated voltage is constant

E A  V  jX S I A
Armature reaction voltage vector will “move parallel” to its initial position.
40
Operation of Synchronous Generators
Synchronous Generator feeds individual load (Independent
Gen), ( Isolated System)
An electrical system supplied by only one generator is known as
an isolated system. In such a system, the terminal voltage tends to
change with varying load.
Xs Ra Ia
ns
+
If _ Ef Vt

Vf

If the generator is driven at a constant speed, thereby maintaining


constant frequency, and the field current is increased, the terminal
voltage increases.
41
Operation of Synchronous Generators

Xs Ra Ia
ns
+
If _ Ef Vt

Vf

E f  4.44 f N ph  f K w

E f  Vt  I a ( Ra  jX s )  Vt  I a Z s

Vt  I a Z L

Ef ZL E f
Ia   Vt  V  E f  I a jX s
Zs  ZL Zs  ZL

42
The Synchronous generator operating alone

Generally, when a load on a synchronous generator is added, the


following changes can be observed:

1. For lagging (inductive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage


decreases significantly.
2. For unity power factor (purely resistive) loads, the phase (and
terminal) voltage decreases slightly.
3. For leading (capacitive) loads, the phase (and terminal) voltage rises.

Effects of adding loads can be described by the voltage regulation:

Vnl  V fl
VR  100%
V fl
Where Vnl is the no-load voltage of the generator and Vfl is its full-load
voltage.
43
Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation of a synchronous generator is


defined as the change in magnitude of the terminal
voltage between no-load and load conditions.
Therefore, the percentage voltage regulation may be
expressed as follows:
Vnl  VLoad E f V
% Voltage regulation 100  100
VLoad V

44
Calculation of No-Load Voltage
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Increase load effect on generators with

Leading PF
Lagging PF

Unity PF 46
The Synchronous generator operating alone
A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly
large positive voltage regulation. A synchronous generator operating at a
unity power factor has a small positive voltage regulation. A synchronous
generator operating at a leading power factor often has a negative voltage
regulation.
Normally, a constant terminal voltage supplied by a generator is desired. Since the
armature reactance cannot be controlled, an obvious approach to adjust the
terminal voltage is by controlling the internal generated voltage EA = K. This
may be done by changing flux in the machine while varying the value of the field
resistance RF, which is summarized:

1. Decreasing the field resistance increases the field current in the generator.
2. An increase in the field current increases the flux in the machine.
3. An increased flux leads to the increase in the internal generated voltage.
4. An increase in the internal generated voltage increases the terminal voltage of
the generator.
Therefore, the terminal voltage of the generator can be changed by adjusting the
field resistance. 47
The Synchronous generator operating alone
Example 7.2:
A 480 V, 60 Hz, Y-connected six-pole synchronous generator has a per-phase
synchronous reactance of 1.0 . Its full-load armature current is 60 A at 0.8 PF
lagging. Its friction and windage losses are 1.5 kW and core losses are 1.0 kW at 60
Hz at full load. Assume that the armature resistance (and, therefore, the I2R losses)
can be ignored. The field current has been adjusted such that the no-load terminal
voltage is 480 V.

a. What is the speed of rotation of this generator?


b. What is the terminal voltage of the generator if
1. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF lagging;
2. It is loaded with the rated current at 1.0 PF;
3. It is loaded with the rated current at 0.8 PF leading.
c. What is the efficiency of this generator (ignoring the unknown electrical
losses) when it is operating at the rated current and 0.8 PF lagging?
d. How much shaft torque must be applied by the prime mover at the full load?
how large is the induced counter torque?
e. What is the voltage regulation of this generator at 0.8 PF lagging? at 1.0
PF? at 0.8 PF leading?
48
The Synchronous generator operating alone

Since the generator is Y-connected, its phase voltage is

V  VT 3  277V
At no load, the armature current IA = 0 and the internal generated voltage is EA =
277 V and it is constant since the field current was initially adjusted that way.
a. The speed of rotation of a synchronous generator is
120 120
nm  fe  60  1200rpm
P 6
1200
which is m  2  125.7rad s
60

b.1. For the generator at the rated current and the 0.8
PF lagging, the phasor diagram is shown. The phase
voltage is at 00, the magnitude of EA is 277 V,
49
The Synchronous generator operating alone

and that jX S I A  j 1  60  36.87  6053.13

Two unknown quantities are the magnitude of V and the angle  of EA. From the
phasor diagram:

E A2  V  X S I A sin     X S I A cos  


2 2

Then:
V  E   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   236.8V
2 2
A

