INTRODUCTION LAW RELATING TO MINING IN INDIA

Overview of Mining and its Impacts:

Proposed mining projects vary according to the type of metals or materials to be extracted from
the earth. The majority of proposed mining projects involve the extraction of ore deposits such as
copper, nickel, cobalt, gold, silver, lead, zinc, molybdenum, and platinum. The environmental
impacts of large-scale mining projects involving these metal ores are the subject of this
Guidebook. The Guidebook does not discuss the mining of ores that are extracted using strip
mining methods, including aluminum (bauxite), phosphate, and uranium. The Guidebook also
does not discuss mining involving extraction of coal or aggregates, such as sand, gravel, and
limestone.

1.1 PHASES OF A MINING PROJECT

1.2 There are different phases of a mining project, beginning with mineral ore exploration and
ending with the post-closure period. What follows are the typical phases of a proposed
mining project. Each phase of mining is associated with different sets of environmental
impacts.
1.1.1 Exploration A mining project can only commence with knowledge of the extent and value
of the mineral ore deposit. Information about the location and value of the mineral ore deposit is
obtained during the exploration phase. This phase includes surveys, field studies, and drilling test
boreholes and other exploratory excavations. The exploratory phase may involve clearing of wide
areas of vegetation (typically in lines), to allow the entry of heavy vehicles mounted with drilling
rigs. Many countries require a separate EIA for the exploratory phase of a mining project because
the impacts of this phase can be profound and because further phases of mining may not ensue if
exploration fails to find sufficient quantities of high-grade mineral ore deposits.

1.1.2 Development If the mineral ore exploration phase proves that there is a large enough
mineral ore deposit, of sufficient grade, then the project proponent may begin to plan for the
development of the mine. This phase of the mining project has several distinct components.

1.1.2.1 Construction of access roads The construction of access roads, either to provide heavy
equipment and supplies to the mine site or to ship out processed metals and ores, can have
substantial environmental impacts, especially if access roads cut through ecologicallysensitive
areas or are near previously isolated communities. If a proposed mining project involves the
construction of any access roads, then the environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the project
must include a comprehensive assessment of the environmental and social impacts of these roads.
1.1.2.2 Site preparation and clearing If a mine site is located in a remote, undeveloped area, the
project proponent may need to begin by clearing land for the construction of staging areas that
would house project personnel and equipment. Even before any land is mined, activities
associated with site preparation and clearing can have significant environmental impacts,
especially if they are within or adjacent to ecologically sensitive areas. The EIA must assess,
separately, the impacts associated with site preparation and clearing.
1.1.3 Active mining Once a mining company has constructed access roads and prepared staging
areas that would house project personnel and equipment, mining may commence. All types of
active mining share a common aspect: the extraction and concentration (or beneficiation) of a

metal from the earth. Proposed mining projects differ considerably in the proposed method for
extracting and concentrating the metallic ore.

In almost every case, metallic ores are buried under a layer of ordinary soil or rock
(called ‘overburden’ or ‘waste rock’) that must be moved or excavated to allow access to the ore
deposit. The first way in which proposed mining projects differ is the proposed method of moving
or excavating the overburden. What follows are brief descriptions of the most common methods.

1.1.3.1 Open-pit mining Open-pit mining is a type of strip mining in which the ore
deposit extends very deep in the ground, necessitating the removal of layer upon layer of
overburden and ore. In many cases, logging of trees and clear-cutting or burning of vegetation
above the orefJUDI
deposit may precede removal of the overburden. The use of heavy machinery, usually
bulldozers and dump trucks, is the most common means of removing overburden. Open-pit
mining often involves the removal of natively vegetated areas, and is therefore among the most
environmentally destructive types of mining, especially within tropical forests. Because open-pit
mining is employed for ore deposits at a substantial depth underground, it usually involves the
creation of a pit that extends below the groundwater table. In this case, groundwater must be
pumped out of the pit to allow mining to take place. A pit lake usually forms at some point in
time after mining stops and the groundwater pumps are turned off. Erosion near a mining road,
 Pelambres mine, Chile PHOTO: Rocio Avila Fernandez Open-pit mine in Cerro de Pasco, Peru
PHOTO: Centro de Cultura Popular LABOR, Peru.

