Plant Familiarisation

TechComm Simulation Pty Ltd
Jebel Ali
Power and Desalination
Station “L” Phase II
Plant Familiarisation
Page 1 of 128
Introduction
This module is designed to provide a trainee power station
operator with detailed information on the construction and
operation of a generic type CCPP and associated auxiliary
systems.
While portions of this module may reflect the type of equipment
at your location it should be realised that the equipment is
generic in nature and is not intended to model any particular
plant.
Disclaimer
While every care will be taken to ensure the accuracy and
adequacy of information, concepts, advice and instructions
conveyed to participants in the Course, no responsibility or
liability is accepted by either TechComm Simulation, the course
leaders or their associates, for any errors or omissions which
may arise through no fault of the parties, and which may be
attributed to errors or omissions in the information, advice or
instructions given to the parties by the Client or others. Nor is
any responsibility or liability accepted for any consequent errors,
omissions or acts of the participants or others
Page 2 of 128
Table of contents
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 2
DISCLAIMER ............................................................................................................. 2
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 6
2. SIMPLE AND COMBINED CYCLE OPERATION ........................................... 7
2.1 Simple cycle ................................................................................................................7
2.2 Combined cycle ..........................................................................................................7
3. GAS TURBINE ................................................................................................ 8
3.1.1 General Description .....................................................................................................................8
3.1.2 Main components of a gas turbine are: .......................................................................................8
3.1.3 Generator and Exciter..................................................................................................................9
4. HEAT RECOVERY STEAM GENERATOR COMPONENTS .........................12
4.1 Main components of HRSG .....................................................................................12
4.2 Duct burner system ..................................................................................................12
5. BASIC GENERATOR COMPONENTS ..........................................................13
5.1 Principle of Generators ............................................................................................13
5.2 Electromagnetic induction.......................................................................................13
5.3 The simple generator ...............................................................................................14
5.3.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction through a rotating armature ........................................16
5.4 Generator Construction ...........................................................................................17
5.4.1 Rotor construction......................................................................................................................17
5.4.2 Salient pole construction ...........................................................................................................17
5.4.3 Cylindrical construction..............................................................................................................20
5.4.4 Rotor cooling..............................................................................................................................24
5.4.5 Rotor excitation..........................................................................................................................25
5.4.6 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) ............................................................................................27
5.4.7 Brushless excitation...................................................................................................................29
5.5 Stator construction...................................................................................................30
5.5.1 Outer frame................................................................................................................................30
5.5.2 Iron core.....................................................................................................................................32
5.5.3 Windings ....................................................................................................................................32
5.6 Bearings and lubrication..........................................................................................34
6. POWER TRANSFORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION COMPONENTS..........35
6.1 Introduction to Transformers ..................................................................................35
6.2 Applications ..............................................................................................................35
6.2.1 Step-up and step-down transformers ........................................................................................36
6.2.2 Double-wound transformers ......................................................................................................36
6.2.3 Mutual inductance......................................................................................................................37
6.3 Principle of Operation ..............................................................................................39
6.3.1 How do transformers operate? ..................................................................................................39
6.4 Construction .............................................................................................................41
6.5 Types of double-wound transformers ....................................................................41
6.5.1 Voltage equation........................................................................................................................47
6.5.2 Magnetising in-rush current .......................................................................................................49
6.6 Winding connections ...............................................................................................50
6.6.1 Three phase transformer connections.......................................................................................50
6.7 Losses within a transformer....................................................................................53
6.8 Transformer rating....................................................................................................53
6.9 Parallel Operation .....................................................................................................54
6.10 Conditions for Parallel Operation ...........................................................................55
6.11 Temperature monitoring devices ............................................................................56
6.11.1 Winding temperature measurement ..........................................................................................56
6.11.2 Operating principle of temperature monitoring device...............................................................58
6.11.3 Oil temperature measurement...................................................................................................58
Page 3 of 128
6.11.4 Electronic winding/oil temperature monitor................................................................................59
6.11.5 Oil and gas devices ...................................................................................................................60
6.11.6 Buchholz relay ...........................................................................................................................60
6.11.7 Tank pressure devices...............................................................................................................64
6.12 Distribution Components.........................................................................................67
6.13 Transmission ............................................................................................................70
6.13.1 Transmission System Voltages .................................................................................................70
6.13.2 Form of the Transmission System.............................................................................................70
6.13.3 Transmission Lines....................................................................................................................71
6.13.4 Cables........................................................................................................................................71
6.13.5 Tower Types ..............................................................................................................................71
6.14 Corona .......................................................................................................................74
6.15 Pollution ....................................................................................................................74
6.16 Lightning ...................................................................................................................75
6.17 Guard Rings ..............................................................................................................75
7. STEAM TURBINE COMPONENTS ................................................................77
7.1 Classification of Turbines........................................................................................77
7.1.1 Type of flow ...............................................................................................................................77
7.1.2 Cylinder Arrangement................................................................................................................78
7.2 Types of blading .......................................................................................................80
7.2.1 Impulse Blading .........................................................................................................................80
7.2.2 Velocity Compounding...............................................................................................................82
7.2.3 Pressure Compounding .............................................................................................................83
7.2.4 Combination of Pressure and Velocity Compounding...............................................................85
7.2.5 Reaction Blading........................................................................................................................85
7.3 Turbine Nozzle Plates or Diaphragms ....................................................................87
7.3.1 Nozzle Plate...............................................................................................................................87
7.4 Components of a Turbine ........................................................................................91
7.5 Turbine Cylinder(s)...................................................................................................91
7.5.1 Casing flanges ...........................................................................................................................96
7.6 Turbine Rotor ............................................................................................................98
7.6.1 Forged Steel Drum Rotor ..........................................................................................................98
7.6.2 Solid Forged Rotor.....................................................................................................................99
7.6.3 Disc Rotor ............................................................................................................................... 100
7.7 Turbine Blade Fixing ..............................................................................................102
7.7.1 Groove Construction............................................................................................................... 103
7.7.2 Straddle Construction ............................................................................................................. 104
7.7.3 Rivet Construction .................................................................................................................. 106
7.7.4 Peripheral Blade Fixing........................................................................................................... 106
7.8 Bearings ..................................................................................................................109
7.9 Journal Bearings ....................................................................................................109
7.9.1 Journal Bearing Vibration Monitoring ..................................................................................... 111
7.10 Thrust Bearings ......................................................................................................112
7.11 Components of a Lubricating Oil System ............................................................114
7.12 Main Oil Tank ..........................................................................................................114
7.13 Vapour Extraction Fans .........................................................................................116
7.14 Oil Pumps ................................................................................................................116
7.15 Oil Pressure Accumulators....................................................................................117
7.16 Jacking Oil Pump....................................................................................................117
7.17 Lubricating Oil Coolers ..........................................................................................117
7.17.1 Preparation of Oil Coolers for Service .................................................................................... 118
7.18 Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers.....................................................................119
7.18.1 Duplex Filters.......................................................................................................................... 119
7.18.2 Auto-Klean Strainers............................................................................................................... 120
7.18.3 Bearing In-line Strainers ......................................................................................................... 121
7.19 Side-stream Oil Purification System.....................................................................122
7.19.1 Oil Centrifuge.......................................................................................................................... 122
7.19.2 Turbine Oil Filter/ Coalescing System .................................................................................... 124
Page 4 of 128
8. CONDENSER ...............................................................................................125
8.1 Function of the Condenser ....................................................................................125
9. HP AUXILIARY BOILER ..............................................................................127
9.1 Fuel system .............................................................................................................127
9.2 Main components of the HP auxiliary boiler ........................................................127
9.3 Draft system ............................................................................................................127
10. DESALINATION PLANT ..............................................................................128
Page 5 of 128
Introduction of Jebel Ali Power Desalination

Project Station “L” Phase II
1. Introduction
Jebel Ali Power Desalination Project Station “L” Phase II consists
of the following plant configuration:
• 4 x Siemens type V94.3A ECONOPAC gas turbines

connected to an electrical generator capable of 256 MVA or
200 MW (at 0.8pf).
The gas turbines are capable of operation in a simple
cycle (exhausting to atmosphere) or combined cycle
operation (exhausting to a heat recovery steam
generator).
Operation of the gas turbines can be achieved on fuel
oil (FO) or liquefied natural gas (LNG)
• 2 x M30-40 type steam turbines each connected to a

generator capable of 256 MVA or 200 MW (at 0.8pf).
The steam turbines are closed Rankin cycle operation.
With the combined output from the four (4) gas turbines and two
(2) steam turbines the total station output is 1200 MW.
Also attached to the station are:

• 4 x Heat recovery steam generators (HRSG)
The HRSG,s supply steam at a pressure of 104 Bar
and temperature of 563.9oC to two (2) steam turbines.
Each HRSG is capable of being taken out of service by
operation of the diverter damper which bypasses the
exhaust gasses from the gas turbine directly to
atmosphere via the bypass stack.
• 4 x multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination units each with a

total net capacity of 55 million gallons (imperial) of potable
water per day.
The plant just mentioned is controlled by a DCIS is ABB Pro

Control 40.
Page 6 of 128
2. Simple and combined cycle operation

2.1 Simple cycle
Simple cycle operation refers to the operation of the gas turbines
where they exhaust directly to atmosphere. Efficiency of
operation of the plant in this configuration is reduced with this
type of operation.
For simple cycle operation the diverter damper associated with

each HRSG is positioned in the bypass mode allowing the
exhaust gases from the gas turbine to discharge directly to
atmosphere without passing through the HRSG.
NOTE: The gas turbine can be operated on either FO or LNG in

this mode.
2.2 Combined cycle

Combined cycle operation refers to the operation of the gas
turbines where they exhaust through a HRSG before exhausting
to atmosphere. The advantage of this mode of operation is that
additional heat energy is recovered from the exhaust which
converts water into steam to drive a steam turbine. While
operating the plant in this configuration the efficiency can be
improved to approximately 63%.
To further aid efficiency and increase pressure and temperature

of the steam supplied to the turbine a system of duct firing is
installed. This system is installed in the ductwork after the
diverter damper and before the HRSG.
Page 7 of 128
3. Gas turbine
3.1.1 General Description
The gas turbine is supplied as a complete package including a
dedicated turbine control system. The set uses natural gas or
distillate as a fuel. Detailed descriptions following refer to one
GTG set only, as being typical. The generator is direct coupled to
compressor end of the gas turbine.
The model V94.3A combustion turbine is a single-shaft machine

of single casing design.
3.1.2 Main components of a gas turbine are:
Inlet Duct and Silencer

The inlet duct runs from the filter to the compressor; it is lined
with special material and fitted with baffles to reduce the
acoustic impact of gas turbine noise, in particular the basic
compressor tone.
Exhaust
Has expansion joints and silencer. To a by-pass stack via diverter
damper for simple cycle operation. For normal operation or closed
cycle operation the by-pass damper directs the exhaust gas
through the HRSG.
Compressor Stage, including Inlet Guide Vanes

The axial flow multi-stage compressor contains a set of stator and
rotor blades; air trapped between the blades is compressed in the
successive stages. Air from the final stage is used as combustion
air for mixing with the fuel gas/oil in the combustor chambers.
Air is also drawn at intermediate stages of the compressor for
other purposes.
A set of axial, variable pitch inlet guide vanes (IGV) automatically

control the air intake and hence total compressor flow. They have
an operating range of about 340 to 860. The guide vanes operate
under hydraulic control from the turbine control system. The
guide vanes modulate during start-up and acceleration, during
loading and unloading of the generator and during shutdown.
Page 8 of 128
Combustor
The combustion chambers are arranged circumferentially around
the compressor discharge. Combustion air from the compressor
enters the combustors and mixes with the injected fuel gas/oil.
Ignitors (spark plugs) on several chambers ignite the mix and the
flame is conveyed to the other chambers via crossfire tubes.
Transition pieces, aligned with the liners, direct the hot gases to
the turbine section.
Flame failure detectors trip the fuel supply if a number of

detectors sense no flame during a firing regime in which there
should be flame in the relevant combustion zone.
Turbine Stage
Each of the turbine stages consists of a row of fixed nozzles

directed at a row of shaft-mounted turbine buckets. Within each
nozzle jet, the kinetic energy of the hot gas flow is increased (with
an associated pressure drop); a portion of this kinetic energy
impinging on the buckets is imparted as useful work on the rotor,
which in turn drives the generator.
3.1.3 Generator and Exciter
The Siemens/Westinghouse 200 MW, 20 kV, 0.8 power factor, 2-

pole, 50 HZ, 3-phase Y-connected generator has closed-circuit
cooling water system.
The closed cooling system is maintained within temperature by

passing heat produced by the gas turbine generator via four (4)
fin-fan coolers
Cooling.
The generator cooling is provided by shaft-mounted fans which

force air through the gap between rotor and stator and through the
stator core. The air is then cooled by water tube coolers.
Lubrication
Two pedestal bearings draw lubricating oil from the main turbine
lube oil system.
Page 9 of 128
Excitation
AC electric power is created by electric conductors 'cutting' a

magnetic field to induce an electric current in the conductors
in a rotating machine.
The magnetic field is created by passing DC through the rotor
(field) windings, making it into an electromagnet; as the turbine
drives the rotor, the magnetic field 'cuts' the stator windings and
generates the output.
The level of excitation also determines the output voltage of the

generator. Thus automatic voltage control, to maintain generator
output voltage regardless of load variations, can be exercised
through the excitation system. An automatic voltage regulator AVR
compares generator output voltage with a set reference and adjusts
the excitation to correct the output voltage.
Ratchet system operation depends on the required function:
• During cooldown, the main turbine control system runs the

ratchet mechanism through regular power/return cycles.
• At start-up, the ratchet mechanism is run continuously, until
the turbine shaft reaches breakaway speed.
• Provision is made for manual turning in an emergency or for
maintenance requirements.
Starting
Starting is achieved by reverse feeding of electrical energy from
station supply to accelerate the generator as a motor until the gas
turbine starts. Once the gas turbine has started this reverse feed
ceases and the generator is set –up for normal synchronising and
operation.
Lubricating Oil System
Lube oil is held in the main lube oil tank at basement level
adjacent to the GTG. The main lube oil pump delivers oil from the
tank to the lube oil coolers and then the gas turbine and
generator.
Fire Protection
All compartments of the gas turbine are covered by carbon

dioxide (CO2 ) fire protection,CO2 protection extinguishes fires by
reducing the oxygen content of air from its normal 21% to less
than 15%, which is insufficient to support combustion.
Page 10 of 128
WARNING: CO2 will not support combustion and it will not

support life. It is extremely hazardous to enter a compartment
after CO2 release.
Page 11 of 128
4. Heat Recovery Steam Generator Components