Since the generator is Y-connected,

VT  3V  410V

50
The Synchronous generator operating alone

b.2. For the generator at the rated current and


the 1.0 PF, the phasor diagram is shown.
Then:

V  E A2   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   270.4V


2

and VT  3V  468.4V

b.3. For the generator at the rated current and the


0.8 PF leading, the phasor diagram is shown.
Then:

V  E A2   X S I A cos    X S I A sin   308.8V


2

and VT  3V  535V


51
The Synchronous generator operating alone

c. The output power of the generator at 60 A and 0.8 PF lagging is

Pout  3V I A cos   3  236.8  60  0.8  34.1kW


The mechanical input power is given by

Pin  Pout  Pelecloss  Pcoreloss  Pmechloss  34.1  0  1.0  1.5  36.6kW


The efficiency is
Pout 34.1
 100%  100%  93.2%
Pin 36.6
d. The input torque of the generator is

Pin 36.6
 app    291.2 N - m
m 125.7

52
The Synchronous generator operating alone

The induced countertorque of the generator is

Pconv 34.1
 app    271.3 N - m
m 125.7
e. The voltage regulation of the generator is

480  410
Lagging PF: VR  100%  17.1%
410
480  468
Unity PF: VR  100%  2.6%
468
480  535
Lagging PF: VR  100%  10.3%
535
53
Operation of Synchronous Generators

Synchronous Generator on Infinite Bus (Grid)


Synchronous generators are rarely used to supply individual
loads. These generators, in general, are connected to a constant
voltage-constant frequency power supply system known as
infinite bus or grid.
Infinite Bus:
Inf. bus Constant Voltage
A B C Constant Frequency

a b c

Syn.
Gen.

54
Generator Equivalent Circuit

If the generator operates at a terminal voltage Vt


per phase while supplying a load current Ia
Ra  X s
Xs

Ia
+
_ E Vt

E  Vt  I a X s
55
Generator Equivalent Circuit

Xs

Ia Ef
+ Ia X s
_ Ef Vt 

 Vt
Ia
Vt is Fixed (infinite Bus)
Ef is function of If
Magnitude and phase of Ia E f  Vt  I a X s
are dependant variables

56
Generator Equivalent Circuit

E  Vt  I a X s
E   Vt 0  I a X s (  90) 

E
The angle δ is called the Ia Xs
power angle. For 
Synchronous generator it
is always positive that is  Vt
the generated voltage Ia
leads the terminal voltage
by angle δ

57
Power equations
Xs

Ef
Ia
+
Ia Xs
_ Ef 
Vt
Vt

Ia

E  Vt  I a X s

P  3 Vt I a cos 
Vt and Ef are phase quantities
Qt  3 Vt I a sin 

58
Example

A 60 Hz, 4-pole synchronous generator of a thermal


power plant has a synchronous reactance of 5.
The stator (armature) windings are connected in
wye, and its line-to-line voltage is 15kV. The line
current of the generator is 1kA at 0.9 power factor
lagging. Compute the following:

A. The equivalent field voltage E.


B. The real power delivered to the power grid.
C. The reactive power delivered to the power grid

59
SOLUTION:

A. The equivalent field voltage can be computed as follows


assuming the reference to be the phase terminal voltage.

15
E  Vt  I a X s  0  (1  cos 1 0.9)  590  11.7422.54kV
3
B. The real power delivered is:

P  3Vt ll I a cos   3  15  103  103  0.9  23.38MW


Where Vt-ll is the line-to-line value of the terminal voltage

C. The reactive power delivered is:

Q  3Vt ll I a sin   3 15 103 103  sin(cos 1 0.9)  11.32MVAr


60
Power equation

Ef
I a X s cos   E f sin  
Ia Xs

E f sin  
Vt
I a cos   Ia
Xs
P  3 Vt I a cos 

3 Vt E f
P sin 
Xs
δ is the power angle
61
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator

P 3 Vt E f
P sin 
Xs
Pmax

3 Vt E f
Pmax 
Xs

l 90 o

62
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator

P 3 Vt E
Pullover power
P sin 
Xs
Pmax

Pm 3V E
Mechanical
input power
Operating point Pmax 
(no losses)
Xs

l 90 o

63
Effect of Increasing Excitation
P
E f2

E f1
Pm

E f2 > E f1

1 
2
• The maximum power that CAN be delivered increases
• The real power is unchanged (Pm unchanged)
• The power angle decrease 64
Reactive Power Equations
Xs
Ef
Ia Xs
Ia 
+
_ Ef Vt
Vt 
Ia
Vt and Ef are phase quantities