1.1.3.2 Placer mining Placer mining is used when the metal of interest is associated with
sediment in a stream bed or floodplain. Bulldozers, dredges, or hydraulic jets of water (a process
called ‘hydraulic mining’) are used to extract the ore. Placer mining is usually aimed at removing
gold from stream sediments and floodplains. Because placer mining often occurs within a
streambed, it is an environmentally-destructive type of mining, releasing large quantities of
sediment that can impact surface water for several miles downstream of the placer mine.

.
CHAPTER-3

Legal Framework on Minerals mining in India

The Mines and Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act (MMDR), 1957 is the principal
legislation that governs the mineral and mining sector in India. The Act is a central
legislation in force for regulation of mining operations in India. Under the act, minerals are
taken under two broad heads, major minerals and minor minerals. The list is lucid.

The power to frame policy and legislation on the minor minerals are entirely the subjected
and delegated to the State Governments while policy and legislation relating to the major
minerals are dealt by the Ministry of Mines under Union /Central Government of India. The
central government has the power to notify “minor minerals” under section 3 (e) of the
MMDR Act, 1957. On the other hand, as per Section 15 of the MMDR Act, 1957 State
Governments have complete powers for making Rules for grant of concessions in respect of
extraction of minor minerals and levy and collection of royalty on minor minerals.

Whereas in case of offshore areas (territorial Waters, Continental Shelf, Exclusive

Economic zone and other Maritime zones of India), the ownership of minerals vests
exclusively with the Central Government. In order to regulate the mining and development
of minerals in the offshore area, the Parliament has enacted the “Offshore Areas Minerals
(Development and Regulation Act, 2002”. The Act empowers the Central Government to
grant mineral concessions for offshore areas and collect royalty. The Indian Bureau of
Mines has been notified as the administrative authority for concession management of
offshore areas.

Developments under The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957

Where there is inadequate evidence to show the existence of mineral contents of any
notified mineral in respect of any area, a State Government has to obtain previous approval
from the Central Government for granting a prospect licence-cum-mining lease for the said
notified mineral in areas in accordance with the procedure laid down in section 11.
A holder of a mining lease or a prospecting licence-cum-mining lease granted in
accordance with the procedure laid down in section 10B or section 11 may, with the
previous approval of the State Government, transfer his mining lease or prospecting
licence-cum-mining lease, as the case may be, in such manner as may be prescribed by
the Central Government, to any person eligible to hold such mining lease or prospecting
licence-cum- mining lease in accordance with the provisions of this Act and the rules made
thereunder.

Constitution of Special Courts

U/s 30B (1) The State Government may, for the purposes of providing speedy trial of
offences for contravention of the provisions of sub-section (1) or sub-section (1A) of section
4, constitute, by notification, as many Special Court.

U/s 30B (2) A Special Court shall consist of a Judge who shall be appointed by the State
Government with the concurrence of the High Court of the State.

U/s 30B (3) A person shall not be qualified for appointment as a judge of a Special Court
unless he is or has been a District and Sessions Judge.

