Ashramas

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Ashramas – The Four Modes of life

Main texts from the Mahabharata

Vanaprastha (1) (From The Mahabharata)

Vanaprastha (2)  (From The Mahabharata)

Brahmacharya (1)  (From The Mahabharata)

Brahmachari (2)  (From The Mahabharata)

The conduct of a Brahmachari

Do acts and avoid acts (From The Mahabharata)

Grahasthya (1) 
(From The Mahabharata)

Grahasthya (Householder) (2)  (From The Mahabharata)

Ashramas-Four Stages of Life

An outline in brief by Swami Nikhilananda

Ashramas – The Four Modes of life

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From The Mahabharata 

Santi Parva, Section LXII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Addressing king Yudhishthira

Bhishma said: The four modes of life, O puissant one, have been laid down for the
Brahmana (Brahmin). The other three orders do not adopt them, O best of the
Bharatas!
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From The Mahabharata 

Santi Parva, Section LXIII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

For a Sudra who is desirous of hearing (such scriptures as are not forbidden in his case), who
has accomplished his duties, who has begotten a son, between whom and the superior orders
there is not much difference in consequence of the purity of his conduct, all the modes of life
have been laid down excepting the observance of universal peacefulness and self-restraint
(which are not necessary for him). For a Sudra practising all these duties as also for a Vaisya, O
king, and a Kshatriya, the Bhikshu mode of life has been laid down.

Having discharged the duties of his order, and having also served the king, a Vaisya of
venerable years, with the king’s permission, may betake himself to another mode of life.

Having studied the Vedas duly and the treatises on the duties of King, …. a Kshatriya, for
leading the life of a Rishi, O king, may adopt the Bhikshu mode of life; but he should never do
so for the sake of enjoying the pleasures of the world. Having left the domestic mode of life, he
may adopt the life of mendicancy by begging what would barely support his life. A life of
mendicancy is not obligatory upon the three orders (viz., Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras), O
giver of profuse presents! Inasmuch, however, as they can adopt it if they choose this mode of
life, therefore, is open to the four orders.
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Ashramas – The Four Modes of life

From The Mahabharata 
Santi Parva, section LXI
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Unabridged

Addressing king Yudhishthira

Bhishma said: O mighty armed one, listen now to me, O thou of prowess incapable of being
baffled, as I mention the names of the four modes of life and the duties in respect of each. The
four modes are Vanaprastha, Bhaikshya, Garhasthya of great merit, and Brahmacharya which
is adopted by Brahmana.

Vanaprastha (1)

Undergoing the purificatory rite in respect of bearing matted locks, after having gone through the
rite of regeneration and performed for some time the rites in respect of the sacred fire and
studied the Vedas, one should with cleansed soul and senses under restraint, having first
carefully performed all the duties of the mode called Garhasthya, proceed, with or without his
wife, to the woods for adoption of the mode called Vanaprastha. Having studies the scriptures
called Aranyakas, having drawn up his vital fluid and having retired from all worldly affairs, the
virtuous recluse may then attain to absorption with the eternal Soul knowing no decay.

These are the indications of Munis that have drawn up their vital fluid. A learned Brahmana, O
king, should first practise and perform them. The Brahmana, O king, that is desirous of
emancipation, it is well known, is competent to adopt the Bhaikshya mode after having gone
through the mode called Brahmacharya. Sleeping at that place (in the course of the wanderings)
where evening overtakes him, without desire of bettering his situation, without a home,
subsisting on whatever food is obtained (in charity), given to contemplation, practising self
restraint, with the senses under control, without desire, regarding all creatures equally, without
enjoyments, without dislike to anything, the Brahmana possessed of learning, by adopting this
mode of life, attains to absorption with the eternal Soul that knows no decay.

Grahasthya (1)
The person leading the Grahasthya mode of life should, after studying the Vedas, accomplish all
the religious acts laid down for him. He should beget children and enjoy pleasures and comforts.
With careful attention he should accomplish all the duties of this mode of life that is applauded
by ascetics and that is extremely difficult to go through (without transgressions). He should be
satisfied with his own wedded wife and should never approach her except her season. He
should observe the ordinances of the scriptures, should not be cunning and deceitful. He should
be abstemious in diet, devoted to the gods, grateful, mild, destitute of cruelty, and forgiving. He
should be of a tranquil heart, tractable and attentive in making offerings to the gods and the
Pitris. He should always be hospitable to the Brahmanas. He should be without pride, and his
charity should not be confined to any one sect. He should also be always devoted to the
performance of the Vedic rites. In this connection, the illustrious and great Rishis cite a verse
sung by Narayana himself, of grave import and endued with high ascetic merit.

Listen to me as I repeat it: By truth, simplicity, worship of guests, acquisition of morality and
profit, and enjoyment of one’s own wedded wives, one should enjoy diverse kinds of happiness
both here and hereafter.

The great Rishis have said that support of sons and wives, and study of the Vedas, form the
duties of those that lead this high mode of life. That Brahmana who, always engaged in the
performance of sacrifices, duly goes through this mode of life and properly discharges all its
duties, obtains blessed rewards in heaven. Upon his death, the rewards desired by him became
deathless. Indeed, these wait upon him for eternity like menials ever on the alert to execute the
commands of their master [Literally ‘with eyes, head, and face on all sides’].