Each heat recovery steam generator is capable of supplying:
• steam flow of 118 kg/s
• steam temperature of 563.9oC
• steam pressure of 104 bar
4.1 Main components of HRSG

Main components of a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG)
are:
• High and low pressure steam drums

• Deaerator
• Economiser
• Evaporators
• Superheaters
• Downcomers
• Header, interconnecting pipe work and valves
4.2 Duct burner system

Supplementary duct burner system consisting of low NOx
burners supplied with natural gas is also installed to achieve
higher HRSG outlet pressure and temperature to improve steam
turbine efficiency.
Each duct burner is fitted with a spark igniter and UV flame

scanners
Page 12 of 128
5. Basic generator components

5.1 Principle of Generators
The basic principle of a generator is a magnetic field and an
armature assembly with relative motion between the two. Either
the magnetic field or the armature may be rotated to produce the
electromotive force (emf). Electromotive force is the voltage
produced and is measured in volts.
In modern generators it is more practical to rotate the magnetic

field (known as the 'rotor') as it is smaller in size, has only two
sliprings and operates at a lower voltage therefore requiring less
electrical insulation. The armature assembly constructed of a
large magnetic iron core and windings (conductors) is the
stationary component of the generator and is called the 'stator'.
Small generators usually employ permanent magnets for the

magnetic field poles while high output generators will require
electromagnetic field poles. The electromagnetic field used in
power station generators is constructed of an iron core with
wound coils and when direct current (dc) is passed through the
coils a magnetic field is created within the iron core causing it to
become a magnet.
5.2 Electromagnetic induction

Voltage is induced in a conductor when there is relative motion
between that conductor and the lines of force of a magnetic field.
The voltage produced is referred to as electromotive force (emf)
and is the result of the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The production of an emf by electromagnetic means is the sole

purpose of a generator. To achieve this the foundations for the
generator design must be developed from the fundamental
principles of electromagnetic induction.
For the production of a voltage by electromagnetic means there

are three fundamental requirements:
• conductor/s available for a voltage to be induced in
• magnetic field within the locality of the conductor
• relative motion between the conductor and the magnetic
field.
Page 13 of 128
Figure 1 shows all three requirements for the production of an

emf.
Milli
N S voltmeter
+
Magnetic lines of flux
Figure 1: Conductor moving down through a magnetic field
5.3 The simple generator

There are two different designs for generators:
• rotating armature construction
• rotating field construction
Figure 2 shows the two different designs for the simple

generator. They are both single phase generators; three phase
generation will be discussed later in this module.
Page 14 of 128
Generator output
terminals
Sliprings
(2a) Rotating armature
(2b) Rotating field
Figure 2: Two designs for simple generator
Page 15 of 128
In Figure 2(a) the conductor loop is rotated through a magnetic

field cutting the magnetic lines of flux. In Figure 2(b) the
magnetic field is rotated within the stationary conductor loop
causing the magnetic lines of flux to be cut. With both designs
the emf is induced in the conductor loop.
Even though the simple rotating field type is the preferred

construction for power station generators the rotating armature
was the first implemented and we will use it to describe the
principles of electromagnetic induction.
5.3.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction through a rotating armature

When the conductor loop is rotated within the magnetic field of
the permanent magnet poles an emf is induced into that
conductor loop. A sliding electrical connection is provided in the
form of sliprings and carbon brushes to provide a path to and
from the external circuit. Individual sliprings are connected to
opposite sides of the conductor loop.
If we refer to Figure 2 and use Fleming's right-hand rule for
generators it can be shown that:
• instantaneous voltages of opposite polarity are induced
into opposite sides of the loop
• each side of the loop changes the polarity of the emfs
that are induced into each half cycle (180 degrees) of
rotation
• each side of the loop has the induced emf polarities
reversed each time they reverse the direction in which
they cut the magnetic flux
• each side of the loop changes the direction in which it
cuts the magnetic flux twice for each revolution – for
one half of the cycle it cuts the flux upwards while for
the other half it cuts the flux downward.
Note: The sum of the voltages induced into the loop is twice that
of a single conductor as the loop is essentially two conductors
connected in series, with the instantaneous voltage of each
conductor being of equal magnitude and of opposite polarity.
Page 16 of 128
5.4 Generator Construction

Although all generators work on the same principle their
construction has undergone many changes in an effort to
improve their reliability, efficiency and compactness
In this we will be covering the different types of construction

along with their advantages.
5.4.1 Rotor construction

The two most popular types of rotor construction for modern
generators are the:
• salient pole
• cylindrical (or non salient pole)
5.4.2 Salient pole construction

The salient pole type of construction is the most economical type
of construction and is used for slow speed generators (usually
500-1000rpm). Hydro-electric applications employ this type of
construction as well as small diesel generator installations.
The term salient refers to protruding. With this type of

construction a cylindrical cast iron or steel ring frame (boss)
with good magnetic properties has a shaft inserted through the
axis centre and bolted to the outer circumference of this boss are
solid pole shoes. Coils are wound around these pole shoes to
form the completed pole. Each pole is separated from the
adjacent pole and has its own field winding. All the pole
windings are connected in series with every second one being
reverse connected so as to give alternate north and south poles.
An end on view of a salient pole rotor is shown in Figure 3 while
a side view is shown in Figure 5
If you refer to Figure 4 you can see that the pole faces of a
salient pole rotor are shaped so that the air gap is reduced at the
pole centre while being larger at the pole tips. This method of
construction produces a stronger magnetic field at the centre of
the pole which assists in inducing a sinusoidal waveform.
Page 17 of 128
Cylindrical Pole shoe

cast iron or
steel ring
frame
Sliprings
Pole winding
Rotor shaft
Figure 3: Salient pole rotor
Pole shoe
Pole winding
Line of stator Air gap
Figure 4: Pole shoe with winding
Page 18 of 128
Pole shoe
Pole winding
Rotor shaft
Sliprings
Figure 5: Side view of salient pole rotor
The number of poles actually installed around the circumference

of the boss will depend on the speed of the machine and the
frequency required.
Example:
A generator is to operate at 375rpm supplying a 50Hz system.
Calculate the number of poles required to be installed onto the
rotor.
The equation for calculation of frequency, speed or number of
poles is:
nP
f=
60
Where: f = frequency (HZ)
n = rotor speed (rpm)
P = number of pairs of poles
By transposing the equation to make 'P' the principle we get:
60 f
P=
n
60 × 50
=
375
= 8 pairs of poles (or 16 poles)
Page 19 of 128
5.4.3 Cylindrical construction

Steam turbines operate with greater efficiency when operated at
higher speeds. Unfortunately the salient pole type of
construction is unsuitable for this high speed operation due to
greater centrifugal force associated with its large diameter.
This requirement for a high speed rotor that could handle the
greater centrifugal forces led to the introduction of a small
diameter cylindrical rotor. As the diameter of the rotor was
reduced the length of the rotor had to be increased to maintain
the same electrical output.
This cylindrical rotor is constructed as a single forged alloy steel

casting into which are machined deep axial slots. These axial
slots run the entire length of the rotor and accommodate the
rotor windings. A diagram of a rotor forging without any winding
conductors is shown in Figure 6.
The winding conductors usually made up of continuous copper

strip are insulated and formed into a number of oblong frames of
suitable dimensions. Once formed they are laid into the
machined slots and then retaining wedges or dovetail keys are
driven in from either end to prevent the winding from exiting the
shaft when subjected to centrifugal force. Figure 7 shows an
enlarged view of a single machined slot with the winding
conductor inserted and the retaining wedge installed.
Once the conductors are installed connections to complete the

winding are carried out at each end with the start and finish
tails being brought out to the sliprings. A cylindrical rotor with
rotor windings installed is shown in Figure 8.
Page 20 of 128
Rotor shaft
Machined slots
Cooling holes
Rotor forging
Figure 6: Cylindrical rotor forging
Rotor forging
Wedge
Insulation
Conductor
Figure 7: Rotor machined slot with conductor and retaining wedge inserted
Page 21 of 128
Connections to
sliprings
Wedges installed in
machined slots
Rotor winding
Figure 8: Cylindrical rotor with rotor winding installed
The rotor windings are suitably supported within the rotors

machined slots by the retaining wedges but the section of
winding that protrudes each end of the rotor forging need also to
be supported. This is achieved by the shrink fitting of retaining
end covers or more commonly called end bells. These end bells
are normally manufactured from non-magnetic alloy steel and
during operation are subjected to high stresses. Dovetail groves
are often machined into the ends of these end shields for the
provision of counterweights. A rotor showing the end bells
installed is shown in Figure 9.
Page 22 of 128
End bells
Figure 9: Cylindrical rotor with end bells fitted
Apart from the rotor being constructed of the forging, windings

and end bells it also has a shaft with a series of stepped
diameters to accommodate:
• hydrogen (or air) blowers
• journal surfaces for gas seals
• coupling for turbine drive and exciter drive shaft
• sliprings
• journal surfaces for bearings
Page 23 of 128
Rotor conductors Magnetic lines

of flux
Air gap
Rotor N
• U
• U
• U
• U
• U
• U
• U
• U
• U
S
Stator conductors
Stator iron
Figure 10: Magnetic flux path through generator
5.4.4 Rotor cooling

Heat is generated in the windings of the rotor as the dc
excitation current flows through the conductors. This heat must
be removed because of the temperature limits imposed by the
insulating material surrounding these conductors. For this
reason and to achieve a high output with a relatively compact
machine a forced cooling system is adopted. This forced cooling
system may employ air for small output generators or hydrogen
for larger generators.
Whether the cooling medium is air or hydrogen the heat

extraction process is the same. Cooled air/hydrogen is forced
around the outer surface of the rotor as well as through the
holes machined in the rotor casting and end bells. These cooling
holes can be seen in Figure 6, Figure 8 and Figure 9.
Page 24 of 128
Fan blades installed on the shaft or at the outer ends of the end
bells force the cooled air/hydrogen through the rotor where it
absorbs heat. The cooling air/hydrogen is then ducted to coolers
where the unwanted heat is extracted before it is once again
passed through and around the rotor.
5.4.5 Rotor excitation

The excitation system is the means we use to regulate the
voltage output of the generator. When a generator is connected
to a large electricity grid and operating in parallel with a number
of other generators a variation in the excitation which causes an
increase or decrease in rotor field current causing a change in
MVar or reactive power output of the generator. Provided normal
excitation conditions are established the megawatt or real power
output of a generator is entirely dependent on the input power to
the steam turbine (i.e. steam conditions)
Excitation current is regulated to maintain a generator terminal

voltage to suit power distribution system requirements under
changing conditions.
The excitation system consists of any or all of the following

components:
• Pilot exciter (high frequency generator)
• Automatic voltage regulator AVR
• Automatic excitation regular (AER)
• Rectifier/s
• Main exciter
• Excitation transformer
• Sliprings
• Rotor field
All these components will be covered later. In this section we will

only give an overview description.
The excitation system starts with the pilot exciter which usually
has a permanent magnet rotor. In some cases the pilot exciter
Page 25 of 128
has an electromagnet type rotor which is excited with dc from
the station batteries.
The pilot exciter is connected to the same shaft as the main

exciter and generator and this can be seen in Figure 11. This
common shaft is rotated at 3000 rpm for 50Hz output and 3600
rpm for 60Hz output.
The electrical current produced by the pilot exciter is passed

through the automatic voltage regulator (AVR). The AVR
regulates the input excitation to the main exciter depending on
generator output demands. Output from the main exciter is then
rectified prior to being passed through the sliprings and into the
rotor windings.
The AVR is installed in the system immediately after the pilot

exciter as lower currents are present at this location and
therefore permitting the AVR to be a cheaper and more compact
unit.
Rectifier
Generator
Sliprings
AVR
Main
Exciter
Generator
Pilot
Exciter
Main Exciter
Sliprings
Figure 11: Simplified diagram of excitation system
Page 26 of 128
5.4.6 Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

The AVR is the device that regulates the terminal voltage of the
generator. It can be operated in manual control (not
recommended and only used in emergency) and fully automatic
control (preferred mode).
There are a number of different methods employed to carry out

the function of the AVR but the result is the same for each case.
A simplified method of operation is shown in Figure 12.
The operating principle of the AVR shown in Figure 12 is as

follows:
The electrical output from the pilot exciter is firstly rectified. It is

then passed through the resistance bank and beam balance to
the positive slipring of the main exciter. The negative slipring is
connected directly back to the pilot exciter.
As the terminal voltage of the generator increases the voltage

sensed by the VT increases. This causes the current flowing
through the beam balance operating coil also to increase. With
this increase in current in the operating coil the magnetic
strength increases and attracts the beam balance towards it. As
this happens the contacts on the beam balance move in a
clockwise direction to the next terminal thus increasing the
resistance in the circuit to the main exciter sliprings. This
causes a reduction in excitation strength to the main exciter and
then the generator rotor, which, in turn, reduces the generator
terminal voltage. Conversely if the generator terminal voltage
falls the operating coil has less magnetic attraction and the
beam balance moves in an anti-clockwise direction under the
influence of the spring attached to the beam balance. The causes
the beam balance contacts to move to the next terminal and
reduce the resistance in the circuit. With this reduction in
circuit resistance the circuit current increases causing an
increase in excitation in the main exciter and generator rotor
causing the generator terminal voltage to rise.
After either an increase or decrease the system will find a point

of equilibrium and remain at that point unless the generator
terminal voltage is changed by system requirements or
adjustment of the set point.
Page 27 of 128
The set point for generator voltage is adjusted on this system is
by rotating the knurled knob to either increase or decrease
spring tension on the beam balance.
This explanation of how an AVR operates is an exceptionally

simple one and is not used on modern generators but the
principle is the same. Modern AVRs are fully electronic and have
increased features and redundancy incorporated into them for
greater reliability.
Voltage
Transformer
Operating
Knurled
Coil Knob
Terminal Spring
Beam balance
Contact
Resistors Flexible
lead
Pivot Point
Rectifier
Main
Exciter
Generator
Pilot
Exciter
Main Exciter
Sliprings
Figure 12: Simplified AVR
A later trend in excitation control is to eliminate the pilot exciter

and main exciter completely and substitute these with a static
excitation system consisting of an excitation transformer,
automatic excitation regulator (AER), pulse amplifier (PA) and
thyristor rectifier. A simplified diagram of this system is shown
in Figure 13.
Page 28 of 128
Voltage
Transformer
Excitation
Transformer
Generator
Circuit Breaker
AER
Generator
Sliprings
PA
Thyrister Generator
Rectifier
Figure 13: Simplified diagram of an automatic excitation regulator
The advantage of this system is that it is cheaper and has no

moving part; but the disadvantage with is that excitation power
must come from the electrical grid and therefore black start
ability is not available.
5.4.7 Brushless excitation