1. U/s 30B (4) Any person aggrieved by the order of the Special Court may prefer an
appeal to the High Court within a period of sixty days from the date of such order.
2. Special Courts to have powers of Court of Session: – U/s 30C. The Code of Criminal
Procedure, 1973, applies in the proceedings before the Special Court and for the
purpose of the provisions of this Act, the Special Court is deemed as a Court of Session
and contain all the powers like of a Court of Session and the person conducting a
prosecution before the Special Court is a public prosecutor for the purpose of this Act.
3. The Central Government prescribe the terms and conditions, and procedure, for the
auction which is conducted, including the bidding parameters for the selection, which
include a share in the production of the mineral, or any payment linked to the royalty
payable, or any other relevant parameter, or any combination or modification of them.
4. The Central Government also framed the following rules for implementing the provisions
of the MMDR Act under the Amendment made in the year 2015.
5. Minerals (Evidence of Mineral Contents) Rules, 2015:- This provides the set of rules that
set the procedures to be followed for conducting any exploration to determine the
mineral content and to take up the mineral blocks for auction and mineral concessions.
6. Mineral (Non-exclusive Reconnaissance Permits) Rules, 2015:- It laid down the process
to be followed for grant of Non-exclusive Reconnaissance Permit.
7. Mineral (Auction) Rules, 2015:- It contains the rules for auction with respect to grant of
concessions over the minerals in India.
8. National Mineral Exploration Trust Rules, 2015:- it laid down the objectives, functions
and operations of the National Mineral Exploration Trust.
National Mineral Exploration Trust
Under Section 9C (1), The Central Government established a Trust, called as the National
Mineral Exploration Trust which is a Non Profit Organization. The object of the Trust is to
use the funds accrued to the Trust for the purposes of regional and detailed exploration in
such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government.

Functions of MET

 MET carries out regional (inter-state) and detailed exploration for minerals including
those activities deemed necessary by the Governing Body of MET. Some such
sanctioned activities include:
 Funding special studies and projects designed to identify, explore, extract, beneficiate
and refine deep-seated or concealed mineral deposits; Priority is given to strategic and
critical minerals.
 Undertaking studies for mineral development, sustainable mining, adoption of advanced
scientific and technological practices and mineral extraction metallurgy;
 Facilitating completion of brown-field regional exploration projects in obvious geological
potential areas (G3) including conducting high-risk exploration for deep-seated mineral
deposits through modern technologies;
 Promoting completion of detailed exploration (G2 or Gl) across India in the areas where
G3 stage exploration has been completed;
 Deciding the priorities for exploration after consulting Central Geological Programming
Board facilitating geophysical, ground and aerial survey and geochemical survey of
obvious geological potential areas and rest of India; Facilitating a national core
repository for encouraging research in earth sciences and for evaluation of the mineral
prospects;
 Organizing capacity building programmes to raise technical capability of personnel
engaged in or to be engaged in exploration

District Mineral Foundation

 Setting up of District Mineral Foundations (DMFs) in all districts in the country affected
by mining related operations was mandated through the Mines and Minerals
(Development & Regulation) Amendment Act, (MMDRA) 2015.
 Every holder of a mining lease or a prospecting licence-cum-mining lease shall, in
addition to the royalty, pay to the District Mineral Foundation of the respective concerned
districts in which their mining operations are carried on.
 If the mining area is spread across and operated at several districts, the fund is shared
on a pro-rata basis by these districts. DMF contribution do not be exceed one-third of
royalty and the Central Government retains the power to prescribe the rates of
contribution, though DMF’s operation is under state governments. The contributions
made to DMFs are collected by the State Governments.
 Under the above mentioned MMRD Amendment Act of 2015, a provision was made also
to create a National Mineral Exploration Trust under the jurisdiction of central
government, with 2% of royalty levied, for boosting detailed exploration of minerals in
India.
Period of granting mining lease for minerals other than coal, lignite and atomic minerals

 U/s 8A (2) on and from the date of the commencement of the Mines and Minerals
(Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015, all mining leases shall be granted
for the period of fifty years.
 U/s 8A (1) The provisions of this section shall apply to minerals other than those
specified in Part A and Part B of the First Schedule.
 All mining leases granted before the commencement of the Mines and Minerals
(Development and Regulation) Amendment Act, 2015 will also be deemed to have
granted lease for a period of fifty years too.
 On the expiry of the lease period, the lease shall be put up for auction as per the
procedure specified in this Act.
 Any holder of a lease where mineral is used for captive purpose will have the right of first
refusal at the time of auction held for such lease after the expiry of the lease period.