Brahmacharya (1)

Always attending to the Vedas, silently reciting the Mantras obtained from his preceptor,
worshipping all the deities, O Yudhishthira, dutifully waiting upon and serving his preceptor with
his own body, smeared with clay and filth, the person leading the Brahmacharya mode of life
should always observe rigid vows and, with senses under control, should always pay attention
to the instructions he has received. Reflecting on the Vedas and discharging all the duties (in
respect of contemplation and overt acts), he should live, dutifully waiting upon his preceptor and
always bowing unto him. Unengaged in the six kinds of work (such as officiating in the sacrifices
of others), and never engaged with attachment to any kind of acts, never showing favour or
disfavour to any one, doing good even unto his enemies, these, O sire, are the duties laid down
for a Brahmacharin!

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Ashramas(cont)

From The Mahabharata

Santi Parva, Section LXII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Yudhishthira said: Tell us those duties in respect of persons like ourselves which are
auspicious, productive of happiness in the future, benevolent, approved by all, pleasant and
agreeable.
Bhishma said: The four modes of life, O puissant one, have been laid down for the Brahmana.
The other three orders do not adopt them, O best of the Bharatas! Many acts, O king, leading to
heaven and especially fit for the kingly order, have already been declared. Those, however,
cannot be referred to in reply to thy present query, for all of them have been duly laid down for
such Kshatriyas as are not disinclined to pitilessness. The Brahmana who is addicted to the
practices of Kshatriyas and Vaisyas and Sudras, incur censure in this world as a person of
wicked soul and goes to hell in the next world. Those names, which are applied among men to
slaves and dogs and wolves and other beasts, are applied, O son of Pandu, to the Brahmana
who is engaged in pursuits that are improper for him.

That Brahmana who, in all the four modes of life, is duly engaged in the six-fold acts 9of
regulating the breath, contemplation, etc.), who performs all his duties, who is not restless, who
has his passions under control, whose heart is pure and who is ever engaged in penances, who
has no desire of bettering his prospects, and who is charitable, has inexhaustible regions of
bliss in the other world. Everyone derives his own nature from the nature of his acts in respect
of their circumstances, place, and means and motives. Thou shouldst, therefore, O king, regard
the study of the Vedas, which is fraught with such high merit, to be equal with the exertion of
kingly power, or the pursuits of agriculture, trade, and hunting. The world is set agoing by Time.
Its operations are settled by the course of Time. Man does all his acts, good, bad, and
indifferent, entirely influenced by Time.

[Note: The sense seems to be that influenced by past acts everyone acts in subsequent lives. If
he is a hunter in this life, it is because the influence of many cruel acts of a past life pursues him
even in this.]

Those amongst the good acts of man’s past life that exert the greatest influence on the next, are
liable to be exhausted. Men, however, are always engaged in those acts to which their
propensities lead. Those propensities, again, lead a living being to every direction.

[Note: men, therefore, have not always balances of good acts to their credit. They are, however,
free agents; the new acts they do determine the character of their next lives.]

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Ashramas (cont)

From The Mahabharata

Santi Parva, Section LXIII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Bhishma said: drawing the bow string, destruction of foes, agriculture, trade, tending cattle, and
serving others for wealth, these are improper for a Brahmana. An intelligent Brahmana, leading
a domestic mode of life, should duly perform the six Vedic acts. The retirement of a Brahmana
into the woods, after having duly discharged all the duties of the domestic mode of life, is
applauded. A brahmana should avoid service of the king, wealth obtained by agriculture,
sustenance derived from trade, all kinds of crooked behaviour, companionship with any but his
wedded wives, and usury. That wretched Brahmana who falls away from his duties and whose
behaviour becomes wicked, becomes, O king, a Sudra.
The Brahmana who weds a Sudra woman, who becomes vile in conduct or a dancer or a village
servant or does other improper acts, becomes a Sudra. Whether he recites the Vedas or not, O
king, if he does such improper acts, he becomes equal to a Sudra and on occasions of feeding
he should be assigned a place amongst Sudras. Such Brahmanas become equal to Sudras, O
king, and should be discarded on occasions of worshipping the gods (i.e., their services as
priests should not be taken). Whatever presents of food dedicated to the gods and the Pitris are
made unto Brahmanas that have transgressed all restraints or become impure in behaviour or
addicted to wicked pursuits and cruel acts or fallen away from their legitimate duties, confer no
merit (on the giver). For this reason, O king, self-restraint and purity and simplicity have been
laid down as the duties of a Brahmana. Besides these, O monarch, all the four modes of life
were laid down by Brahma (the Creator) for him.

He that is self-restrained, has drunk the Soma in sacrifices, is of good behaviour, has
compassion for all creatures and patience to bear everything, has no desire of bettering his
position of wealth, is frank and simple, mild, free from cruelty, and forgiving, is truly a Brahmana
and not he that is sinful in acts. Men desirous of acquiring virtue, seek the assistance, O king, of
Sudras and Vaisyas and Kshatriyas. If, therefore, the members of these (three) orders do not
adopt peaceful duties (so as to be able to assist others in the acquisition of virtue), Vishnu, O
son of Pandu, never extends his grace to them. If Vishnu be not pleased, the happiness of all
men in heaven, the merit arising from the duties laid down for the four orders, the declarations
of the Vedas, all kinds of sacrifices, and all other religious acts of men, and all the duties in
respect of the several modes of life, become lost.

Listen now, O son of Pandu, to those duties that should be observed in the four modes of life.
These should be known by the Kshatriyas who desire the members of the three (other) orders
(in his kingdom) to strictly adhere to the respective duties of those modes. For a Sudra who is
desirous of hearing (such scriptures as are not forbidden in his case), who has accomplished
his duties, who has begotten a son, between whom and the superior orders there is not much
difference in consequence of the purity of his conduct, all the modes of life have been laid down
excepting the observance of universal peacefulness and self-restraint (which are not necessary
for him). For a Sudra practising all these duties as also for a Vaisya, O king, and a Kshatriya,
the Bhikshu mode of life has been laid down.