Qt  3 Vt I a sin  I a X s sin   E f cos   Vt

Qt 
3Vt
E f cos   Vt 
Xs
If Ef cos  > Vt ; Qt is positive and Current is lagging
If Ef cos  < Vt ; Qt is negative and Current is leading
If Ef cos  = Vt ; Qt is zero and Current is in phase 65
Example

A 250kVA, 230kV 3phase 60Hz Y-connected


synchronous generator is connected directly to an
infinite bus (constant voltage and frequency) at
230kV (Line-to-Line) and 60 Hz. The synchronous
reactance of 1.5Ω. The excitation (E) of the
generator is adjusted to 203.8 kV line-to-neutral.
Compute the pullover power.

66
Power–Angle Characteristics of Generator

P 3 Vt E
Pullover power P sin 
Pmax Xs

3V E
Pmax 
Xs

90o 
230
3  203.8
Pmax  3  54.13MW
1.5 67
Synchronous Generator Connected to
Infinite Bus Through Transmission Lines
Xs Vt Vo
Pm Xl
G

Terminal bus Infinite bus


Xs Xl

Ia
Ef Vt Vo

68
Phasor Diagram

Xs Vt Vo
Pm Ia Xl
G

Ia Xs
Ef
Ia Vt
Ia Xl

Vo 69
Phasor Diagram

Xs Vt Vo
Pm Ia Xl
G

Ia (Xs+Xl)
Ef
Ia

Vo 70
Power equation

I a X cos   E f sin  Ef
Ia ( Xs+Xl )
E f sin   
I a cos  
X  Vo
Ia
P  3 Vo I a cos 
X  X s  Xl

3 Vo E f
P sin 
X

71
Power Characteristics of Generator
P

Pmax
3 Vo E f
P sin 
X

l 90o 

Q 
3Vo
X

E f cos   Vo 
72
Maximum Power

P
Ia X
Pmax Ef
Ia
Pm  

Vo
Phasor Diagram at Pmax

l 90
o

73
Operation of Synchronous Generators

Synchronous Generator on Infinite Bus (Grid)


Synchronous generators are rarely used to supply individual
loads. These generators, in general, are connected to a constant
voltage-constant frequency power supply system known as
infinite bus or grid.
Inf. bus

A B C Infinite Bus:
Constant Voltage
a b c Constant Frequency
Syn.
Gen.

74
Parallel operation of synchronous generators
Most of synchronous generators are operating in
parallel with other synchronous generators to supply
power to the same power system. Obvious
advantages of this arrangement are:
1.Several generators can supply a bigger load;
2.A failure of a single generator does not result in a total power loss
to the load increasing reliability of the power system;
3.Individual generators may be removed from the power system for
maintenance without shutting down the load;
4.A single generator not operating at near full load might be quite
inefficient. While having several generators in parallel, it is possible
to turn off some of them when operating the rest at near full-load
condition.
75
Conditions required for paralleling
A diagram shows that Generator 2
(oncoming generator) will be
connected in parallel when the
switch S1 is closed.
However, closing the switch at an
arbitrary moment can severely
damage both generators!

If voltages are not exactly the same in both lines (i.e. in a and a’, b and b’ etc.), a
very large current will flow when the switch is closed. Therefore, to avoid this,
voltages coming from both generators must be exactly the same. Therefore, the
following conditions must be met:
1.The rms line voltages of the two generators must be equal.
2.The two generators must have the same phase sequence.
3.The phase angles of two a phases must be equal.
4.The frequency of the oncoming generator must be slightly higher than the
frequency of the running system.
76
Conditions required for paralleling
If the phase sequences are
different, then even if one pair
of voltages (phases a) are in
phase, the other two pairs will
be 1200 out of phase creating
huge currents in these phases.

If the frequencies of the generators are different, a large power


transient may occur until the generators stabilize at a common
frequency. The frequencies of two machines must be very close to
each other but not exactly equal. If frequencies differ by a small
amount, the phase angles of the oncoming generator will change
slowly with respect to the phase angles of the running system.
If the angles between the voltages can be observed, it is possible to
close the switch S1 when the machines are in phase.
77
General procedure for paralleling generators
When connecting the generator G2 to the running system, the following
steps should be taken:
1.Adjust the field current of the oncoming generator to make its terminal voltage
equal to the line voltage of the system (use a voltmeter).
2.Compare the phase sequences of the oncoming generator and the running
system. This can be done by different ways:
1) Connect a small induction motor to the terminals of the oncoming generator
and then to the terminals of the running system. If the motor rotates in the
same direction, the phase sequence is the same;

2) Connect three light bulbs across the


open terminals of the switch. As the phase
changes between the two generators, light
bulbs get brighter (large phase difference)
or dimmer (small phase difference). If all
three bulbs get bright and dark together,
both generators have the same phase
sequences.
78
General procedure for paralleling generators
If phase sequences are different, two of the conductors on the
oncoming generator must be reversed.