The gist of Offshore Areas Minerals (Development & Regulation) Act, 2002

 The Act is applicable to all minerals in offshore areas including minerals prescribed
under Atomic Energy Act, 1962, but excludes oils and related hydrocarbons as there is
separate legislation for them in force. The Act came into effect from 15.1.2010 vide
S.O.338(E), dated 11.2.2010 notified by the Central Government.
 Indian Bureau of Mines has been notified as the ”administering authority” and
”authorised officer” under Section 4 and Clause (i) of Section 22 of the Act vide S.O.339
(E) and 340(E) dated 11.2.2010. The Secretary, Ministry of Mines has been notified as
”authorised officer” to hear and decide cases relating to Clauses (a) and (b) of Section
28(1) vide S.O.341 (E) dated 11.2.2010.
 The Act empowers the Central Government to make rules for the purpose of the Act
including terms and conditions under the reconnaissance permit, exploration licence,
production lease, etc.
 The Government of India had announced the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP)
in 2000 under which blocks for exploration of oil and gas were on offer for bidding. The
NELP provides an international class fiscal and contract framework for exploration and
production of hydrocarbons.

The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM)

 The Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM) established in 1948, is a multi-disciplinary

governmental organisation under the Department of Mines, Ministry of Mines, engaged
in promotion of conservation, scientific development of mineral resources and protection
of environment in mines other than coal, petroleum & natural gas, atomic minerals and
minor minerals.
 The primary mission of Indian Bureau of Mines is to promote systematic and scientific
development of mineral resources of the country (both onshore and offshore), through
regulatory inspections of the mines, approval of mining plans and environmental
management plans to ensure minimal adverse impact on environment.
 It carries out inspection in mines, provides approvals of mining plans and mine closure
plans. It also conducts environmental studies to minimise environmental impact due to
mining.
Offshore Areas Mineral Concession Rules, 2006

1. The Offshore Areas Mineral Concession Rules, 2006, lay down the process for grant
and renewal of reconnaissance permits, exploration licenses and production leases as
per provisions of Section 35 of the Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and
Regulation) Act, 2002.
2. The rules prescribe for measures for protecting the marine environment and safety
measures to be followed in the leased area.
3. The rules also define the operational guidelines for each concession granted under the
act.

Mines Act, 1952

The preamble of the Act laid down that it “an Act to amend and consolidate the law relating
to the regulation of labour and safety in mines”.

The Act consists of 88 sections in 10 chapters. The Mines Act, 1952 is a sort of welfare
legislation which prescribes the laws relating to the regulation of labour and their safety in
mines. The act also regulates for carrying out mining operations and management of mines.
It lays down the basic provisions for health and safety of people employed in mines and
regulates their working conditions. It also has provisions relating to inspection of mines and
procedure of reporting to be followed.

Sec.8 – powers of special officers to enter, measure etc.

Sec.9 – facilities to be afforded to Inspectors

Sec.19 – Provisions for drinking water

Sec.28 – Weekly day of Rest

Sec. 29 – Compensatory day of Rest

Sec. 30 – Hours of work above the ground

Sec.31 – Hours of work below the ground

Sec.40 – employment of persons below 18 years of age

Sec.45 – prohibition of presence of persons below 18 years of age in a mine

Section 2(JJ) of the Mines Act of 1952 defines the term ‘minerals’ as meaning ‘all
substances which can be obtained from the earth by mining, digging, drilling, dredging,
hydraulic, quarrying or by any other operation and includes mineral oils (which in turn
include natural gas and petroleum)’.