Some generator manufacturers offer a brushless excitation
system. A diagram of this system is shown in Figure 14 and a
description of operation follows.
With brushless excitation the pilot exciter is a normal permanent

magnet rotor construction. The AVR is installed in the same
location as for slipring construction but the main exciter is
constructed with the main field as the stator and a three phase
wound rotor. Installed in the shaft is a set of rectifiers that
supply the generator rotor with dc excitation.
Page 29 of 128
Rectifier
AVR
Generator Rotor
Pilot
Generator
Exciter
Main Exciter
Rotor
Figure 14: Brushless excitation
5.5 Stator construction

The stator of a large modern generator is constructed of three
main components:
• Outer frame
• Iron core
• Windings
5.5.1 Outer frame

The outer frame is of welded steel plate construction. It is rolled
and welded to form a cylindrical shape and is gas tight.
Depending on whether the generator is either hydrogen or air
cooled will determine the actual construction strength. For air
cooled generators a lighter construction is employed as this type
of generator only operates slightly above atmospheric pressure
where as a hydrogen cooled generator operates at 300-400kPa
above atmospheric pressure. The construction technique is the
same for both only more robust for hydrogen cooled generators
to accommodate the greater pressure. A diagram of an alternator
stator is shown in Figure 15.
Page 30 of 128
Figure 15: Outer frame of generator
Page 31 of 128
5.5.2 Iron core

The iron core contains the stator windings (conductors) and is of
laminated construction. A number of thin (approximately
0.5mm) high quality silicon steel laminations are assembled
together to form a segment. Many segments separated by
spacers (to allow for cooling) are then tightly clamped together
with end plates to complete this iron core. The clamping end
plates are of a non-magnetic construction so as not to become
part of the flux path.
Attachment of the iron core to the outer frame is by means of

spring plates. These spring plates dampen out frequency
vibrations generated in the iron core being transmitted to the
outer frame.
5.5.3 Windings
Insulated stator conductors are tightly packed into the
longitudinal slots of the laminated iron core and secured with
wedges. Overhanging coil ends are lashed down with insulating
material to insulating blocks bolted to the iron core end plates.
Both ends of each phase of the stator windings are brought out
to the generator terminals, which can be situated on either the
top or bottom of the outer casing (depending on manufacturer).
Three of these terminals form the three phase conductors that
connect to the generator transformer. The other three terminals
are connected together to form the neutral or star point of the
generator.
The stator conductors are formed into a coil to make up each

phase and can be either solid construction (low output
generators) or of the hollow tube construction (high output
generators). A solid type construction is shown in Figure 16
while a hollow tube type is shown in Figure 17.
Page 32 of 128
Lamination
Wedge
Insulation
Solid
Conductor
Figure 16: Solid stator conductor
Lamination
Wedge
Insulation
Hollow Tube
Conductor
Figure 17: Hollow tube type stator conductor
The benefit of a hollow tube type conductor is that a cooling fluid

can be passed through the centre of the individual conductor to
remove unwanted heat. With this type of construction the
physical size of the generator can be greatly reduced whilst
maintaining the megawatt output.
Page 33 of 128
5.6 Bearings and lubrication

The rotor shaft is supported by two white metal journal bearings
similar to that used on the turbine rotors. These horizontally
mounted bearings are of a split type construction and bolted to
the endplates of the outer casing. All joints are gas tight and the
bearings are insulated to stop the flow of induced shaft current
through the bearing surfaces. If these induced shaft currents
were allowed to flow through the bearing faces they would be
extensively damaged by pitting caused by electrical arcing.
Lubricating oil for the bearings is supplied from the turbine

lubricating oil system and jacking oil systems. For more
information about these systems refer to the turbine manual of
this series.
Prior to placing the generator and turbine on turning gear the

rotor must be lifted by the jacking oil system to create a layer of
oil sufficient to prevent any contact between the white metal
bearings and the rotor shaft. For more information about this
system refer to the turbine manual of this series.
The exciter and pilot exciter bearings also receive lubricating oil
from the turbine lubricating oil system but are not supplied with
jacking oil due to their significantly lighter construction.
Page 34 of 128
6. Power Transformation and Distribution

Components
6.1 Introduction to Transformers
This first section, as well as further sections of this module, will
discuss the double-wound transformer.
A Transformer consists basically of two coils wound on an iron

core. A transformer may be used either to increase or to
decrease an applied voltage.
Since transformers enable voltage levels to be changed for

efficient transfer of electrical energy, transformers are used
widely in the electrical and electronic industries. They are also
valuable in providing electrical isolation and coupling in specific
applications.
A transformer is a static alternating current (ac) machine. That

is, it is without moving parts and operates on the principle of
mutual induction.
6.2 Applications
Transformers - including autotransformers - are used in a
variety of applications. Some of these are listed below.
Double-wound transformers
• transmit and distribute electrical energy (to transmit
electrical energy cheaply we need high voltages; power
transformers provide this high voltage).
• reduce voltages for direct current (dc) power supplies
• provide magnetic coupling and impedance matching in
electronic circuits between amplifier stages
• connect instruments to high voltage and current circuits
• supply extra voltage to low voltage equipment.
Autotransfomers
• supply voltage to ac motor starting circuits.
Page 35 of 128
• distribution system applications
• variable voltage applications
6.2.1 Step-up and step-down transformers

In those applications listed above, the transformers
(autotransformers included) can be one of two types:
• step-up type
• step-down type
Step-up transformers
Output voltage level is higher than the input voltage level
Step-down transformers
Output voltage level is lower than the input voltage level.
Note: The input to any transformer is always referred to as the

primary and the output from any transformer is known as the
secondary.
6.2.2 Double-wound transformers

As we said in the introduction, the transformer that we will
discuss in the first sections of this module is the double-wound
transformer (not the autotransformer).
Double-wound transformers, like any other type of transformer

can be step-up or step-down.
They are called double-wound transformers because they have

two electrically isolated windings or coils. The only connection
between the two windings is that of a magnetic coupling by
mutual induction.
Before we go on to studying mutual induction, to refresh your

memory, here are brief explanations of the term.
Page 36 of 128
Induction
When a magnetic field or an electrical charge in a material is
established as a result of its being close to a magnetic field or
electrical charge.
Mutual induction
The inductance effect caused by the magnetic coupling of two or
more inductors.
6.2.3 Mutual inductance

A change in magnitude or direction of the current in coil ‘A’
(shown in Figure 18) will produce two effects.
These effects are:
Faraday's Law
A voltage is produced within a coil when it moves in a magnetic
field.
If we refer to Figure 18 and apply Faraday’s law; then an

electromotive force (emf) is induced in coil ‘A’ with this change in
magnitude or direction of the current. This is due to Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction.
Lenz's Law
This emf of self-induction will oppose the change in accordance
with Lenz's law.
An induced emf (electromotive force) in an inductor acts to

oppose the cause that produced it.
Page 37 of 128
Coil Coil
‘A’ ‘B’
Figure 18: Symbol for two coils constructed on an iron core
The changing magnetic flux produced by coil ‘A’ will link with the
turns of coil ‘B’ and induce an emf into that coil.
In each turn of coil ‘B’, this emf of mutual induction has the
same magnitude and direction as the emf of self-induction in
each turn of coil ‘A’.
The magnetic joining or coupling between the two coils is called

mutual inductance.
If you place the two coils close together or on a common iron

core, you will dramatically improve the efficiency of the magnetic
coupling (flux linkage).
Mutual inductance, therefore, depends on:

• how permeable the common core is and
• the number of turns in each coil.
It does not depend on which of the two coils produces the flux.
Page 38 of 128
6.3 Principle of Operation
6.3.1 How do transformers operate?

Two windings are electrically isolated but are linked because of
mutual induction.
An alternating emf applied to the primary winding will cause an

alternating current in this winding. The magnetic flux that
results is also alternating and is concentrated in the iron core to
create a strong magnetic field around the core.
The windings are arranged to give the tightest possible flux

linkage and to minimise leakage flux. Each windings emf is
sinusoidal and the same frequency as the supply due to the
nature of the core flux which is common to both.
No-Load operation:
When the secondary winding is open circuit (no-load) a small
amount of current is present in the primary. This is due to the
difference between the applied emf and the emf of self-induction
(often referred to as magnetising current).
This no-load primary current:

• creates sufficient magnetic flux to induce the no-load
voltage in the secondary.
• lags the applied emf by almost 90° due to the highly
inductive nature of the primary circuit
Loaded operation:
When a load is connected to the secondary winding then current
will be present in this winding. This secondary current will
create flux that opposes the original flux and thus reduces the
overall core flux.
Primary winding emf of self-induction will therefore decrease and

create an increase in the difference between itself and the
applied emf.
Page 39 of 128
Primary current will therefore increase and maintain reasonably
constant core flux and induced emfs for all load conditions.
Page 40 of 128
6.4 Construction
Transformers must be constructed to ensure minimal leakage
flux and maximum mutual induction.
To achieve this the two transformer windings are mounted on a

common iron core. The core is usually laminated. The
laminations are thin, high grade silicon steel sheets coated with
an insulating varnish then clamped together with windings
arranged to reduce leakage flux and ensure maximum mutual
induction.
6.5 Types of double-wound transformers

Three common types of double-wound transformer:
• core
• shell
• toroid
Winding arrangement
Core type
Figure 19 shows a Core type transformer in which the two
windings are mounted on separate legs of the core. Figure 20
shows a simplified diagram of a core type transformer.
Page 41 of 128
Figure 19: Core type transformer
Page 42 of 128
Changing magnetic flux Φ
Primary coil
ac
supply Induced emf
Secondary coil
Figure 20: Simplified diagram of a core transformer
Shell type
Figure 21 shows a shell type transformer in which the two
windings are mounted on the same leg and then surrounded by
the remainder of the core. Figure 22 shows a simplified diagram
of a shell type transformer.
Page 43 of 128
Figure 21: Shell type transformer
Changing magnetic flux Φ
ac Primary
supply coil
Induced
emf
Secondary
coil
Page 44 of 128
Figure 22: Simplified diagram of a shell type transformer
Page 45 of 128
Toroid type
Toroid (or toroidal) transformers are wound around a circular
core as shown in Figure 23. Toroid transformers are slightly
more efficient than core or shell type construction but more
involved winding procedures are required and initial cost to
construct is more expensive.
Secondary winding
Primary winding
Iron core
Figure 23: Simplified toroid type transformer
A common method of winding toroid type transformers is to wind

one of the windings around the complete iron core multiple
times and then wind the second winding directly over the top.
Insulation is inserted between iron core and windings.
Page 46 of 128
6.5.1 Voltage equation

Transformation ratios for an ideal transformer can be written as:
V1 = N1 = I2
V 2 N2 I1
Where: V1 = voltage of the primary

V2 = voltage of the secondary
N1 = number of turns on the primary
N2 = number of turns on the secondary
I1 = current flowing in the primary
I2 = current flowing in the secondary
This can be written as:
V1 = N1 or V1 = I2 or N1 = I2
V 2 N2 V 2 I1 N2 I1
Example
An ideal single-phase transformer has 100 turns on the primary
winding, and twenty-eight turns on the secondary winding.
When connected to a 240 volts 50 hertz supply, the current in
the load on the secondary is 1.8 amperes. Determine:
a) the secondary voltage
b) the primary current
Solution
It is always beneficial to draw the circuit diagram. This is shown
in Figure 24.
Page 47 of 128
I1 I2
240V
V1 N1 = 100 N2 = 28 V2
50Hz
Figure 24: Transformer circuit diagram
Now find a): Secondary voltage
V1 = N1
V 2 N2
Transpose the equation to make V2 the principle.
V2 = V1 N2
N1
240× 28
V2 =
100
V2 = 67.2 volts
Now find b): Primary current
N1 = I2
N2 I1
Page 48 of 128
Transpose the equation to make I1 the principle.
I1 = I2 N2
N1
1.8 × 28
I1 =
100
I1 = 0.5 amperes
That is, the secondary voltage is 67.2 volts and the primary
current in 0.5 amperes.
6.5.2 Magnetising in-rush current

The Magnetising In-Rush Current is a momentary surge of
current in the Primary Winding when energising a transformer.
This current surge occurs while the reflective (or back) emf of the
transformer windings and magnetic flux in the transformer core
is being established. Its magnitude can exceed full load current.
The magnitude of the inrush currents depends upon two factors:

• At what point the voltage sine wave is at the instant of
energisation.
• The amount of residual magnetism in the transformer core.
Neither of the above can be determined at the instant of

switching the transformer into service but what can be assured
is that the secondary is under no-load conditions (open
circuited). If the secondary is connected to a load the
combination of inrush current and secondary current may be
sufficient to cause damage to the transformer.
Page 49 of 128
6.6 Winding connections

A practical transformer may have a variety of primary and/or
secondary tappings.
Primary winding tappings:

Allow for voltage drop compensation in transmission and
distribution systems.
Secondary winding tappings

Are used to provide several secondary voltages.
6.6.1 Three phase transformer connections

There are three types of winding that are common in three-phase
transformers: Star, shown in Figure 25; Delta shown in Figure
26 and Interstar (Zigzag) shown in Figure 27. You may also
encounter other winding arrangements such as six and twelve-
phase types but these are outside the scope of this module.
A1 A1
A2
B1 C1
B2
C2
B1
C1
Figure 25: Star connected transformer with voltage phasor
Page 50 of 128
C2 A1
A1
C1 B1
C1 A2
B2 B1
Figure 26: Delta connected transformer with voltage phasor
A
A
Page 51 of 128
Figure 27: Interstar connected transformer with voltage phasor
Page 52 of 128
6.7 Losses within a transformer

Losses within a transformer fall into two categories:
• Copper losses
• Iron losses
Copper losses
Copper losses are a result of the resistance of the copper
windings themselves. Copper losses vary dependant on
transformer load. Maximum losses occur at rated full load of the
transformer.
Iron losses
Iron losses fall into two categories:
• Hysteresis loss
• Eddy current loss
Hyseresis loss is a component of setting up the magnetic field

within the iron core while eddy current loss is the effect of
circulating currents due to a voltage being induced into the iron
core.
Both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss occur at any stage
from no-load to full load. Also, both are due to the common core
flux. The common core flux is practically constant for all load
variations. This being the case, both hysteresis losses and eddy
current losses are constant for all load conditions.
The combination of these two losses is known as the iron losses

of the transformer.
6.8 Transformer rating

The output rating of a transformer is always given as an
apparent power in volt amperes; that is VA, kVA or MVA. This
means that at the rated output voltage, the maximum output
current is given from the apparent power equation:
S = V L IL
Page 53 of 128
Where:
S = Apparent power
V L = Line voltage
IL = Line current
Transposing:
VL
IL =
S
This is true regardless of the power factor of the load. The

question arises: Why do manufacturers rate transformers in
apparent power? The answer is quite simple.
Manufacturers have no control over the power factor of the load

during operation. If, for example, the power factor is unity then
the true power will equal the apparent power. However, if the
power factor is 0.5, then the true power will be half the apparent
power, for the same load current!
As manufacturers do have control over the maximum current,

they rate the output in terms of the maximum current. Rating
the transformer by its apparent power output is an appropriate
way for this to be expressed.
6.9 Parallel Operation

As we have said in the previous sections, power supplies are
rated in their apparent power output-not real power. These ratings
are in either in:
• volt/amperes (VA)
• kilo volt/amperes (kVA) or
• mega volt/amperes (MVA).
A rating sets the maximum current that can be drawn from the
supply, regardless of the power factor of the load.
Page 54 of 128
Sometimes load requirements exceed available supply. To
overcome this problem, we need to operate power supplies that
is, transformers-in parallel.
6.10 Conditions for Parallel Operation

Operating transformers in parallel is very common in the
transmission and distribution of energy throughout the world.
When transformers are operated in parallel, there are certain

conditions that must be met. These conditions are:
• Transformer ratios must be identical.

If transformer ratios are not identical, then output
voltages will be different, causing currents to flow
between the transformers. These currents flowing
between transformers are known as circulating
currents.
• Polarities must be correct.

If the polarities are not correct, large circulating
currents may be set up.
• The load characteristics must be similar.

That is, the voltage output variations that occur with
changes in loads must be the same. If these variations
are different, again there may have circulating currents.
The above conditions are particular to the actual construction

and installation of the transformer but additional requirement
that are under the control of the operator must be satisfied.
These requirements are:
• Terminal voltages need to be the same
If they are not the same then circulating currents can
occur with the possibility of overheating both
transformers.
• Terminal frequency must be same
Page 55 of 128
This is particularly important when synchronising a
generator through a generator transformer to the
system.
• Phase relationship must be the same

Once again this is particularly important when
synchronising a generator through a generator
transformer to the system.
6.11 Temperature monitoring devices

Thermal protection devices are designed to initiate an alarm or alarm and trip
of a power transformer for an excessive rise in oil or winding temperature due
to load conditions or the effects of sludging of the insulating oil. Sludging of
the insulating oil occurs when it is subjected to high temperatures when in
contact with air and moisture. The greater the temperature and the greater the
area of oil exposed, the greater the sludge formation.
The rate of sludge formation approximately doubles for each 80C increase in
temperature.
6.11.1 Winding temperature measurement

The winding temperature monitoring device shown in Figure 28 consists of a
temperature detector bulb connected via a capillary tube to a bourdon tube.
The bourdon tube is connected via mechanical linkages to a pointer which
displays the temperature on a meter face. This pointer is often connected to a
number of electrical contacts that can be set to various temperatures. At these
preset temperatures the contacts can initiate the starting/stopping of cooling
fans, starting/stopping of oil pumps, initiate high temperature warning alarm
or trip the transformer circuit breakers.
For this type of device to accurately measure winding temperature the

temperature detector bulb is inserted into a pocket in the uppermost section of
the transformer tank. This thin walled pocket is surrounded by a heating coil
which is supplied from a current transformer enclosed in the transformer
tank. The output from the current transformer is directly proportional to the
load on the transformer. This type of temperature monitoring is very rapid in
response to load changes on the transformer.
The pocket the temperature detector bulb is inserted into may or may not
contain insulating oil. Majority of transformers do not contain insulating oil
but it is always a good idea to check the specifications set down by the
transformer manufacturer.
Page 56 of 128
Figure 28: Bourdon tube type temperature monitor
Page 57 of 128
6.11.2 Operating principle of temperature monitoring device

Figure 28 shows a pocket immersed in the transformer tank. As this heats up
it causes the temperature detector bulb inserted into it to also heat up. The
mercury within the temperature detector bulb expands causing a pressure
increase. This pressure increase is passed down the capillary tube to the
bourdon tube. The bourdon tube when subjected to an increased pressure
tries to straighten out. As the bourdon tube unfolds it operates the linkage
connected to the indicator disc.
The indicator disc has a pointer attached to it that reads actual temperature
on a temperature scale. As the actual temperature pointer increases up the
scale it pushes before it a maximum temperature indicator. When the
temperature decreases the maximum temperature indicator remains at the
point of maximum temperature.
Attached to the indicator disc are a number of mercury switches that can be
preset to operate at different temperatures.
This type of temperature monitoring is very reliable and completely self

contained thus requiring no external power supply for operation.
6.11.3 Oil temperature measurement

The oil temperature monitor is usually identical to that of the winding
temperature monitor. The difference is that the temperature detector bulb may
be in direct contact with the oil or inserted into a pocket (filled with oil) similar
to that of the winding temperature monitor. The pocket in this instance does
not have a heating coil wrapped around it thus only relying on the
temperature of the oil for indication.
The disadvantage with this type of temperature monitoring is that the

transformer windings may be in overload condition for some time before the oil
temperature monitor detects this situation. If the transformer is subjected to
short term overload conditions this type of monitoring fails to detect this and
the maximum temperature indicator will give false readings. If this condition
persists undetected the transformer is more likely to failure due to
deteriorating insulation.
The fact that oil temperature monitoring is slow to react to winding

temperature changes makes this type of monitoring less preferred when
planning transformer overload protection schemes.
The advantage of this type of monitoring is where high ambient temperatures

exist or where it is necessary to keep a check on the cooling system of the
transformer. In this instance the temperature detector bulb may be installed
Page 58 of 128
in the return line from the cooling system thus giving early warning of cooling
system failure.
6.11.4 Electronic winding/oil temperature monitor

A relatively new system is in some circumstances replacing the winding and oil
temperature monitors. This system has a temperature sensitive resistor
inserted into the transformer tank pocket instead of the temperature detector
bulb. This temperature sensitive resistor is wired into a bridge configuration of
an electronic circuit. The variation in resistance of the temperature sensitive
resistance is detected by the circuit and operates such devices as fans, oil
pumps, alarms and tripping circuits. The temperature is also indicated on a
digital display which can be located locally, remote or both.
Photographs of a transformer tank fitted with winding and oil temperature

indicators is shown in Figure 29 and Figure 30.
Figure 29: Transformer Tank with winding and oil temperature monitors
fitted
Page 59 of 128
Figure 30: Transformer Tank with winding and oil temperature monitors
fitted
6.11.5 Oil and gas devices
6.11.6 Buchholz relay

As an insulation breakdown slowly develops in a transformers winding it tend
to produce gas from the oil or a disturbance in the oil. The detection of such
gas or disturbance is used as a means of protection for a power transformer
and this is achieved by the use of a Buchholz relay. Smaller transformers are
sometime fitted with a pressure or surge relay.
Figure 31 shows a sectional view of a typical Buchholz relay, and the method
of mounting it in the oil pipe line between the transformer main tank and the
conservator as shown in Figure 32 and Figure 33. The pipework from the
conservator tank and the transformer tank is usually on a gradient of
Page 60 of 128
approximately 00 to 100. This gradient ensures proper oil flow into the
transformer tank and correct operation of the low oil level trip (if fitted).
Accumulating gas caused by an insulation breakdown is trapped in the upper

part of the main chamber of the Buchholz relay. This displaces the oil so that
the float tilts causing the contacts in the mercury switch to close. This
condition does not call for immediate isolation of the transformer. Note, air
bubbles in the oi1 circulation of a healthy transformer may also operate the
float (particularly after an oil change). For these reasons the closing of the
contacts of the mercury switch only initiate an alarm. This float is also
suitable for detecting low oil level.
When a major fault occurs in the transformer tank there is a rapid build up of
pressure and this causes a large movement of oil from the transformer tank to
the conservator and this actuates the trip vane. The contacts of the trip vane
mercury switch are connected to the tripping circuit which isolates the
transformer.
If a transformer is producing gas and suspected of developing a fault the

accumulated gas from the Buchholz relay can be collected and sent for
analysis.
The analysis will determine not only if a fault is developing but what type of
fault.
Page 61 of 128
Figure 31: Sectional view of a typical Buchholz relay showing signal and
trip floats as if the relay filled with oil
The lower float can also initiate a "low oil level" trip. The Buchholz relay is
constructed in such a manner that with the screw inserted into the weir
sufficient oil is trapped in the relay to prevent the lower float from operating
due to low oil level. With the screw removed the low oil level trip is available.
In addition to the feature in the previous paragraph some Buchholz relays

have calibrated glass inspection windows to permit visual inspection of the
colour and quantity of accumulated gas in the relay. This inspection window is
not normally fitted where a ground level gas receiver is installed. The gas
receiver is connected to the top of the Buchholz relay via a small tube. A small
isolating valve called a petcock is installed on the receiver to allow a sample of
gas to be taken without the need to climb the transformer. On smaller
transformers the petcock is installed on the Buchholz relay and the need for a
ground level receiver is not required.
Some Buchholz relays have a drain plug to allow the relay to be drained of oil
during routine testing. If a drain plug is not installed often a plunger is fitted
to allow operation of the trip float during this routine testing. Another type of
trip testing is via an air injection nozzle which is directed at the tripping vane
to test its sensitivity.
Page 62 of 128
Figure 32: Diagram showing buchholz relay
Page 63 of 128
Figure 33: Location of Buchholz between conservator tank and main tank
6.11.7 Tank pressure devices

There are two types of tank pressure devices.
• Gas impulse relay
• Fault pressure relay
Both use a diaphragm for their operation and are installed on the main or tap
changer tank (or both) to detect a rise in internal pressure due to a fault
condition.
Gas impulse relay

This type is either a combined breather/pressure relief or just as a pressure
relief as shown in Figure 34. Both versions are installed above the oil level.
Under normal conditions the relay acts as a breather, but if the transformer
internal pressure exceeds a predetermined rate a diaphragm operates and
initiates a set of contacts connected to an alarm or trip circuit. A flag indicator
is often installed on this type of relay.
Page 64 of 128
Figure 34: Gas impulse relay
Page 65 of 128
Fault pressure relay

This type of relay shown in Figure 35 acts in a similar manner to the gas
impulse type except that it does not act as a breather and oil pressure acts
directly on the device. For this relay to operate correctly it is installed via a
pipe directly to the transformer or tap changer compartment.
Figure 35: Fault pressure relay
Page 66 of 128
6.12 Distribution Components

Power Stations are usually located near fuel sources and the
energy is then carried at high voltage via a transmission system
to the load centres. There, it is reduced to suitable voltages for
final distribution and utilisation.
In this and subsequent sections we will look at the part of the

system that carries the electrical energy from the power station
to the final consumer.
The overall system is divided into several parts, as shown in,

Figure 36, and each part is briefly described following.
Page 67 of 128
Figure 36 A Transmission System Diagram
Intro to the Turbine Version (a) October 2005 Page 68 of 128

© TechComm Simulation Pty Ltd
Generation
The term generation refers to the conversion of energy derived
from a natural resource, i.e. falling water (hydro), wind, solar
and the combustion of coal or biomass to produce electrical
energy.
Transmission
This is the transport (or transmission) of large quantities of
electrical energy over long distances at high voltage from the
power stations to bulk supply points near the major load
centres. Refer Figure 36.
Distribution
This is the transfer of smaller amounts of electrical energy over
relatively short distances from major bulk supply points to the
final consumer at reducing voltages. Refer Figure 36.
Utilisation
This is the use of the electrical energy by the final consumer,
usually at low voltage, and converted to other forms such as
light, heat and mechanical effort. Refer Figure 36.
Subtransmission
In this subdivision of the system, blocks of power are
transmitted point to point over moderate distances at the lower
transmission voltages. It is usually considered as part of the
transmission system. Refer Figure 36.
Page 69 of 128
6.13 Transmission
The aims of a transmission system are:
• to maintain supply to consumers at all times
• to maintain voltage stability at the consumers' terminals
• to maintain frequency stability at the consumers'
terminals
• to supply energy at an economical price
• to maintain high safety standards
• to protect the environment.
When electric current flows in a conductor there is a power loss

equal to I2R watts where I is the current in the conductor in
amperes and R is the conductor resistance in ohms. This loss
can be minimised by having a low value of current.
With an ac system the voltage at which the energy is generated

can be transformed to a higher value with a corresponding
reduction in current. So by using the highest voltages for
transmission the currents can be relatively low and the I2R
losses minimised.
In this way it is more economical to generate the energy at the

fuel source and transmit it to the load centres electrically, than
to transport the fuel from its source to the load centres by rail
and road, as was done in the past.
6.13.1 Transmission System Voltages