Having discharged the duties of his order, and having also served the king, a Vaisya of
venerable years, with the king’s permission, may betake himself to another mode of life. Having
studied the Vedas duly and the treatises on the duties of King, O sinless one, having begotten
children and performed other acts of a like nature, having quaffed the Soma and ruled over and
protected all his subjects, righteously, O foremost of speakers, having performed the Rajasuya,
the horse sacrifice, and other great sacrifices, having invited learned Brahmanas for reciting the
scriptures and made presents unto them according to their desires, having obtained victories
small or great in battle, having placed on his throne the son of his loins or some Kshatriya of
good birth for the protection of subjects, having worshipped the Pitris by performing with due
rites the sacrifices laid down for honouring them, having attentively worshipped the gods by
performing sacrifices and the Rishis by studying the Vedas, the Kshatriya, who in old age
desires another mode of life, may, O king, adopt it by leaving that one which immediately
precedes it, and by that means he is sure to obtain (ascetic) success. A Kshatriya, for leading
the life of a Rishi, O king, may adopt the Bhikshu mode of life; but he should never do so for the
sake of enjoying the pleasures of the world. Having left the domestic mode of life, he may adopt
the life of mendicancy by begging what would barely support his life. A life of mendicancy is not
obligatory upon the three orders (viz., Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras), O giver of profuse
presents! Inasmuch, however, as they can adopt it if they choose this mode of life, therefore, is
open to the four orders.

Amongst men, the highest duties are those which are practised by Kshatriyas. The whole world
is subject to the might of their arms. All the duties, principal and subordinate, of the three other
orders, are dependent (for their observance) upon the duties of the Kshatriya. The Vedas have
declared this. Know that as the foot-print of all other animals are engulfed in those of the
elephant, even so all the duties of the other orders, under every circumstance, are engulfed, in
those of the Kshatriya. Men conversant with the scriptures say that the duties of the other three
orders afford small relief or protection, and produce small rewards. The learned have said that
the duties of the Kshatriya afford great relief and produce great rewards. All duties have kingly
duties for their foremost. All the orders are protected by them. Every kind of renunciation occurs
in kingly duties, O monarch, and renunciation has been said to be an eternal virtue and the
foremost of all.

[Note: the king is entitled to a sixth of the merits acquired by his subjects. The total merit,
therefore, of the king, arising from renunciation, is very great. Besides, the merit of every kind of
renunciation belongs to him in that way.]

If the science of chastisement disappears, the Vedas will disappear. All those scriptures also
that inculcate the duties of men become lost. Indeed, if these ancient duties belonging to the
Kshatriyas be abandoned, all the duties in respect of all the modes of life, become lost. All kinds
of renunciation are seen in kingly duties; all kinds of initiation occur in them; all kinds of learning
are connected with them; and all kinds of worldly behaviour enter into them. As animals, if
slaughtered by the vulgar, become the means of destroying the virtue and the religious acts of
the slaughterers, even so all other duties, if deprived of the protection given by kingly duties,
become liable to attack and destruction and men, full of anxiety, disregard the practices laid
down for them.
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Do acts and avoid acts

From The Mahabharata

Santi Parva, Section CCXLII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Preamble (From The Mahabharata)

Suka said: I have now understood that there are two kinds of creation, viz., one commencing
with Kshara (which is universal), and which is from the (universal) Soul. The other, consisting of
the senses with their objects, is traceable to the puissance of the knowledge. This last
transcends the other and is regarded to be the foremost.

[Note: Two kinds of creation are here referred to as those of which Vyasa has spoken. The first
is Kshara Prabhriti Yah Sargah, meaning that creation that consists of the four and twenty
entities commencing with Kshara or Prakriti. The other creation, consisting of the senses with
their objects, represents Buddhaiswarya or the puissance of the Buddhi (intellect), these being
all Buddhikalpitah. The second creation is also Atisargah which means, according to the
commentator, Utkrishtah and which is also Pradhanah or foremost, the reason being
Bandhakatwam or its power to bind all individuals. I take Atisargah to mean ‘derivative creation,’
the second kind of creation being derived from or based upon the other, or (as I have put it in
the text) transcends or overlies the other.]

I desire, however, to once more hear of that course of righteousness that runs in the world,
regulated by the virtue of Time and according to which all good men frame their conduct.

[Note: It is explained in a previous section how the course of righteousness is regulated by the
character of the particular Yuga that sets in.]

In the Vedas there are both kinds of declarations, viz., do acts and avoid acts. How shall I
succeed in ascertaining the propriety of this or that? It behoveth thee to expound this clearly.

[Note: Vyasa has already explained the character of the two apparently hostile declarations. The
meaning of Suka’s question, therefore, is that if two declarations are only apparently hostile, - if
as explained in the Bhagavad Gita, they are identical – how is that identity to be clearly
ascertained? The fact is, Suka wishes his sire to explain the topic more clearly.]

Having obtained, through thy instructions, a thorough knowledge of the course of conduct of
human beings, having purified myself by the practice of only righteousness, and having
cleansed my understanding, I shall, after casting off my body, behold the indestructible Soul.