The Supreme Court of India in Ichchapur Industrial Co-operative Society Limited v. The
Competent Authority, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation and Another (1997(1) SC.130,
Judgement Today) has held that the term ‘mineral’ as defined in the Mines Act of 1952,
includes water as well. (Link: https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1921600/)

Mines Rules, 1955

1. The Mines Rules, 1955 provides the provision for engaging a medical officer for
examination the persons employed at mines.
2. The rules also provided the basic health and sanitation provisions and welfare amenities
for the miners and their families.
3. The clearances required for exploring or mining an area under a grant depends on the
type of concession.

A list of indicative clearances, approvals and permits may be included as a part of the
Tender Document at the time of auction by a State Government.

Some of the mandatory clearances/ approvals, inter alia, required for commencement of
exploration or mining operations include:

 Environment and Forest Clearance

 Wildlife Clearance (sanctuary/ reserve/ special zone clearances)
 Land Owner’s Consent
 Explosive License
 Permission for Mine Opening
 Transmission line from State Transmission / Distribution Companies

The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980

As stated in the preamble of the Act that, “An Act to provide for the conservation of forests
and for matters connected therewith or ancillary or incidental thereto”.

1. The Act put mandate over the State Government to have consultation and approval
before declaring any forest as ‘Non-Forest’ zone which has been specifically reserved as
‘Forest Zone’.
2. The power to make rules under the Act has been delegated to the Central Government.
Types of Concessions
As per the MMDR Act 2015 (Amendment), the following two types of License which are
granted to the bidders: –

There are two types of licence/lease –

1. Mining Lease
2. Composite License

These are electronically obtained after applying on the auction process under the Mines and
Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment, Act 2015. This is also at par with the
Mineral (Auction) Rules, 2015 notified by the Centre. The rules made it clear that auctioning
will be done on a forward auction basis where the highest bid above the reserve price will
win. The winner will have to undertake exploration in the area. If the winner fails to find
mineral content, the licence will lapse and the mining lease shall be cancelled.

Role of Government: The Government will initiate an auction process for grant of a mining
lease with respect to an area within the State. It will issue a notice inviting tender (NIT) with
respect to mineral auction, identify and demarcate the area where a mining lease is
proposed to be granted through auction by using total station and differential global
positioning system. It is also required to classify the area so demarcated into forests land,
land owned by the State Government and land not owned by the State Government.

The tender document will also include estimated mineral resources and brief particulars
regarding evidence of mineral contents and list of all clearances and permissions obtained
with respect to such area in order to commence mining operation.

1. Minerals are classified into minor minerals and major minerals.

2. Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act 1957 (MMDR Act) is the main
Act to govern the Minerals in India.
3. The Offshore Areas Mineral (Development and Regulation) Act 2002 regulates the
development of mineral resources in territorial waters, continental shelf, exclusive
economic zone and other maritime zones of India.
4. The following licences are issued by the state government under the Mines and Minerals
(Development and Regulation) Act 1957 (MMDR Act):
5. Reconnaissance permit (RP):an RP is for the purpose of undertaking reconnaissance
operations and is a right to perform any operations undertaken for preliminary
prospecting of a mineral.
6. Prospecting licence (PL):a PL is for the purpose of undertaking operations with respect
to exploring, locating or proving mineral deposits.
 7. Mining lease (ML):an ML is a lease, which also includes a sub-lease, for the purpose of
undertaking mining operations with respect to extracting minerals from the relevant
mine.
8. Where there is a breach of any condition imposed on the holder, the RP, ML or PL can
be cancelled by the relevant state government and/or the amount deposited as security
deposit (as applicable) may be forfeited in whole or in part.
9. The central government can, after consultation with the relevant state government,
cancel an ML or a PL if it is in the public interest to do so (MMDR Act).