The common voltages used in transmission systems around the
world are: 500 kV, 400 kV, 330 kV, 275 kV, 220 kV, 132 kV and
66 kV
6.13.2 Form of the Transmission System

The transmission system connects to the output of power
stations and transports the energy via an interconnected system
of overhead lines and underground cables known as the grid.
Overhead lines are predominantly used because of the high cost
of underground cables by comparison. At transmission voltages
Page 70 of 128
the cost of an underground cable system may be up to 25 times
the cost of an overhead line system of the same power capacity.
6.13.3 Transmission Lines

These consist of one or more conductors per phase (three
phases). The conductors are supported by insulators fixed to
supporting structures so that the spacing between the
conductors and the supporting structures, and between the
conductors and ground or buildings, is maintained at minimum
safety and statutory standards. The size and type of insulator,
the spacing, and the height of supporting structures is
determined in relation to the voltage used. The conductor size is
determined by the current capacity required.
6.13.4 Cables
Cables consist of conductors of the required sizes encased in an
insulation structure determined by the voltage used. They are
laid mostly underground in tunnels, ducts, or trenches.
6.13.5 Tower Types

Figure 37 and Figure 38 show typical types of overhead line
towers in use.
Page 71 of 128
Figure 37: Typical high voltage transmission towers (400kV)
Page 72 of 128
Figure 38: Range of Typical Structures Used by Energy Authorities
Page 73 of 128
6.14 Corona
A problem associated with small diameter cables and small
radius points at very high voltages is known as corona. The
voltage stress (potential gradient) is greatest at the surface of the
conductor. Its magnitude is (approximately) inversely
proportional to the diameter of the conductor (or radius of the
surface) and proportional to the voltage. A combination of small
diameter and high voltage leads to a high voltage stress.
When the stress exceeds the breakdown strength of air

(approximately 30 kV/cm at normal atmospheric pressure), the
air adjacent to the conductor surface becomes ionised and
conducts. This creates a thin sheath of conducting air around
the conductor accompanied by an aurora, or glow, which
pulsates at line frequency. This electrical discharge absorbs
energy and reduces line efficiency. It also radiates an electric
field which interferes with communication circuits (eg TV and
radio transmissions). Corona also occurs at other points such as
the shackles and clamps that attach the conductor to the
insulator string where there are sharp corners. The electric
stress (kV/cm) is very high at these points.
In order to eliminate the occurrence of corona at the surface of

the conductors, combinations of cables known as bundled
conductors are used. Although the diameter of individual cables
is small, when used in a bundled arrangement the consequent
voltage stress is reduced, corresponding to that of a conductor of
large diameter. The individual cables are placed at the corners of
a square. The required separation between the cables is
maintained by separators placed at intervals along the line.
The problem of sharp corners is solved by using corona, or

guard, rings. These are smooth metal rings or loops which are
connected to the line conductors. They are designed to reduce
the electric stress to make it uniform at the surface of the ring,
surrounding the clamps and other sharp edges, and providing
an electrostatic shield around them.
6.15 Pollution
Atmospheric pollution can have a serious effect on the
performance of insulators. Dusts, acids, salts, and other
pollutants in the atmosphere settle on insulators and affect their
insulating properties. Lines near the sea or adjacent to large
Page 74 of 128
bodies of salt water are particularly vulnerable. If the polluting
material remains dry it may not be significant, but if dampened
by fog, mist or light rain, it can then become conductive, causing
surface currents to flow across the insulator, and may lead to
flashover. With heavy rain and a suitable insulator shape the
insulators may be washed clean. Sometimes manual or
automatic washing procedures are necessary.
In some cases special insulators with extra length and/or

increased surface leakage (or creepage) distance are used to
reduce the probability of flashover.
6.16 Lightning
A serious problem that must be contended with is lightning. A
lightning strike on or near a line can produce voltages many
times the line voltage that may cause flashover and damage. Two
methods are used to minimise this problem:
Overhead ground wires (OHGW)
If you make the opportunity to observe 500 kV, 400 kV, 330
kV, or 132 kV lines you will observe additional conductors
strung above the main phase conductors fixed to the towers
or poles without insulators. These wires are connected
directly to the grounded tower structure.
Tower grounding
It is essential that towers are effectively grounded, ie
connected to the general mass of earth by the lowest
practicable resistance. This may be achieved by deep driven
earthing stakes, buried earthing conductors etc.
The combination of these two methods provides a protective area

under the ground wires for the main conductors. If lightning
strikes a ground wire a large impulse current will flow to ground
via a tower (or towers) but the voltage rise of the tower will be
contained to an acceptable value.
6.17 Guard Rings

The disc insulator essentially comprises two pieces of metal
separated by an insulating medium, and thus acts like a
capacitor. The string insulator consists of a number of disc
insulators in series and so may be represented electrically by the
same number of capacitances in series.
Page 75 of 128
Were there no other capacitances to consider, the voltage across

each disc would be the line-to-earth voltage divided by the
number of discs, ie a uniform voltage distribution. However, life
is never that simple! Along with the capacitance of the disc itself,
the metal links joining the discs have stray capacitances to the
earthed tower structure and also to the line conductor. The
combination of these capacitances causes the voltage
distribution across the string to be non uniform. Those discs
that are nearer the line conductor take more than their quota of
voltage while those further away less than their quota. If
uncorrected this would require those discs nearer the conductor
(or all discs) to have a higher voltage withstand rating, or an
increase in the number of discs in the string, compared with
having a uniform voltage distribution.
To correct this situation, the stray capacitance to the line

conductor may be increased to offset those to the earthed tower
structure (approximately at least) so as to restore, as nearly as
practicable, uniform voltage distribution. The means of doing
this is the guard ring, a smooth ring shaped conductor which is
connected electrically to the line conductor and encircles the
insulator string at the line end of the string.
Since the guard ring is located at the line-conductor end of the

string, it performs the function described here and also acts as a
corona ring.
Page 76 of 128
7. Steam Turbine Components

7.1 Classification of Turbines
Turbines are classified as to the:
• Type of flow (axial or radial)
• Cylinder arrangement (number of cylinders; whether
single, tandem or cross-compound in design)
• Type of blading (impulse or reaction)
7.1.1 Type of flow

Turbine construction is either of the radial or axial flow design.
With a radial flow turbine the steam flows outward from the
centre of the casing through stages of blading. Figure 39
shows the principle of a radial flow turbine.
Figure 39: Radial Flow Turbine
The radial turbine is not normally the preferred choice for

electricity generation and is usually only employed for small
output applications.
Page 77 of 128
Axial flow turbines have the steam flow through the turbine in a
parallel direction to the turbine shaft. Figure 40 shows
an axial flow turbine.
Figure 40: Axial Flow Turbine
The axial flow type of turbine is the most preferred for electricity
generation as several cylinders can be easily coupled together to
achieve a turbine with a greater output.
7.1.2 Cylinder Arrangement

Turbines can be arranged either single cylinder or multi-stage in
design. The multi-stage can be either velocity, pressure or
velocity-pressure compounded (more about this later).
Single Cylinder Construction

Single cylinder turbines have only one cylinder casing (although
may be is multiple sections). Steam enters at the high pressure
section of the turbine and passes through the turbine to the low
pressure end of the turbine then exhausts to the condenser.
Figure 40 shows a single cylinder turbine with a high,
intermediate and low pressure section contained within the one
cylinder casing.
Page 78 of 128
Tandem Construction
Dictated by practical design and manufacturers considerations
modern turbines are manufactured in multiple sections also
called cylinders. Greater output and efficiency can be achieved
by coupling a number of individual cylinders together in what is
referred to as tandem (on one axis). A tandem two cylinder
turbine with a single flow high pressure (HP) cylinder and a
double flow low pressure (LP) cylinder is shown in Figure
41.
Steam from
boiler HP Rotor LP Rotor
Exhaust steam to
condenser
Figure 41: Tandem Two Cylinder Turbine
You will notice that the turbine shown in Figure 41 has

what is referred to as a double flow LP cylinder. The steam
enters the centre of the double flow cylinder and then divides
and flows to opposite ends of the cylinder where it exhausts to
the condenser. This type of arrangement provides sufficient
cross sectional area for the large volume of low pressure steam.
If a single flow design was employed an excessively large
diameter cylinder would be required. With the double flow design
the length of the blades are significantly reduced thus
simplifying the construction while reducing the centrifugal force
on the rotor. In addition the double flow arrangement balances
out axial thrust on the rotor.
Page 79 of 128
7.2 Types of blading

The heat energy contained within the steam that passes through
a turbine must be converted into mechanical energy. How this is
achieved depends on the shape of the turbine blades. The two
basic blade designs are:
• Impulse
• Reaction
7.2.1 Impulse Blading

In a single stage impulse turbine the steam is expanded to the
required pressure in fixed diaphragm nozzles thus producing
high velocity steam.
The expanded, accelerated steam is then directed onto the
moving blades transferring its kinetic energy to the blades. The
velocity of the steam (relative to the moving blades) as it leaves
the blades should be zero; indicating that no further energy may
be transferred to the moving blades.
The characteristic features of an impulse turbine are:
• All the pressure drop of the steam occurs in the fixed
nozzles
• No pressure drop occurs over the moving blades, ie. there
is no pressure difference between the two sides of a row of
moving blades (with this feature there is little tendency
for steam to leak past the moving blades)
Figure 42 shows a section of impulse type blading.
Force
Steam Steam
IN OUT
Leading edge
Figure 42: Section of an Impulse Turbine Blade
Page 80 of 128
A cross section of a single stage impulse turbine is illustrated in

Figure 43. The drop in pressure across the nozzles and the
velocity change across the moving blades are also shown in
Figure 43.
Live steam Exhaust steam

entering leaving
Fixed Casing
Nozzles Rotor
Shaft Moving
blades
Motion
Steam flows
Section
N B
P
V
VL
PC
P – pressure of steam entering turbine
V – velocity of steam entering turbine
N – nozzle (fixed blade)
B – blades (moving)
PC – condenser pressure
VL – velocity of steam leaving turbine
Figure 43: Cross Section of an Impulse Blade Stage
Page 81 of 128
7.2.2 Velocity Compounding
When the velocity energy produced by one set of fixed nozzles is
unable to be efficiently converted into rotational motion by one
set of moving blades then it is common to install a series of
blades as shown in Figure 44. This arrangement is known as
velocity compounding.
Fixed
blades

entering leaving
Fixed Casing
Nozzles
Moving
Shaft blades
Rotor
Motion Motion
Steam flows
Section
B B B
N Moving Fixed Moving
P
V
VL
PC
B – blades (moving and fixed)
PC – Condenser pressure
Figure 44: Velocity Compounded Impulse Turbine
Page 82 of 128
Figure 44 shows the arrangement of a velocity compounded
impulse turbine giving a section of the blading corresponding to
a graph of pressure and velocity as the steam flows through the
turbine.
As the steam flows through the fixed nozzles its pressure drops
as its velocity is increased. It then enters the first row of moving
blades where the kinetic energy of the steam is transferred to the
moving blades forcing them to rotate. The steam pressure
remains the same but the velocity decreases as it travels across
the blades. The steam then enters the intermediate fixed blades
which are installed in the cylinder between each row of moving
blades. These fixed blades have no pressure or velocity drop
across them as they only change the steam direction towards the
next row of moving blades. The process continues through the
remaining sets of moving and fixed blades until the steam
exhausts the turbine.
7.2.3 Pressure Compounding

With pressure compounding the total steam pressure to exhaust
pressure is broken into several pressure drops through a series
of sets of nozzles and blades. Each set of one row of nozzles and
one row of moving blades is referred to as a stage.
Figure 45 shows a two stage pressure compounded impulse
turbine. The steam passes through the first set of nozzles where
it looses pressure as it gains velocity. It then passes across the
first row of moving blades where the steam velocity is reduced
while imparting rotational force. The steam then enters the
second row of fixed nozzles where it once again loses pressure as
its velocity is increased. It then passes across the second row of
moving blades where the steam velocity is reduced while
imparting additional rotational force. The second row of nozzles
(and any subsequent rows of nozzles) are installed on a
diaphragm. This diaphragm minimises any steam leakage
occurring around the nozzles due to the high pressure drop
across the nozzles.
When designing a steam turbine the actual number of stages
installed will depend on the total energy available and desired
blade speed.
Pressure staging is also known as RATEAU staging.
Page 83 of 128
Fixed
nozzle

entering leaving
Diaphragm
Casing
Moving
Shaft blades
Rotor
Motion Motion
Shaft gland
Fixed
Nozzles
Steam flows
Section
B B
N Moving N Moving
P
V
VL
PC
B – blades (moving and fixed)
Figure 45: Two Stage Pressure Impulse Turbine
Page 84 of 128
7.2.4 Combination of Pressure and Velocity Compounding

Most modern turbines have a combination of pressure and
velocity compounding. This type of arrangement provides a
smaller, shorter and cheaper turbine; but has a slight efficiency
trade off. Turbines using this arrangement are often referred to
as CURTIS turbines after the inventor. Individual pressure
stages (each with two or more velocity stages) are sometimes
called CURTIS stages.
7.2.5 Reaction Blading