[Note: ‘The course of conduct of human beings,’ i.e., the distinctions between right and wrong.
Vimuktatma is taken by the commentator to imply Tyaktadehah. The second line may also
mean ‘having cast off (by Yoga) the consciousness of body, I shall behold my own Soul.’

The Four Ashramas

Vyasa said: The course of conduct that was first established by Brahma himself was duly
observed by the wise and pious persons of old, viz., the great Rishis of ancient times. The great
Rishis conquer all the worlds, by the practice of Brahmacharya (celibacy). Seeking all things
that are good for himself by fixing the mind on the knowledge, practising severe austerities by
residing in the forest and subsisting on fruits and roots, by treading on sacred spots, by
practising universal benevolence, and by going on his rounds of mendicancy at the proper time
to the huts of forest recluses when these become smokeless and the sound of the husking rod
is hushed, a person succeeds in attaining to Brahman.

[Note: ‘When the huts become smokeless,’ i.e., when the cooking and the eating of the inmates
are over. ‘When the sound of the husking rod is hushed,’ i.e., when the pestle for cleaning rice
no longer works, and consequently when the inmates are not likely to be able to give much to
the mendicant.]

Abstaining from flattery and from bowing thy heads to others, and avoiding both good and evil,
live thou in the forest by thyself, appeasing hunger by any means that comes thy way.

Suka said: The declarations of the Vedas (already referred to in respect of acts) are, in the
opinion of the vulgar, contradictory. Whether this is authoritative or that is so, when there is this
conflict, how can they be said to be scriptural? I desire to hear this; how can both be regarded
as authoritative? How, indeed, can Emancipation be obtained without violating the ordinance
about the obligatory character of acts?
[Note: There is an apparent conflict between the two declarations. If both are authoritative, they
cannot be regarded as scriptural declarations in consequence of their conflict. If one is so and
the other not so, the scriptural character of the latter at least is lost. The scriptures cannot but be
certain and free from fault. How then (the question proceeds) is the scriptural character of both
to be maintained?]

Bhishma continued: Thus addressed, the son of Gandhavati, viz., the Rishi, applauding these
words of his son possessed of immeasurable energy. Replied unto him, saying the following.

Vyasa said: One that is Brahmachari, one that leads a life of domesticity, one that is a forest
recluse, and one that leads a life of (religious) mendicancy, all reach the same high end by duly
observing the duties of their respective modes of life. Or, if one and the same person, freed from
desire and aversion, practises (one after another) all these four modes of life according to the
ordinances that have been laid down, he is certainly fitted (by such conduct) to understand
Brahman (Supreme Reality). The four modes of life constitute a ladder of flight of steps. That
flight is attached to Brahman. By ascending that flight one succeeds in reaching the region of
Brahman.

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Brahmachari (2) first 25 years of life

The conduct of a Brahmachari

For the (first) fourth part of his life, the Brahmachari, conversant with the distinctions of duty and
freed from malice, should live with his preceptor or his preceptor’s son. While residing in the
preceptor’s house, he should go to bed after the preceptor has gone to his, and rise therefrom
before the preceptor rises from his.

All such acts again as should be done by the disciple, as also those, which should be done by a
menial servant, should be accomplished by him. Finishing these he should humbly take his
stand by the side of the preceptor. Skilled in every kind of work, he should conduct himself like a
menial servant, doing every act for his preceptor. Having accomplished all acts (without leaving
any portion undone), he should study, sitting at the feet of his preceptor, with eager desire to
learn. He should always behave with simplicity, avoid evil speech, and take lessons only when
his preceptor invites him for it.

[Note: The disciple should not disturb his preceptor by clamouring for lessons. He should go to
his preceptor for taking lessons only when his preceptor summons him for it.]

Become pure in body and mind, and acquiring cleverness and other virtues, he should now and
then speak what is agreeable. Subduing his senses, he should look at his preceptor, without
eyes of longing curiosity.

[Note: Meaning, he should cast submissive or humble glances instead of staring boldly or
rudely.]
He should never eat before his preceptor has eaten; never drink before his preceptor has drunk;
never sit down before his preceptor has sat down; and never go to bed before his preceptor has
gone to bed. He should gently touch his preceptor’s feet with upturned palms, the right foot with
the right and the left with the left. Reverentially saluting the preceptor, he should say unto him,
‘O illustrious one, teach me. I shall accomplish this (work), O illustrious one! This (other work) I
have already accomplished. O regenerate one, I am ready to accomplish whatever thy reverend
self may be pleased to command.’

Having said all this, and having duly offered himself unto him (thus), he should accomplish,
whatever acts of his preceptor wait for accomplishment, and having completed them inform the
preceptor once more of their completion. Whatever scents or tastes the Brahmachari may
abstain from while actually leading a life of Brahmacharya (celibate student) may be used by
him after his return from the preceptor’s abode. This is consistent with the ordinance. Whatever
observances have been elaborately laid down for Brahmacharis (in the scriptures) should all be
regularly practised by him. He should, again, be always near his preceptor (ready within call).
Having contributed to his preceptor’s gratification in this way to the best of his powers, the
disciple should, from that mode of life, pass into the others, one after the other

(Grihastha or householder, Vanprastha or forest recluse, Sannyasa or renunciate) and practise

the duties of each. Having (thus) passed a fourth part of his life in the study of the Vedas, and
observance of vows and fasts, and having given the preceptor the (final) dakshina (fee), the
disciple should, according to the ordinance, take his leave and return home (for entering into a
life of domesticity).