3. The frequency of the oncoming generator is adjusted to be slightly higher than


the system’s frequency.
4. Turn on the switch connecting G2 to the system when phase angles are equal.

The simplest way to determine the moment when two generators are in phase is by
observing the same three light bulbs. When all three lights go out, the voltage
across them is zero and, therefore, machines are in phase.

A more accurate way is to use a synchroscope – a meter


measuring the difference in phase angles between two a
phases. However, a synchroscope does not check the
phase sequence since it only measures the phase
difference in one phase.

The whole process is usually automated…


79
Synchronization

The operation of connecting a synchronous generator in


parallel with the infinite bus is known as synchronization.
Before connecting the generator with the infinite bus they
must have:
► The same voltage
► The same frequency
► The same phase
► The same sequence
The satisfaction of these conditions is checked by an
instrument known as synchronoscope or by using a set of
synchronizing lamps.

80
Three dark lamp method
One dark, Two bright lamp method
Synchroscope

In power systems, a synchroscope is


a device that indicates the degree to
which two systems (generator or
power grid) are synchronized with
each other.
For two electrical systems to be
considered synchronized, both
systems must be operating at the
same frequency, and the phase angle
between the systems must be zero.
Synchroscopes measure and display
the frequency difference and phase
angle between two power systems.
Only when these two quantities are
zero is it safe to connect the two
systems together.
Synchronization

Synchronoscope
84
Excitation Systems

Alternators require direct current to energize its magnetic field.


The DC field current is obtained from a separate source called an
exciter.

Excitation Systems

Rotating Static-type exciters


exciters

Brush Brushless

85
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)

In this type of exciters a DC generators (either separately excited or


self shunt excited) are used to provide the DC exciting current to the
rotating field of the AC generator.

The separately excited exciter has the following advantages:


 Quicker response of the exciter voltage to a change in the resistance
of the regulating rheostat.
 Stable operation at low voltages.

The distinguishing feature of the brush-type generator is that stationary brushes


are used to transfer the DC exciting current to the rotating generator field.
Current transfer is made via rotating slip rings (collector rings) that are in
contact with the brushes. The collector rings are mounted on the exciter shaft.
Two collector rings are used on each exciter, each ring is fully insulated from the
shaft and each other.

86
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)

87
Rotating Exciter (Brush-type)

On very large generators, a pilot exciter may be used. In this


excitation scheme the pilot exciter stationary field will be
controlled by the regulator and the output of the pilot exciter will
control the field of the main exciter, which will in turn, control the
machine main rotating field current

Pilot exciter Main Exciter AC Generator

88
Rotating Exciter (Brushless-type)

In rotating-rectifier exciters, the brushes and slip rings are replaced


by a rotating, solid-state rectifier assembly. The exciter armature,
generator rotating field, and rectifier assembly are mounted on a
common shaft.

89
Static-Type Exciters

Static excitation for the generator fields is provided from a system of


solid-state components.

The DC field voltage produced by the static exciter is applied directly


to the slip rings of the main rotating field of the generator.

90
Static-Type Exciters (cont.)

Static exciters contain no moving parts. A portion of the AC from


each phase of generator output is fed back to the field windings, as
DC excitations, through a system of transformers, rectifiers, and
reactors. An external source of DC is necessary for initial
excitation of the field windings. On engine driven generators, the
initial excitation may be obtained from the storage batteries used
to start the engine or from control voltage at the switchgear.

Advantages of static exciters

It is more economical. Compared to a rotating exciter, it


provides higher operating efficiencies, up to 96% on larger
systems
Minimum maintenance. The solid state design utilizes power
semiconductors for field power conversion and printed circuit
boards offering high reliability.
91
Construction of synchronous machines

A brushless exciter:
a low 3-phase current
is rectified and used
to supply the field
circuit of the exciter
(located on the
stator). The output of
the exciter’s armature
circuit (on the rotor)
is rectified and used
as the field current of
the main machine.
Construction of synchronous machines

To make the excitation


of a generator
completely
independent of any
external power source,
a small pilot exciter is
often added to the
circuit. The pilot
exciter is an AC
generator with a
permanent magnet
mounted on the rotor
shaft and a 3-phase
winding on the stator
producing the power
for the field circuit of
the exciter.

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