The principle of a pure reaction turbine is that all the energy
contained within the steam is converted to mechanical energy by
reaction of steam as it expands through the blades of the rotor.
A section of reaction type blading is shown in Figure 46 while
Figure 47 shows a turbine section with pressure and velocity
relationship.
Force
Leading
edge
Steam
IN
Steam
OUT
Figure 46: Section of Reaction Turbine Blading
In practice it is impossible to achieve a pure reaction effect as

the steam already has velocity when it reaches the moving
blades. Therefore the steam on passing across the moving blades
imparts some impulse to the blades due to its change in
direction. The force developed by impulse compared with the
force developed by reaction will depend on the blade
speed/steam speed ratio.
Page 85 of 128
In a reaction turbine the steam expands when passing across
the fixed blades and incurs a pressure drop and an increase in
velocity. When passing across the moving blades the steam
incurs both a pressure drop and a decrease in velocity.
Exhaust steam
Live steam
leaving
entering
Fixed Casing
Nozzles Rotor
Shaft Moving
blades
Motion
Steam flows
Section
N B
P
V
VL
PC
N – nozzle (fixed)
B – blades (moving)
Figure 47: Turbine Section Showing Pressure and Velocity Relationship.
Page 86 of 128
7.3 Turbine Nozzle Plates or Diaphragms
7.3.1 Nozzle Plate

Nozzle plates are installed as the first row of fixed blades or
nozzles. A nozzle plate is constructed of three major
components:
• Nozzle segments
• Centre ring(s) or diaphragm
• Baffle strip gland (not required on double flow turbines)
A diagram of a nozzle plate is shown in Figure 48.
Nozzle Segments
Nozzle segments are shaped and positioned in the nozzle plate to
direct steam onto the rotating blades at the most effective angle
to gain maximum efficiency from the steam.
Centre Ring(s) or Diaphragm

Centre rings support the nozzle segments and are located in
groves machined into the cylinder casing. In most large turbines
the nozzle plates are in two halves. The top half of the nozzle
plate is installed into the top half of the turbine cylinder casing
while the bottom half is installed in the bottom half of the
turbine cylinder casing. This arrangement allows for easy
dismantling should maintenance be required.
Baffle Strip Gland

These are installed to prevent steam from bypassing the rotating
blades by passing around the outer tip of the rotating blades. A
diagram of a double flow turbine nozzle plate showing a baffle
strip is displayed in Figure 48.
Page 87 of 128
Figure 48: Nozzle Plate for Double Flow IP Cylinder
Page 88 of 128
Diaphragms
The function of a diaphragm is to contain the nozzle segments
and prevent pressure leakage along the rotor shaft to the next
lower pressure stage within the cylinder. A diagram of a
diaphragm is shown Figure 49.
A diaphragm is constructed of three major components:
• Nozzle segments
• Centre ring(s) or diaphragm
• Baffle strips
Nozzle Segments
Nozzle segments are shaped and positioned in the diaphragm so
to direct or redirect the steam onto the rotating blades at the
most effective angle to gain maximum efficiency from the steam.
Centre Ring(s) or Diaphragm

Centre rings support the nozzle segments and are located in
groves machined into the cylinder casing. In most large turbines
the diaphragms are in two halves. The top half of the diaphragm
is installed into the top turbine cylinder casing while the bottom
half is installed in the bottom half of the turbine cylinder casing.
This arrangement allows for easy dismantling should
maintenance be required.
Baffle Strip Gland

Baffle strip glands in this instance prevent steam pressure
leakage along the rotor shaft to the next lower pressure stage
within the cylinder. The baffle strip gland can be seen in Figure
49.
Page 89 of 128
Figure 49: IP Cylinder Diaphragm with Baffle Strips
Page 90 of 128
7.4 Components of a Turbine

We have up to now been talking about steam flow through a
turbine, the effects the steam has on the turbine blades and how
it forces them to rotate. It is now time to discuss the components
that go together to construct a complete and functional turbine.
As mentioned earlier most modern turbines are constructed of
multiple cylinder coupled together to achieve the desired output.
We will focus on this type of turbine construction in our
explanations. Smaller turbines are constructed using fewer
cylinders but their construction philosophy is the same.
The construction of a modern turbine employs the following
components:
• Turbine cylinder(s)
• Turbine rotor
• Turbine glands
• Bearings
• Lubricating oil system
• Turbine thrust
• Governor
• Condenser
• Air extraction equipment
• Circulating water system
• Turbine couplings
• Turbine turning gear
• Steam chest(s) (containing emergency and control valves)
• Drains
7.5 Turbine Cylinder(s)

The casings of turbine cylinders are of simple construction to
minimise any distortion due to temperature changes. They are
constructed in two halves (top and bottom) along a horizontal
joint so that the cylinder is easily opened for inspection and
maintenance. With the top cylinder casing removed the rotor can
also be easily withdrawn without interfering with the alignment
of the bearings.
Most turbines constructed today either have a double or partial
double casing on the high pressure (HP) and intermediate
Page 91 of 128
pressure (IP) cylinders. This arrangement subjects the outer
casing joint flanges, bolts and outer casing glands to lower
steam condition. This also makes it possible for reverse flow
within the cylinder and greatly reduces fabrication thickness as
pressure within the cylinder is distributed across two casings
instead of one. This reduced wall thickness also enables the
cylinder to respond more rapidly to changes in steam
temperature due to the reduced thermal mass.
A cutaway diagram of a HP cylinder is shown in Figure 50. The
HP cylinder is a single flow cylinder with steam entering the
inner casing, passing through the blading and then exhausting
to the outer casing before passing to the reheater.
Figure 51 shows a double flow IP cylinder. Steam enters the
centre of the cylinder where it divides into halves before passing
through blading and exhausting at each end of the cylinder.
Low pressure (LP) cylinders are manufactured of either cast iron
or fabricated steel and are shaped to allow smooth passage of
steam as it leaves the last row of blades and enters the
condenser that is usually situated directly below the LP
cylinder(s).
In larger turbines the increased volume of LP steam may require
double flow LP cylinders. In this cylinder style steam enters each
cylinder in the centre dividing into halves before passing through
blading and exhausting at each end of that cylinder. The
condenser (not shown) is installed directly below the LP cylinders
and receives the exhaust steam.
Page 92 of 128
Figure 50: Cutaway of a Single Flow HP Cylinder
Page 93 of 128
Figure 51: Cutaway of a Double Flow IP Cylinder
Page 94 of 128
Figure 52: Cutaway of Two Double Flow LP Cylinders
Page 95 of 128
In the HP, IP and LP cylinders casings are constructed, suitable

spaces or belts to provide exit apertures for bled steam used in
the LP and HP heaters.
7.5.1 Casing flanges

One method of joining the top and bottom halves of the cylinder
casing is by using flanges with machined holes. Bolts or studs
are insertion into these machined holes to hold the top and
bottom halves together. To prevent leakage from the joint
between the top flange and the bottom flange the joint faces are
accurately machined. A typical bolted flange joint is shown in
Figure 53.
Figure 53: Bolted Cylinder Joint
Bolted turbine flanges for a HP cylinder can be seen in Figure 50

while the IP cylinder and LP cylinders may be seen in Figure 51
and Figure 52 respectively.
The bolts or studs holding the flanges together must be

tightened to precise values to effectively maintain their integrity
once the cylinder is exposed to high temperatures. This is
achieved by using a bolt or stud with a hole drilled through the
Page 96 of 128
centre. A carbon heating rod is inserted into these holes in the
bolt or stud to heat the assembly during tensioning. This can be
seen in Figure 53.
Another method of joining the top and bottom cylinder flanges is
by clamps bolted radially around the outer of the cylinder. The
outer faces of the flanges are made wedge-shaped so that the
tighter the clamps are pulled the greater the pressure on the
joint faces. This method of joining top and bottom casings is
shown in Figure 54.
Figure 54: Clamped Cylinder Joints
With this method heating rods are insertion into the clamps
during the tensioning process. The holes for these heating rods
can also be seen in Figure 54.
Page 97 of 128
7.6 Turbine Rotor

As the name suggests the turbine rotor is the component of a
turbine that rotates. Most modern turbines operate at either
1800rpm when driving a 60Hz 4 pole generator, 3000rpm when
driving a 50Hz 2 pole generator or 3600rpm when driving a 60Hz
2 pole generator.
Special attention must be given to the construction of a turbine
rotor due to the centrifugal force generated by the high speed
operation.
Turbine rotors are constructed by the following methods:
• Forged steel drum rotor
• Solid forged rotor
• Disc rotor
• Shrunk and/or keyed to the shaft
• Welded construction
7.6.1 Forged Steel Drum Rotor

Drum rotors as they are commonly referred to are a single steel
forging for the high pressure steam inlet end rotor (drum) with
another separate forging for the exhaust end disc. After
machining the drum is shrunk onto the exhaust end disc forging
and secured by bolts and driven dowels. Grooves are machined
in the body of the drum to accommodate the blading. A diagram
of a drum rotor construction can be seen in Figure 55.
The drum type rotor has limitations in its application due to the
excessive stresses encountered if manufactured in large sizes.
For this reason its applications are limited to small machines or
the high pressure cylinder of multiple cylinder machines.
The main advantage of this type of construction is that there is
approximately the same mass of metal contained within the
rotor as in the cylinder casing. With their mass being almost
equal the same response to a change in temperature conditions
occurs for both the rotor and the casing. By having similar
response characteristics the internal working clearances can be
kept to a minimum thus improving efficiency.
Page 98 of 128
HP steam
inlet end Rotor
blades Driven
dowels
Exhaust
end shaft
and disc
Shrink
fit
Figure 55: Forged Steel Drum Rotor Construction
7.6.2 Solid Forged Rotor

Solid forged rotors have wheels and a shaft machined from one
single solid steel forging. This type of construction is extremely
rigid and eliminates the problems of looses wheels that other
types of construction can experience. Groves are machined into
the wheel rims to accommodate the necessary blading. A
diagram of a solid forged turbine rotor is shown in Figure
56.
Solid forged rotors of creep resistant alloy steel are
predominately used in the HP and IP cylinders employing
impulse type blading and the IP cylinder for reaction type
blading. The modern trend is to bore a hole through the entire
length of the shaft to permit inspection by video camera or other
viewing method. This hole through the centre of the shaft also
relieves stresses during the heat treatment process.
Gland rings are machined between the discs to align with the
diaphragm glands. The outer faces of the first and last discs
Page 99 of 128
have machined slots which allow the attachment of balance
weights
Figure 56: Solid Forged Turbine Rotor
7.6.3 Disc Rotor
Shrunk and/or Keyed to the Shaft

Construction of the disc rotor type is made up using a central
shaft with separately forged discs or wheels and the hubs of
these wheels shrunk and keyed onto the central shaft. The outer
rims of the wheels are suitably grooved to allow for fixing of the
blades. The central shaft is usually stepped so that the wheels
hubs can be easily threaded then pressed and shrunk or welded
into their correct position. A shrink fit disc rotor is shown in
Figure 57.
Suitable clearances are provided between the hubs to allow for
expansion axially along the line of the shaft.
Page 100 of 128

Blades
Locking
ring
Weight
Hole through
shaft
Rotor shaft
Wheel
Figure 57: Shrink Fit Disc Rotor
The disadvantage with this type of construction is that if the

rotor is subjected to a rapid temperature rise in excess of
manufacturers recommendation the wheels being much smaller
in mass than the shaft expand quicker and can become loose on
the shaft.
Disc rotor balance is achieved by adjusting the position of the
weights in a channel machined in the outer face of the first and
last disc. When the rotor is balanced the weights are locked in
position in the channel by grub screws.
Welded Construction
Welded rotors are assembled from a number of discs and two
shaft ends. The discs are joined together by welding at the
circumference. Figure 58 shows this type of construction prior to
Page 101 of 128

welding while Figure 59 shows the rotor after being welded and
the blading installed.
Disc
Figure 58: Rotor Showing Discs before Welding
Figure 59: Welded Rotor Construction after Assembly
7.7 Turbine Blade Fixing

Various root fixing shapes have been developed for turbine
blading to suit both construction requirements and conditions
Page 102 of 128

under which turbines operate. The most popular types of blade
root fixing available are:
• groove
• straddle
• rivet
7.7.1 Groove Construction

The groove type of root fixing fits into a machined grove around
the circumference of the rotor wheel or disc. Some examples of
typical groove type blade root designs are shown in
Figure 60 while a rotor disc with a machined groove
arrangement is shown in Figure 61.
Cut-off blade
section
Blade root
Annular Fir-tree Axial Fir-tree Inverted 'T'
Figure 60: Groove Type Root Fixing
Page 103 of 128

Closing
blade
window
Dowel
hole
Rotor
disc
Figure 61: Disc Periphery for Annular Fir-Tree Root Blades
Blade roots are installed through the closing blade window and
then slid around the circumference of the disc into their desired
position. The last blade root is installed in the closing blade
opening and secured in position by dowel(s).
7.7.2 Straddle Construction

Straddle construction is where the blade root fits over the
machining on the outer periphery of the rotor wheel or disc. An
example of straddle fir-tree blade root construction is shown in
Figure 62 while the disc peripheral machining is shown in Figure
63.
Page 104 of 128

Dowel
hole
Figure 62: Two Shoulder Straddle Fir-Tree Blade Root
Closing
blade
window
Figure 63: Disc Periphery Two Shoulder Fir-Tree Root Anchor
Once again with this type of construction the blade roots are
installed through the closing blade window slid around the
circumference of the disc into position, then the last blade
inserted is doweled in the closing blade window location.
Page 105 of 128

7.7.3 Rivet Construction

Rivet construction is where the blade root either inserts into a
groove or straddles the disc and all blades are doweled into
position.
7.7.4 Peripheral Blade Fixing

On larger blading where the blade length is relatively long a
system of lacing wire or shroud rings are installed to give the
blading additional support and reduce vibration.
The lacing wire is installed a small distance from the outer ends
of the blades while the shroud rings are fitted to tangs on the
outer edges of the blades and secured by peening the tangs. A
section of blading showing the installation of the lacing wire is
shown in Figure 64 while a section of blading showing shroud
ring installation is shown in Figure 65.
Overlap of lacing wire at start and finish
Lacing wire
Reaction blading
Figure 64: Blading Supported With Lacing Wire
Page 106 of 128

Shroud ring
Tang peened
over
Tang
Blades
Figure 65: Shroud Ring Installation
Often gland sealing is installed around the outer circumference

of the shroud ring to minimise pressure leakage around the
outer tips of the blades. A shrouding single baffle ring gland can
be seen in Figure 66 while a shrouding side baffle gland
can be seen in
Page 107 of 128