[Note: Learning was never sold in India in ancient times. The final fee is not a return for the
services of the preceptor but a token of gratitude from the pupil. Its value depended upon the
ability of the disciple, though there are stories in the scriptures of disciples coming to grief on
account of their persistent forwardness in pressing the acceptance of this fee. (Vide the story of
Galava in the Udyoga Parva.)]

Then, having taken spouses, obtaining them in the ways indicated in the ordinances, and having
carefully established the domestic fire, he should, observant all the while of vows and fasts,
become a householder and pass the second period of life (25years to 50 years).
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Grahasthya (Householder) (2)

From the Mahabharata

Santi Parva, Section CCXLIII
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Vyasa said: Observant of meritorious vows, the householder, for the second period of life (25 to
50 years), should dwell in his house, having taken spouses according to the ways indicated in
the ordinance and having established a fire (of his own). As regards the domestic mode of life,
four kinds of conduct have been laid down by the learned. The first consists of keeping a store
of grain sufficient to last for three years. The second consists of keeping a store to last for one
year. The third consists of providing for the day without thinking of the morrow. The fourth
consists of collecting grain after the manner of the pigeon.

[Note: the fourth kind of conduct, called Kapoti is also called Unchha. It consists of collecting
such seeds of grain as have fallen down from the ears and as have been abandoned by the
reapers.]

Of these, each succeeding one is superior in point of merit to that which precedes it, according
to what has been laid down in the scriptures.

[Note: Thus the second is more meritorious than the first, the third than the second, and the
fourth than the third. The fourth or last, therefore, is the first in point of merit.]

A householder observing the first kind of conduct may practise all the six well-known duties
(viz., sacrifice on his own account, sacrifice on that of others, teaching, learning, making gifts,
and accepting gifts). He who observes the second kind of conduct should practise three only, of
these duties (viz., learning, giving and accepting). He who observes the third kind of conduct
should practise only two of the duties of domesticity (viz., learning and giving). The householder
practising the fourth kind of domesticity should observe only one duty (viz., learning the
scriptures).

The duties of the householder are all said to be exceedingly meritorious. The householder
should never cook any food for only his own use; nor should he slaughter animals (for food)
except in sacrifices.

[Note: It is said that the householder who cooks must give a share of the cooked food to a
Brahmachari or Yati or any one who comes as a guest. If he does not do it but eats the whole of
what has been cooked, he is regarded as eating what belongs to a Brahmana (Brahmin). This,
of course, is a high sin.]

If it be an animal which the householder desires to kill (for food), or if it be a tree which he
wishes to cut down (for fuel), he should do either act according to the ritual laid down in the
Yajuses for that much is due to both animate and inanimate existences.

The householder should never sleep during the day, or during the first part of the night, or
during the last part thereof. He should never eat twice between morning and evening, and
should never summon his wife to bed except in her season. In his house, no Brahmana should
be suffered to remain unfed or unworshipped. He should always worship such guests as are
presenters of sacrificial offerings, as are cleansed by Vedic lore and observance of excellent
vows, as are high-born and conversant with the scriptures, as are observers of the duties of
their own order, as are self-restrained, mindful of all religious acts, and devoted to penances.
The scriptures ordain that what is offered to the deities and the Pitris in sacrifices and religious
rites is meant for the service of guests like these. In this mode of life the scriptures ordain that a
share of the food (that is cooked) should be given unto every creatures (irrespective of his birth
or character), unto one, that is, who for the sake of show keeps his nails and beard, unto one
who from pride displays what his own (religious) practices are, unto one who has improperly
abandoned his sacred fire, and even unto one who has injured his preceptor.

One leading a domestic mode of life should give (food) unto Brahmacharis (celibate students)
and Sannyasins (Renunciates or monks). The householder should every day become an eater
of Vighasa, and should every day eat Amrita. Mixed with ghee (clarified butter), the remains of
the food that is offered in sacrifices constitute Amrita. That householder who eats after having
fed (all relatives and servants) is said to eat Vighasa. The food that remains after the servants
have been fed is called Vighasa, and that which is left after the presentation of sacrificial
offerings is called Amrita.

One leading a domestic mode of life should be content with his own wedded wife. He should be
self-restrained. He should avoid malice and subdue his senses. He should never quarrel with
his Ritwik, Purohita, and preceptor, with his maternal uncle, guests and dependents, with the
aged and the young in years, with those that are afflicted with diseases, with those that practise
as physicians, with kinsmen, relatives, and friends, with his parents, with women that belong to
his paternal family, with his brother and son and wife, with his daughter, and with his servants.
By avoiding disputes with these, the householder becomes cleansed of all sins. By conquering
such disputes, he succeeds in conquering all the regions of felicity (in the world hereafter).
There is no doubt in this.

[Note: The commentator supposes that these relatives and kinsmen are named because of the
great likelihood there is of disputes arising with them on account of shares of inheritance.]

The preceptor (if duly reverenced) is able to lead one to the regions of Brahman (supreme
Reality). The father (if reverenced) can lead to the regions of Prajapati. The guest is puissant
enough to lead to the region of Indra. The Ritwij has power in respect of the regions of the
deities. Female relatives of the paternal line have lordship in respect of the regions of the
Apsaras, and kinsmen (by blood), in respect of the region of the Viswedevas. Relatives by
marriage and collateral kinsmen have power in respect of the several quarters of the horizon
(viz., north etc.), and the mother and the maternal uncle have power over the earth. The old, the
young, the afflicted and the wasted have power over the sky.

[Note: The sense is this: these various persons, if duly reverenced by the householder, are able
to send the latter to the places indicated or make him comfortable in those places.]