Casing
Gland
Figure 66: Shrouding Single Baffle Ring Gland
Casing
Gland
Figure 67: Shrouding Side Baffle Gland
Page 108 of 128

7.8 Bearings
Throughout the power industry, extensive use is made of
rotating machinery such as electric motors, pumps, fans, mills,
turbines and generators. In each of these machines the rotating
shaft is carried on a replaceable bearing surface. The replaceable
bearing surface (or bearing) is subject to wear and may be
removed and replaced after a finite period without sacrificing the
shaft itself or the bearing housing.
The forces exerted on a shaft are dependent on the function and
design of the machine and may be directed in either a radial or
axial plane relative to the shaft.
In order to prevent excessive shaft movement, which could allow
rotor components such as pump and fan impellers, motor and
generator windings and turbine blades to come in contact with
the stator or casing, bearings must be designed to transfer pure
radial loads, pure axial (or thrust) loads, or a combination of the
two, between the shaft and the bearing housing and, if
necessary, allow for shaft movement due to expansion and
contraction and shock loading.
A wide range of bearings is available for use within the industry.
7.9 Journal Bearings

The journal bearing is one of the most simple bearing forms.
A journal is that part of a shaft (or axle) carried by a bearing and
a journal bearing simply consists of a machined section of shaft,
(the journal) rotating inside a cylindrical bearing bush. The
space between the two is partially filled by a lubricating fluid.
At rest the journal rests on the bearing face, however, when the
shaft begins to rotate, lubricant must be supplied to the journal
to preventing direct contact between it and the bearing surface.
Journal bearings are sometimes called sleeve, Babbitt, or poured
bearings and may have bearing surfaces manufactured from a
number of different materials including Babbitt metal, carbon,
Teflon, brass or sintered brass alloys. Babbitt metal is most
commonly used for steam turbine and large pump and fan shaft
bearings.
Babbitt metal is an anti-friction metal first produced by Isaac
Babbitt in 1839, however, the term has come to apply to a whole
class of silver-white bearing metals, or "white metals” which
consist of relatively hard crystals embedded in a softer matrix, a
structure important for machine bearings.
Page 109 of 128

“White metals” are composed primarily of tin, copper, and
antimony, with traces of other metals added in some cases and
lead substituted for tin in others.
Journal bearings can only support a radial load and are most
commonly used in applications that require, or allow, a degree of
axial movement or expansion, such as experienced in steam
turbines.
Babbitted journal bearings come in two basic designs: plain
sleeve and tilting pad.
Plain journal bearings have a fixed geometry (no moving parts)
and consist of a horizontally split shell into which the bearing
metal is cast before being machined to conform to the shaft
contour.
Tilting pad bearings have Babbitted pads (or shoes) which fit into
the bearing shell and can tilt to accommodate the oil film
generated during rotation.
Plain Journal Bearing Tilting Pad Journal Bearing
Figure 68: Simplified diagram of Plain and Tilting Pad Journal Bearings
There are two major subcategories of tilt pad bearings: rocker

back and spherically seated (ball & socket).
Rocker back bearings have a pivot (a radius, rib, hardened
button, or some other pivoting mechanism) on the back of the
bearing pad. The pads are located in a precision-toleranced
outer shell.
Page 110 of 128

Figure 69: Tilting Pad Journal Bearing showing bearing shell, hardened
spherical button, front and rear of bearing pad and method of
mounting pads.
7.9.1 Journal Bearing Vibration Monitoring

A shaft supported by journal bearings will move relative to the
bearing housing as various forces are imposed onto the shaft,
however, the oil film tends to damp out, or attenuate, high
frequency vibration (such as may be experienced during
cavitation) making bearing case- mounted sensors ineffective in
identifying vibration.
Journal bearings can also have a significant effect on the
machine’s dynamic characteristics as the oil film acts as a
complicated set of springs and dampers and may be a major
factor in the vibration of turbo-machinery.
Instability caused by the oil film in journal bearings is called
non-synchronous whirl or oil whip.
In order to provide effective vibration monitoring of a journal
bearing, a non-contacting type vibration transducer, (also called
a displacement, eddy current, or proximity sensor) is required.
This type of sensor measures the relative vibration of the shaft
as well as the relative position of the shaft with respect to the
bearing clearances.
Page 111 of 128

7.10 Thrust Bearings
The function of a thrust bearing is to carry the axial thrust
imposed on a rotating (or stationary) shaft by such mechanisms
as:
• The mass of the rotating parts of a vertically mounted
machine (bowl type coal pulverising mills, pumps etc)
• The reaction forces associated with axial flow fan impellers
and turbine blading
Many types of rolling element bearings can be used to
accommodate pure axial thrust and a combination of axial and
radial forces, however, the most common thrust bearing used to
carry thrust loads in steam turbines is very similar to the tilting
pad journal bearing.
Two types of thrust bearing have received universal acceptance
in the power industry:
• The Mitchell type bearing (an Australian design) and
• The Kingsbury type bearing (an American design)
Kingsbury developed the principle and was granted a patent in
1910. A. G. M. Mitchell (an Australian) simultaneously and
independently invented a bearing on the same principle.
Both are similar in design, the load in both cases being carried
by a wedge-shaped oil film formed between a shaft thrust-collar
machined or fixed to the main shaft and a series of stationary
pivoted pads, or segments, located in a support ring (see Figure
70).
The bearing pads accept the axial thrust imposed on the shaft
through a thrust collar machined or fixed to the main shaft and
transmit it to the bearing pedestal.
As the tilting pads are capable of accepting thrust in one
direction only the thrust bearing is normally provided with a set
of tilting pads on both sides of the collar.
The thrust bearing pedestal becomes the fixed point on a multi-
cylinder turbine shaft and shaft expansion and contraction takes
place around this point.
Given that turbine shaft seals, fixed and rotating blading and
inter-stage seals have relatively fine clearances only a limited
amount of axial movement of the shaft can be tolerated.
The thrust bearing is therefore monitored for wear and excessive
movement is alarmed and initiates a turbine trip.
Page 112 of 128

Shaft Thrust Collar
Fixed Base Ring
Shaft
Levelling Plates
Pivot
Tilting Metal
Thrust Pad with
Oil Wedge Babbit Facing
Figure 70: Simplified Diagram Showing Components of Tilting Pad Thrust

Bearing
Figure 71: Kingsbury Thrust Bearing Showing Tilting Pads
Page 113 of 128

7.11 Components of a Lubricating Oil System

The Turbine Lubricating Oil System is the most complex
lubricating oil system within the power station, the majority of
lubricating oil systems associated with power station auxiliaries
(such as feed pumps and large fans) would include similar
components.
Typical components of a lubricating oil system include:
• Main Lubricating Oil Tank
• Vapour Extraction Fans
• Main, Auxiliary and Emergency Oil Pumps
• Oil Pressure Accumulators
• Jacking Oil Pump
• Lubricating Oil Coolers
• Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers
• Side-stream Oil Purification System
• Supply and return valving, fittings and pipework
• Monitoring and Protection Instrumentation
Figure 72 shows a typical arrangement of the components of a

turbine lubricating oil system.
7.12 Main Oil Tank

The main oil tank must have sufficient capacity to house the full
oil capacity of the system when the system is shutdown and
drained back to the tank. During normal operation however the
tank will be in the order of 65% full, the remainder of the oil
being in circulation within the system.
The Lubricating Oil Tank is normally provided with local and
remote level indication and low/high level alarms. A heating
element may be provided in some cases.
Oil from the turbine bearings (and other sources) is returned to
the tank through a settling chamber formed by a weir. The
return oil overflows the weir to return to the main body of the oil
tank. The side-stream purification system takes its suction from
the bottom of the settling chamber.
Page 114 of 128

To Seal Oil System Oil Pressure Switches

Oil Temperature
Lubricating Oil Header Transmitters
Shaft Bearings
Lubricating
Cooling Water
Oil Coolers with
In/Out
Bypass
Return Oil Sight Glasses

and Bearing Oil
Temperature Transmitters PCV
Accumulator
Oil Filters
Vapour Extraction with
Fans DP Alarm
Jacking DC Emergency AC Main Shaft Driven Main

Side-stream Oil Pump Oil Pump Oil Pump Oil Pump
purification System
Level
Weir Oil Heating Element Switch
Figure 72: Typical Arrangement of Turbine Lubricating Oil System
Introduction to the Turbine Version (a) October 2005 Page 115 of 128
7.13 Vapour Extraction Fans

A vapour extraction fan is installed on the Main Oil Tank to
remove oil vapour from within the tank and to provide a negative
pressure at the bearing pedestals. Maintaining the bearing
pedestals under a negative pressure prevents oil from leaking
from the pedestals and migrating along the shaft to hot turbine
components and turbine lagging. Several instances of oil fires
have been attributed to loss of a vapour extraction fan
immediately following a turbine trip and the subsequent
migration of oil along the shaft during turbine rundown.
To allow for loss of ac supply a standby dc extraction fan may be
provided or a valved bypass valve may allow the natural chimney
effect of the discharge pipework to maintain minimal suction
until supply is restored. The vapour extraction fans should be in
service while ever the lubricating oil system is in service.
The discharge of the vapour exhaust fan is often passed through
an oil demister to condense the oil vapour and return it to the
main oil tank.
7.14 Oil Pumps

There are many possible configurations of lubricating oil pumps
for turbines each being dependent on the degree of redundancy
demanded and economies of design. Typically a turbine will have
its oil supply met by a shaft driven oil pump, one or possibly two
AC Auxiliary oil pumps and a DC Emergency Oil pump.
Lubricating Oil Pumps are normally high volume low head
centrifugal pumps.
In addition to supplying normal lubrication needs for start-up,
running and shut-down of the turbine the lubricating oil system
may also supply the oil requirements for the Power and Governor
oil systems (stop and throttle valves), Seal oil system (hydrogen
sealing system) and Jacking Oil System (for lifting / floating the
turbine shaft prior to the turning gear being placed in-service).
Shaft driven oil pumps do not start delivering sufficient oil until
the turbine speed is above 2200 – 2500 rpm, therefore, AC
bearing oil pumps are required to supply turbine lubricating oil
during start-up until the turbine is close to rated speed and
during turbine shut-down (provided AC supply is available).
The Emergency DC Oil Pump is normally fed, through a non-
return valve, directly into the bearing oil system after the Main
Oil Filters and Coolers. This ensures that the discharge line of
Introduction to the Turbine Version (a) October 2005 Page 116 of 128
the emergency supply is free of valves, which could be
inadvertently closed. The DC Motor is normally not protected
from thermal overload.
Should the shaft driven oil pump fail (low pressure) the duty AC
bearing oil pump will automatically start. Should the AC bearing
oil pump fail or should the pressure continue falling the DC
Emergency oil pump will automatically start. The DC Pump
must be manually taken out of service once normal oil supply is
restored.
7.15 Oil Pressure Accumulators

Accumulators may be fitted to the Main Oil Pump discharge
manifold in systems, which have duty and standby electric main
oil pumps. The main function of the accumulators in this case is
to maintain the lubricating oil pressure in the main oil pump
discharge line above the trip set point for sufficient time to allow
the Standby Oil Pump to start, run up to speed and reach a
point at which its discharge pressure is above the trip setting.
7.16 Jacking Oil Pump

The function of a jacking oil pump is to provide initial
hydrostatic lubrication which lifts the turbine shaft clear of the
bearing surface and provides a lubricant interface during low
speed barring gear operation and until the shaft speed is
sufficient to establish hydrodynamic lubrication (an oil wedge).
Jacking oil is supplied to each shaft bearing through a dedicated
path through the bottom bearing pad.
Due to the high pressure required to lift, and sustain hydrostatic
lubrication to, the turbine shaft, Jacking Oil Pumps are normally
positive displacement type pumps. Typical pump discharge
pressures are in the range of 150 – 170 Bar.
7.17 Lubricating Oil Coolers

Friction is the primary cause of heat being generated in a
bearing. Dependent on the method of lubrication, heat is not
necessarily generated by friction between the bearing and shaft
surfaces but by a continuous shearing action between the
rotating layers of oil. In addition to friction, heat may also be
conducted along the shaft on machines such as steam turbines,
ID Fans, coal pulverisers and other auxiliary machinery
operating at elevated temperatures.
Page 117 of 128

Oil flows must be designed to ensure that sufficient lubricant
passes through the bearing pedestal to remove the heat
generated at the bearing and to maintain both the bearing and
bearing oil outlet temperatures below the level at which damage
may occur or deterioration of the oil begins. Steam turbine
bearing oil flows, for example, may be ten times greater than
that necessary to maintain normal hydrostatic/hydrodynamic
lubrication.
The heat absorbed by the oil is normally dissipated to
atmosphere through oil coolers designed to maintain an oil
temperature of approximately 40°C.
The heat exchangers may be water or air cooled with either two
100 % duty coolers or three 50 % coolers being provided for
redundancy. (For further information on Heat exchanger see
manual “Heat Exchangers - BOPMS/HE01”)
The temperature of the oil exiting the bearings is usually in the
range of 60 – 70°C and that of the oil exiting the coolers in the
range of 38 – 45°C.
The temperature of the oil leaving the cooler can be controlled by
either automatically regulating the flow of Cooling Water
supplied to the in service coolers or by maintaining a constant
coolant flow but by-passing a portion of the hot oil around the
coolers through a thermostatically controlled three-way
regulating valve.
7.17.1 Preparation of Oil Coolers for Service

Whenever the turbine is in service or rotating on turning gear,
extreme care must be taken when placing coolers in-service to
ensure the supply of lubricating oil to the bearings (and seals) is
not interrupted.
Out of service coolers must be fully primed and vented on the oil
side to remove any entrapped air in the cooler
(particularly after maintenance ) and be pressurised to full
working pressure before the cooler outlet valve is opened.
This not only prevents any interruption to oil flow but also
avoids any sudden reduction in operating pressure, which can
cause a turbine trip or bearing damage.
The Cooling Water side of the heat exchanger must also be
primed to prevent air locking when placing in-service.
Out of service oil coolers, when not isolated for maintenance, are
kept in stand-by mode in preparation for a quick return to
service if needed. In this mode both Oil and CW inlet valves
remain open with outlet valves closed. The coolers are fully
primed and at working pressure. It is common to maintain a
Page 118 of 128
small bleed flow through the out of service oil cooler to ensure
that the oil is close to normal operating temperature and
viscosity and available for immediate use if required.
7.18 Lubricating Oil Filters and Strainers

Filters and strainers are installed in main turbine lubricating oil
system and other large auxiliary drive lubricating oil systems to
remove solid contaminants and impurities.
The filters or strainers are normally duplicated to allow on line
change-over of the in-service strainer for cleaning or
maintenance, thus preventing down time.
The filter material is usually a fine wire mesh or for smaller
systems, adsorbent filter cartridges.
Differential pressure gauges and pressure switches provide local
indication of the filters cleanliness and remote alarming on high
DP.
Spring–loaded by-pass relief valves or commonly provided to
allow oil to bypass around blocked filters and so prevent an
interruption to the flow of oil.
7.18.1 Duplex Filters

Duplex filters consist of two independent filter cartridge
housings which allow parallel paths for the oil flow through a
ganged transfer valve.
This transfer valve allows each filter to be selected individually
and also, in the mid position, normally allows oil to flow to both
filters simultaneously.
A cross over and fill line is provided between the two filters. This
line should normally be open when the unit is in service and
both filters are available for service.
A continuous air vent line is provided on each filter. These lines
are required also required to be open whenever the filters are
available for service. Figure 73 shows a simplified diagram of a
typical valving arrangement for a duplex filter.
Page 119 of 128

Continuous Air Vent through Orifice

Plate to Main Oil Tank
Continuous Priming Line

with Orifice Plate
Filter Filter
Chamber Chamber
A B
Ganged Transfer Valve/s
Figure 73: Simplified Diagram of a Duplex Filter Valving Arrangement
By maintaining a flow of oil from the priming line through the

standby filter and exiting through the continuous air vent
(returning to the main oil tank) the standby filter remains full of
preheated oil at normal operating temperature and viscosity.
7.18.2 Auto-Klean Strainers

A common, proprietary brand filter, the Auto-Klean strainer is
shown in Figure 74
An Auto-klean strainer consists of stack of metal discs or
strainer plates separated by thin star shaped spacers, which
provide a gap between adjacent discs.
As the oil passes between the discs, solid matter larger in size
than the space between the discs remains upon the periphery of
the disc stack.
The advantage of an Auto-klean strainer is that it can be cleaned
in-service by simply rotating an externally mounted handle
connected to the strainer plates and as the strainer plates are
rotated the accumulated solids are scraped off by stationary
scraper plates and collect in the bottom of the filter casing.
Periodically the sludge well is drained to a waste oil tank to clean
out accumulated sludge and contaminants and as part of
Page 120 of 128

periodical maintenance the filter disc stack may be removed for
cleaning.
Auto-klean strainers can be supplied with modified disc stacks
capable of filtering out particles down to 25 microns in size.
Pressure gauges are fitted before and after the filter unit, to give
indication of the condition of the filter and alarm on a high DP.
Handwheel Rotates Disc Stack

against stationary cleaning blades
Sludge Well
Sludge Drain
Figure 74: Simplified Diagram of an Auto-Klean Strainer
7.18.3 Bearing In-line Strainers

In addition to the main oil filters each turbine bearing may be
provided with a strainer located within a retainer fitting. During
initial flushing of the lubricating oil system (during
commissioning or following a major outage) the strainers remain
in the retainers and are checked periodically to determine the
degree of contaminants being carried by the system. When it is
considered that the lubricating oil system is sufficiently clean,
the individual strainer may be removed and the rate of oil flow to
each bearing is adjusted to design setting.
Page 121 of 128

7.19 Side-stream Oil Purification System
The oil passing through the lubricating oil system is likely to
encounter a range of contaminants, ranging from water and air-
borne dusts to metal chips and detritus from wearing surfaces.
Deterioration of the oil itself through over heating, oxidisation
and carbonising may also result in the formation of sludge.
If given sufficient residence time and low flow velocities within
the main oil tank, water and solid contaminants will eventually
settle out of the oil, forming a layer of sludge and water at the
bottom of the oil tank below the oil.
Bacteria may also be present which live at the interface between
the oil and water, feeding of the hydrocarbons and creating a
multi-cell culture that forms a large organic blanket (similar to
cabbage leaves or seaweed).
Oil Tanks are normally provided with sight glasses and manual
drain cocks or valves to allow the level of oil to be monitored and
any water at the bottom of the tank to be identified and drained
off.
A separate sludge compartment or settling section is sometimes
provided at the point of entry of the oil return line to separate
the contaminated oil from healthy working oil.
Gravity separation alone is not an effective means of oil
purification as it cannot remove all impurities and additional
side-stream oil purification systems are usually employed to
clean the main turbine lubricating oil on a continuous or
intermittent cycle.
Typically side stream purification is done by:
• An Oil/Water Perforated Disc Type Centrifuge
• A Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescer System
7.19.1 Oil Centrifuge

An oil centrifuge operates on the principle of centrifugal forces
acting on the different densities of oil and water/impurities. In
much the same way as impurities separate out naturally by the
force of gravity. A centrifuge imparts rotating centrifugal forces
to speed up the separation process. Water and impurities,
because of their higher densities compared to oil will separate or
be thrown out from the oil in the centrifuge.
Operation
Centrifuges may operate on a continuous “on-line” basis or
intermittently “as necessary”.
Page 122 of 128

Centrifuges usually consist of a bowl which houses a stack of
perforated metal discs driven at high-speed by an electric motor
through a reduction gearbox, a heater to elevate oil
temperatures, and a small pump, which draws contaminated oil
from the bottom of the main oil tank. Contaminated oil is heated
and admitted to the centre of the rapidly rotating perforated
discs. Water particles, and the more dense impurities within the
oil, coalesce and are thrown out to the outside of the bowl.
The bowl is provided with two outlets, separated by a disc known
as a gravity or dam ring. One outlet discharges the water to a
small containment tank, which is level alarm protected to
monitor excessive waste or abnormal flows, the other directs the
main flow of clean oil back to the main oil tank.
When first starting the centrifuge it is necessary to prime the
bowl with water in order to establish a seal between the dam
ring and the oil. With the water seal established further water,
coalesced and thrown to the outer periphery adds to and exceeds
the seal water volume and is then discharged to waste.
Without the water seal, oil would fill the entire bowl including
the outer periphery and would be partly discharged through the
water discharge port to waste, until such time as a water seal
interface was re-established. It would be possible for the oil
centrifuge to attempt to pump out the entire main oil tank
through the waste water discharge.
The heavy impurities must be periodically removed and are
either flushed out automatically or the disc stack is
disassembled and cleaned manually through scheduled routine
maintenance (dependent on the make and model of centrifuge).
Additionally, centrifuges may need to be topped up with water
from time to time to make up for loss of water during operation.
Figure 75: Typical Lubricating Oil Centrifuge
Page 123 of 128

7.19.2 Turbine Oil Filter/ Coalescing System
A Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescing System is used to remove water
and dirt from turbine lube oil by passing the oil through:
• A pre-filter
• A coalescing filter and separator screen
• A final polishing filter
Solid particulate contaminants are removed in the pre-filter
stage by high surface area pleated synthetic media cartridges
which tend to extend the life of the specialised filters
downstream.
Free and emulsified water is removed in the Coalescing Filter/
Separator stage in which the finely dispersed water passing
through the coalescer element coalesces and grows into larger
drops which fall from the filter surface and collect in the vessel
sump. The sump is fitted with a sight glass to indicate the water
level and the water is regularly drained from the vessel. A screen
separator prevents any small water drops from re-entering the
outflowing oil stream. Fine particulate solid contaminants are
also removed by the coalescer elements.
The final Polishing serves to remove any residual fine particles.
Figure 76: Package Turbine Oil Filter/Coalescer Unit
Page 124 of 128

8. Condenser
8.1 Function of the Condenser
Modern Steam Driven Power Stations operate on the
Regenerative Rankine Cycle in which the working fluid (usually
high quality feedwater) is admitted as a liquid to the condenser
(for deaeration before it passes through the feedwater heaters
and economiser), changed into a superheated vapour (within the
boiler) and returned to a liquid within the condenser (after
converting a major portion of its heat to work in the turbine).
The working fluid is retained and re-used continuously.
The primary function of the Turbine Condenser is therefore to
retain and recycle high quality feedwater by condensing the
turbine exhaust steam and providing a storage area from which
the condensate can be drawn for re use in the boiler.
The design of a condenser should ensure that the total steam
flow through a turbine at maximum continuous rating can be
effectively condensed. The conditions under which the working
fluid is condensed, however, have a significant bearing on the
efficiency of the cycle.
During the condensation of the steam of steam within the
condenser, the following processes occur:
• The exhaust steam from the turbine is collected and
contained within an enclosed vessel (the condenser steam
space)
• A cooling medium is introduced into the condenser (within
the tube nest).
• The transfer of heat from the steam to the cooling medium
results in the condensation of the steam.
• The mass flow, the inlet and outlet temperature of the
cooling medium and the temperature differential between
the inlet and outlet temperature of the cooling medium (i.e.
the amount of heat transferred to the cooling medium)
determine the saturation temperature of the steam.
• A reduced pressure is created within the condenser steam
space equal to the vapour pressures exerted by the
contents of the space.
• Provided there is no air or other non-condensable gases
within the steam space the resultant vapour pressure will
be equal to that of the steam alone. (Steam as a saturated
vapour at 38º C has a vapour pressure of approximately 7
kPa absolute)
Page 125 of 128

In the process of condensing the steam it can be seen that the
condenser performs a second function: that of lowering the back
pressure within the condenser.
This decrease in backpressure has the following effects on the
Steam flow through the Turbine:
• Increases the work available to the turbine
• Increases the plant efficiency
• Reduces the total steam flow required for a given plant
output.
The lower the cooling water temperature, the lower the back
pressure, therefore it is important to maintain the cooling water
temperature at the lowest possible value within design limits.
Page 126 of 128

9. HP auxiliary boiler
In addition to four (4) HRSG a single high pressure auxiliary
boiler having similar capacity to that of one HRSG.
The auxiliary boiler is of natural circulation design and has an

output capable of supplying:
• steam flow of 121 kg/s normal, 133 kg/s (maximum)
• steam temperature of 564oC
• steam pressure of 104 bar
9.1 Fuel system

Main fuel is natural gas with fuel oil (distillate) as 100% backup
fuel
9.2 Main components of the HP auxiliary boiler

Main components of the HP auxiliary boiler are:
• High pressure steam drum
• Deaerator
• Economiser
• Evaporators (furnace walls)
• Superheaters
• Downcomers
• Header, interconnecting pipe work and valves
• Air heater
• Forced draft fan
9.3 Draft system

The boiler is of pressurised design using two (2) 60% centrifugal
type forced draft fans.
Page 127 of 128

10. Desalination Plant

The desalination plant consists of four (4) multi-stage flash (MSF)
desalination units each with a total net capacity of 55 million
gallons (imperial) of potable water per day.
The desalination plant also has potable water pumps capable of

supplying the Dubai town water network.
Page 128 of 128

Plant Familiarisation

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Plant Familiarisation

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

TechComm Simulation Pty Ltd

Introduction of Jebel Ali Power Desalination

• 4 x Siemens type V94.3A ECONOPAC gas turbines

• 2 x M30-40 type steam turbines each connected to a

Also attached to the station are:

• 4 x multi-stage flash (MSF) desalination units each with a

The plant just mentioned is controlled by a DCIS is ABB Pro

2. Simple and combined cycle operation

For simple cycle operation the diverter damper associated with

NOTE: The gas turbine can be operated on either FO or LNG in

2.2 Combined cycle

To further aid efficiency and increase pressure and temperature

The model V94.3A combustion turbine is a single-shaft machine

3.1.2 Main components of a gas turbine are:

Inlet Duct and Silencer

Compressor Stage, including Inlet Guide Vanes

A set of axial, variable pitch inlet guide vanes (IGV) automatically

Flame failure detectors trip the fuel supply if a number of

Each of the turbine stages consists of a row of fixed nozzles

3.1.3 Generator and Exciter

The Siemens/Westinghouse 200 MW, 20 kV, 0.8 power factor, 2-

The closed cooling system is maintained within temperature by

The generator cooling is provided by shaft-mounted fans which

AC electric power is created by electric conductors 'cutting' a

The level of excitation also determines the output voltage of the

Ratchet system operation depends on the required function:

• During cooldown, the main turbine control system runs the

Lubricating Oil System

All compartments of the gas turbine are covered by carbon

WARNING: CO2 will not support combustion and it will not

4. Heat Recovery Steam Generator Components

4.1 Main components of HRSG

• High and low pressure steam drums

4.2 Duct burner system

Each duct burner is fitted with a spark igniter and UV flame

5. Basic generator components

In modern generators it is more practical to rotate the magnetic

Small generators usually employ permanent magnets for the

5.2 Electromagnetic induction

The production of an emf by electromagnetic means is the sole

For the production of a voltage by electromagnetic means there

Figure 1 shows all three requirements for the production of an

Figure 1: Conductor moving down through a magnetic field

5.3 The simple generator

Figure 2 shows the two different designs for the simple

(2a) Rotating armature

(2b) Rotating field

Figure 2: Two designs for simple generator

In Figure 2(a) the conductor loop is rotated through a magnetic

Even though the simple rotating field type is the preferred

5.3.1 Principles of electromagnetic induction through a rotating armature

5.4 Generator Construction

In this we will be covering the different types of construction

5.4.1 Rotor construction

5.4.2 Salient pole construction

The term salient refers to protruding. With this type of

Cylindrical Pole shoe

Figure 3: Salient pole rotor

Line of stator Air gap

Figure 4: Pole shoe with winding

Figure 5: Side view of salient pole rotor

The number of poles actually installed around the circumference

5.4.3 Cylindrical construction

This cylindrical rotor is constructed as a single forged alloy steel