The eldest brother is like unto the sire himself (to all his younger brothers). The wife and the son
are one’s own body. One’s menial servants are one’s own shadow. The daughter is an object of
great affection. For these reasons, a householder endued with learning, observant of duties,
and possessed of endurance, should bear, without warmth or anxiety of heart every kind of
annoyance and even ensure from the last named relatives.

No righteous household should do any act, urged by considerations of wealth. There are three
courses of duty in respect of a life of domesticity. Of these, that which comes next (in the order
of enumeration) is more meritorious than the preceding one.

[Note: Vide verses 2 and 3 of this section. Of the four courses, the first or Kusaladhanya, is left
out here. The three others, of course, are the Kumbhadhanya, the Aswastana (otherwise called
Unchhasila), and the Kapoti.]

As regards the four (principal) modes of life also, the same rule of merit applies, viz., the one
that comes after is superior to the one preceding it. Accordingly, domesticity is superior to
Brahmacharya (celibate student), Vanprastha (forest life) is superior to domesticity, and a life of
mendicancy (Sannyasa) or complete renunciation is superior to a forest life.
One desirous of prosperity should accomplish all those duties and rites that have been ordained
in the scriptures in respect of those modes. That kingdom grows in prosperity where these
highly deserving persons live, viz., those that lead a life of domesticity according to the
Kumbhadhanya method, they that lead it according to the Unchha method, and they that lead it
according to the Kapoti method. That man who cheerfully leads a life of domesticity in the
observance of those duties, succeeds in sanctifying ten generations of his ancestors above and
ten generations of descendants below.

A householder, duly observing the duties of domesticity, obtains an end that yields felicity equal
to what occurs in the regions attained by great kings and emperors. Even this is the end that
has been ordained for those who have subdued their senses. For all high-souled householders
heaven has been ordained. That heaven is equipped with delightful cars for each (moving at the
will of the rider). Even that is the delightful heaven indicated in the Vedas. For all householders
of restrained souls, the regions of heaven constitute the high reward. The Self-born Brahman
ordained that the domestic mode of life should be the productive cause of heaven. And since it
has been ordained, a person, by gradually attaining to the second mode of life, obtains
happiness and respect in heaven. After this comes that high and superior mode of life, called
the third, for those desirous of casting off their bodies. Superior to that of householder, that is
the life of forest recluses; of those, that is, who waste their bodies (by diverse kinds of
austerities) into skeletons overlaid with dried skins.
__________________

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Vanaprastha (2)
From The Mahabharata
Santi Parva, Section CCXLIV
Translated by Sri Kisari Mohan Ganguli

Bhishma said: Thou hast been told what the duties of domesticity are as ordained by the wise.
Listen now, O Yudhishthira, to what those duties are that have been next spoken of. Gradually
abandoning the domestic mode, one should enter the third mode, which is excellent. It is the
mode in which wives afflict themselves by means of austerities. It is the mode practised by
those that live as forest recluses. Blessed be thou, O son, listen to the duties observed by those
that lead this mode of life in which occur the practices of all men and all modes of life. Listen,
indeed, to the duties of those that are denizens of sacred spots and that have resorted to this
mode after proper deliberation!

Vyasa said: When the householder beholds wrinkles on his body and grey hair on his head, and
children of his children, he should then retire into the forest. The third part of his life (from 50 to
75 years) he should pass in the observance of the Vanaprastha mode. He should attend to
those fires to which he had attended as a householder. Desirous of sacrificing, he should adore
the deities (according to the rituals ordained). Observant of vows and abstemious in diet, he
should eat only once, the time thereof being the sixth part of the day. He should be always
heedful. Attending to his fires (homa or sacred fires), he should keep some kine (cows), waiting
upon them dutifully.
[Note: The cow is a sacred animal and there is merit in feeding and properly tending a cow.
Forest recluses kept cows for merit as also for homa or sacrifice with the ghee (clarified butter)
obtained from them. ]

He should attend to all the rituals of a sacrifice. He should live upon rice growing indigenously,
upon wheat growing under similar circumstances, upon grain of other kinds, growing wildly (and
belonging to none). He should eat what remains after feeding guests. In this the third mode of
life, he should present offerings of ghee in the five well-known sacrifices.

[Note: The five are Agnihotra, Darsapurnamasi, Chaturmasya, Pasu sacrifice and Soma
sacrifice.]

Four kinds of courses of conduct have been laid down for observance in the Vanaprastha mode
of life. Some collect only what is needed for the day. Some collect stores to last for a month.
Some store grain and other necessaries sufficient to last for twelve years. Forest recluses may
act in these ways for worshipping guests and performing sacrifices. They should during the
season of the rains, expose themselves to water during the autumn. During the summer they
should sit in the midst of four fires with the sun burning overhead. Throughout the year,
however, they should be abstemious in diet. They sit and sleep on the bare earth. They stand
on only their toes. They contend themselves with the bare earth and with small mats of grass
(owning no other furniture for seat or bed). They perform their ablutions morning, noon, and
evening (preparatory to sacrifices). Some amongst them use only teeth for cleaning grain.
Others use only stones for that purpose.

[Note: i.e., they do not use a regular husking or cleaning apparatus for cleaning the grain they
use as food.]

Some amongst them drink, only during the lighted fortnight, the gruel of wheat (or other grain)
boiled very lightly. [Note: So that very small portion of the grain comes out for drink or mixes
with the water]. There are many who drink similar gruel only during the dark fortnight. Some eat
only what comes by the way (without seeking to obtain it). Some adopting rigid vows live upon
only roots, some upon only fruits, some upon only flowers, duly observing the method followed
by the Vaikhanasas. These and other diverse observances are adopted by those men of
wisdom and piety. The fourth is (the mode called Renunciation) based upon the Upanishads.
The duties laid down for it may be observed in all the modes of life equally. This mode differing
from the others comes after domesticity and forest life. In this very Yuga, O son, many learned
Brahmanas (Brahmins) conversant with the truths of all things, have been known to observe this
mode. Agastya, the seven Rishis (viz., Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Vasishtha, Narada, and
Kratu), Madhucchandas, Aghamarshana, Sankriti Sudivatandi who lived whithersoever he
pleased and was content to take what came (without ever seeking for anything).

[Note: i.e., who had no fixed residence and who never sought with any effort for the necessaries
of life.]

Ahovirya Kavya, Tandya, the learned Medhatithi, Karmanirvaka of mighty energy, and
Sunyapala who had exerted himself greatly (for acquiring ascetic puissance) were the authors
of his course of duties, and themselves observing them have all proceeded to heaven. Many
great Rishis, O son, who had the puissance to behold immediately the fruits of their ascetic
merit (i.e., whose wishes were immediately crowned with success in respect of both blessings
and curses, etc,), those numerous ascetics who are known by the name of Yayavaras, many
Rishis of very austere penances and possessed of accurate knowledge in respect of distinctions
of duty, and many other Brahmanas too numerous to mention, adopted the forest mode of life.
The Vaikhanasas, the Valikhilyas, the Saikitas, all of whom were devoted to austere penances,
who were steadfast in virtue, who had subdued their senses, and who used to behold the fruits
of their penances immediately, adopted this mode of life and finally ascended to heaven. Freed
from fear and not counted among the stars and planets, these have become visible in the
firmament as luminous bodies.

When the fourth or last part of life is reached, and when one is weakened by decrepitude and
afflicted by disease, one should abandon the forest mode of life (for the fourth mode called
Sannyasa or Renunciation). Performing a sacrifice that is capable of being completed in a single
day and in which the Dakshina should be everything of which he may be possessed, he should
himself perform his own Sraddha. Withdrawn from every other object, he should devote himself
to his own self, taking pleasure in himself, and resting also on his own self.

[Note: Atmayaji is explained as one who performs his own Sraddha or obsequial rites. The
Sandhi in the next word is Arsha; Atmakrida is one who does not take pleasure in wife or
children but whose source of pleasure is his own self: similarly, Atmasraya is one who without
depending upon kings or others takes refuge in himself.]

He should establish all his sacrificial fires (thenceforth) upon his own self, and give up all kinds
of ties and attachments. (In case he fails to attain to complete Renunciation) he should always
perform such sacrifices and rites as are completed in a single day.

[Note: Such sacrifice, for example, as are called Brahma-yajna, etc.]

When, however, from performance of the (ordinary) sacrifices of sacrificers, the sacrifice in Self
proceeds, then (may he discontinue all ordinary sacrifices, and) unto the three fires duly
sacrifice in his own Self for the sake of his Emancipation.

[Note: Yajinam yajna is the sacrifice of ordinary sacrifices, i.e., the usual sacrifices consisting of
tangible offerings unto the deities, and performed with the aid of Vedic mantras. The ablative
implies cause. Atmani ijya is sacrifice in Self, i.e., Yoga. The meaning of the first line, therefore,
is when through performance of ordinary sacrifices and rites, the mind becomes pure and the
sacrificer is enabled to practise Yoga. Unto the three fires he should duly sacrifice on his own
self, means, of course, that without any longer adoring his fires by visible rites and actual
recitation of Mantras, he should, for the sake of emancipation, worship in his own self or seek
the extinction of mind and knowledge in Yoga.]

Without finding fault with his food he should eat five or six mouthfuls, offering them duly unto
five vital airs uttering (every time the well known) Mantra of the Yajurveda.

[Note: To this day every orthodox Brahmin or Kshatriya or Vaisya never eats without offering at
the outset five small mouthfuls unto the five vital breaths, viz., Prana, Apana, Samana, Udana,
and Vyana. (For explanations about these vital airs, read Page ‘Prana-Vyana-Samana’)]

Engaged in the observance of austerities while leading the life of a forest recluse, one should
shave off one’s hair and bristles and pare off one’s nails, and having cleansed oneself by acts,
pass into the fourth mode of life that is fraught with great holiness.
[Note: Vapya or Vapayitwa means causing or obtaining a shave. The Sannyasa mode of life, as
well known, can never be entered without a previous shave.]

That regenerate person who enters the fourth mode of life, giving pledges of assurance unto all
creatures, succeeds in earning many regions of blazing effulgence hereafter and ultimately
attains to the infinite.

[Note: It is difficult to render the word Abhaya into English. ‘To give abhaya to all creatures’ is to
pledge oneself to a life of total harmlessness, or to practise universal compassion or
benevolence. Abstention from every kind of injury is the great duty of the fourth mode of life.]

Of excellent disposition and conduct, with sins all washed off, the person who is conversant with
his own self never desires to do any act for either this or the other world. Freed from wrath and
from error, without anxiety and without friendship, such a person lives in this world like one
totally uninterested in its concerns. One (in the observance of Sannyasa) should not feel
reluctant in discharging the duties included in Yama and those also that walk behind them (and
are included in Niyama). Such a one should with energy live in accordance with the ordinances
in respect of his own mode, and throw away Vedic study and the sacred thread that is indicative
of the order of his birth. Devoted to righteousness and with his senses under complete control,
such a one, possessed of knowledge of self, attains undoubtedly to the end for which he strives.

[Note: The duties included in Yama (as explained by the commentator) are universal
benevolence, truthfulness, faith, Brahmacharya (celibacy), and freedom from attachment. Those
that are included in Niyama are purity (of body and mind), contentment, study of the Vedas,
meditation on the Supreme, etc. Swasastra sutra means the sutras of his own sastras – i.e., the
duties laid down in respect of that Sannyasa which he has adopted; the chief of which is enquiry
after the Soul or Self: Bhutimanta implies Vedic recitation and the sacred thread. He who has
taken to Sannyasa (Renunciation) should display energy in these, i.e., persistently enquire after
the Soul and throw away all caste-marks, and other indications. ‘The desirable end’ is of course,
gradual Emancipation of that obtained at once. ]

After the third is the fourth mode of life. It is very superior, and fraught with numerous high
virtues. It transcends in point of merit the three other modes of life. It is said to occupy the
highest place.

Ashramas-Four Stages of Life

Explanations drawn from the teachings of
Swami Nikhilananda, Sri Ramakrishna Math

A person's duties, in the Hindu tradition, are determined by the stage of life (Ashrama) to which
he belongs. Life, which is regarded by Hinduism as a journey to the shrine of truth, is marked by
four stages (Ashramas) each of which has its responsibilities and obligations. These four stages
of life are:

1. Brahmacharya Ashram (first 25 years)

Student life -observing celibacy

2. Grihastha Ashrama (25 to 50 years)

Householder (married life)
3. Vanprastha Ashrama (50 to 75 years),
Scriptural studies and meditation on God

4. Sanyasa Ashrama (75 to100 years)

Cultivation of God-consciousness- Monastic way of life

Brahmacharya Ashram (first 25 years)

The first stage of life covers the period of study, when a student cultivates his mind and
prepares himself for future service to society. He lives with his teacher and regards his teacher
as his spiritual father. He leads an austere life and conserves his energy, spurning the
defilement of the body and mind through evil words, thoughts and deeds. He shows respect to
his elders and teachers, and becomes acquainted with the cultural achievements of the race.
Students, rich and poor, live under the same roof and receive the same attention from the
teacher and his wife. When the studies are completed, the teacher gives the pupil the following
instructions, as described in the Taittiriya Upanishad:

Speak the truth. Practice Dharma. Do not neglect the study (of the Vedas). Having brought to
the teacher the gift desired by him; enter the householder's life and see that the line of progeny
is not cut off. Do not swerve from the truth. Do not swerve from Dharma (path of Virtue). Do not
neglect personal welfare. Do not neglect prosperity. Do not neglect the study and teaching of
the Vedas. Do not neglect your duties to the Gods and the Manes. Treat (revere) your mother
as Goddess. Treat your father as God. Treat your teacher as God. Treat your guest as God.

Whatever deeds are faultless, these are to be performed - not others. Whatever good works
have been performed by us, those should be performed by you- not others. ...

Grihastha Ashrama (25 to 50 years)

With marriage, a person enters the second stage of life. A normal person requires a mate; his
biological and emotional urges in this respect are legitimate. Debarred from marriage are those
who have a dangerous ailment that may be transmitted to children, or those rare souls who, as
students, forsake the world at the call of the spirit.

Children endow marriage with social responsibilities.

Hinduism does not regard romance as the whole of the married life. Husband and wife are co-
partners in their spiritual progress, and the family provides a training ground for the practice of
unselfishness. A healthy householder is the foundation of a good society, discharging his duties
(may be )as a teacher, a soldier, a statesman, a merchant, a scientist, or a manual worker. He
should be ambitious to acquire wealth and enjoy pleasures, but not by deviating from the path of
righteousness(dharma)

The following are the five great duties of a householder:

1. The study and teaching of the Vedas

2. Daily worship of the gods through appropriate rituals

3. Gratification of the departed ancestors by offering their
spirits food and drink according to the scriptural injunctions

4. Kindness to domestic animals

5. Hospitality to guests, the homeless and the destitute.

[ For more information on the Five Great Duties, visit our

page 'Mantras - Sacred Fire'- topic 'Sacrifice' ]

Vanprastha Ashrama(50 to 75 years)

When the skin wrinkles, the hairs turn grey, or a grandchild is born, one is ready for the third
stage of life (by retiring from the householder's responsibilities). At this stage, the pleasures and
excitements of youth appear stale and physical needs are reduced to a minimum. The third
period of life is devoted to scriptural study and meditation on God.

Sanyasa Ashrama(75 to100 years)

During the fourth stage, a man renounces the world and embraces the monastic way of life. He
is no longer bound by social laws. The call of the Infinite becomes irresistible to him; even
charity and social service appear inadequate. He rises above worldly attachments, finite
obligations, and restricted loyalties; he is a friend of his fellow human beings, of the gods, and of
the animals. No longer tempted by riches, honour or power, a monk preserves equanimity of
spirit under all conditions. He turns away from the vanities of the world, devoting himself to the
cultivation of God-consciousness.

Through the disciplines of the four stages of life, a Hindu learns progressive non-attachment to
the transitory world. The movement of life has been aptly compared to that of the sun. At dawn
the sun rises from below the horizon, and as the morning progresses it goes on radiating heat
and light till it reaches the zenith at midday. During the afternoon it goes down, gradually
withdrawing its heat and light, and at dusk it sinks below the horizon, a mass of radiance, to
illumine other regions.