References

https://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/0-562-
4168?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true&bhcp=1

1. http://ibm.nic.in/writereaddata/files/07102014115602MMDR%20Act%201957_10052012.
pdf
2. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/Offshore_Areas_Mineral_Development
_Regulation_Act_2002.pdf
3. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/Offshore_Areas_Mineral_Development
_Regulation_Act_2002_12th_February_2010.pdf
4. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/Offshore%20Areas%20Mineral%20Co
ncession%20Rules,%202006.pdf
5. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/ExplorationandMiningEbook.pdf
6. http://lawmin.nic.in/ld/P-
ACT/1980/The%20Forest%20(Conservation)%20Act,%201980.pdf
7. https://www.legalcrystal.com/act/52074/mines-act-1952-complete-act
8. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/companies/mineral-rules-govt-comes-out-with-two-
types-of-licences/article7236267.eceConclusion
9. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/acts.pdf
10. http://arthapedia.in/index.php?title=National_Mineral_Exploration_Trust
11. http://www.mines.nic.in/writereaddata/UploadFile/acts.pdf
12. http://ibm.gov.in/writereaddata/files/07

13. Mining is the extraction of valuable mineralsor other geological materials from the
earth, usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reefor placer deposit. These
deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner.
14. Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil
shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay.
Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through
agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a
wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum,
natural gas, or even water.
15. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times.
Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit
potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and
 final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed. De Re Metallica, Georgius
Agricola, 1550, Book I, Para. 1[1][citation needed]
16. Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during
the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the world's
nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long
been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety
in mines.
17. Levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling
rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a
variety of consumer products. Due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now
contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves.

Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and,
later, metalsfound close to the Earth's surface. These were used to make
early tools and weapons; for example, high quality flint found in northern France,
southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools.[2] Flint mines have been
found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts
and galleries. The mines at Grimes Gravesand Krzemionki are especially famous, and like
most other flint mines, are Neolithic in origin (ca 4000–3000 BC). Other hard rocks
mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industrybased in
the English Lake District.
The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Ngwenya Mine in Swaziland,
which radiocarbon dating shows to be about 43,000 years old. At this
site Paleolithichumans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre.[3][4] Mines of a
similar age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint
for weapons and tools.[5]
Ancient EgyptEdit
Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi.[6] At first, Egyptians used the bright green
malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC,
large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of WadiMaghareh in order
to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself.[7]Quarries
for turquoise and copper were also found at WadiHammamat, Tura, Aswan and various
other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula and at Timna.[7]
Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties. The gold mines of Nubia were among
the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by
the Greek author DiodorusSiculus, who mentions fire-setting as one method used to
break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the
earliest known maps. The miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before
washing the powder for the gold dust.
Ancient Greek and Roman miningEdit
Further information: Mining in Roman Britain
Ancient Roman development of the Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales

Mining in Europe has a very long history. Examples include the silver mines of Laurium,
which helped support the Greek city state of Athens. Although they had over 20,000
slaves working them, their technology was essentially identical to their Bronze Age
predecessors.[8] At other mines, such as on the island of Thassos, marble was quarried
by the Parians after they arrived in the 7th Century BC.[9] The marble was shipped away
and was later found by archaeologists to have been used in buildings including the tomb
of Amphipolis. Philip II of Macedon, the father of Alexander the Great, captured the gold
mines of Mount Pangeo in 357 BC to fund his military campaigns.[10] He also captured
gold mines in Thrace for minting coinage, eventually producing 26 tons per year.
However, it was the Romans who developed large scale mining methods, especially the
use of large volumes of water brought to the minehead by numerous aqueducts. The
water was used for a variety of purposes, including removing overburden and rock
debris, called hydraulic mining, as well as washing comminuted, or crushed, ores and
driving simple machinery.
The Romans used hydraulic mining methods on a large scale to prospect for the veins of
ore, especially a now-obsolete form of mining known as hushing. They built
numerous aqueducts to supply water to the minehead. There, the water stored in
large reservoirs and tanks. When a full tank was opened, the flood of water sluiced away
the overburden to expose the bedrock underneath and any gold veins. The rock was then
worked upon by fire-setting to heat the rock, which would be quenched with a stream of
water. The resulting thermal shock cracked the rock, enabling it to be removed by further
streams of water from the overhead tanks. The Roman miners used similar methods to
work cassiterite deposits in Cornwall and lead ore in the Pennines.
The methods had been developed by the Romans in Spain in 25 AD to exploit
large alluvial gold deposits, the largest site being at Las Medulas, where seven long
aqueducts tapped local rivers and sluiced the deposits. Spain was one of the most
important mining regions, but all regions of the Roman Empirewere exploited. In Great
Britain the natives had mined minerals for millennia,[11] but after the Roman conquest, the
scale of the operations increased dramatically, as the Romans needed Britannia's
resources, especially gold, silver, tin, and lead.
Roman techniques were not limited to surface mining. They followed the ore veins
underground once opencast mining was no longer feasible. At Dolaucothi they stoped out
the veins and drove adits through bare rock to drain the stopes. The same adits were
also used to ventilate the workings, especially important when fire-setting was used. At
other parts of the site, they penetrated the water table and dewatered the mines using
several kinds of machines, especially reverse overshot water-wheels. These were used
extensively in the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain, where one sequence comprised 16
such wheels arranged in pairs, and lifting water about 24 metres (79 ft). They were
worked as treadmills with miners standing on the top slats. Many examples of such
devices have been found in old Roman mines and some examples are now preserved
in the British Museum and the National Museum of Wales.[12]
Medieval EuropeEdit
Mining as an industry underwent dramatic changes in medieval Europe. The mining industry in
the early Middle Ages was mainly focused on the extraction of copper and iron. Other precious
metals were also used, mainly for gilding or coinage. Initially, many metals were obtained
through open-pit mining, and ore was primarily extracted from shallow depths, rather than
through deep mine shafts. Around the 14th century, the growing use of weapons,
armour, stirrups, and horseshoes greatly increased the demand for iron. Medieval knights, for
example, were often laden with up to 100 pounds (45 kg) of plate or chain link armour in
addition to swords, lances and other weapons.[13] The overwhelming dependency on iron for
military purposes spurred iron production and extraction processes.
The silver crisis of 1465 occurred when all mines had reached depths at which the shafts could
no longer be pumped dry with the available technology.[14] Although an increased use of bank
notes, credit and copper coins during this period did decrease the value of, and dependence on,
precious metals, gold and silver still remained vital to the story of medieval mining.
Due to differences in the social structure of society, the increasing extraction of mineral deposits
spread from central Europe to England in the mid-sixteenth century. On the continent, mineral
deposits belonged to the crown, and this regalian right was stoutly maintained. But in England,
royal mining rights were restricted to gold and silver (of which England had virtually no
deposits) by a judicial decision of 1568 and a law in 1688. England had iron, zinc, copper, lead,
and tin ores. Landlords who owned the base metals and coal under their estates then had a strong
inducement to extract these metals or to lease the deposits and collect royalties from mine
operators. English, German, and Dutch capital combined to finance extraction and refining.
Hundreds of German technicians and skilled workers were brought over; in 1642 a colony of
4,000 foreigners was mining and smelting copper at Keswick in the northwestern mountains.[15]
Use of water power in the form of water millswas extensive. The water mills were employed in
crushing ore, raising ore from shafts, and ventilating galleries by powering giant bellows. Black
powder was first used in mining in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary(now BanskáŠtiavnica,
Slovakia) in 1627.[16]Black powder allowed blasting of rock and earth to loosen and reveal ore
veins. Blasting was much faster than fire-setting and allowed the mining of previously
impenetrable metals and ores.[17] In 1762, the world's first mining academy was established in
the same town there.
The widespread adoption of agricultural innovations such as the iron plowshare, as well as the
growing use of metal as a building material, was also a driving force in the tremendous growth of
the iron industry during this period. Inventions like the arrastra were often used by the Spanish to
pulverize ore after being mined. This device was powered by animals and used the same
principles used for grain threshing.[18]
Much of the knowledge of medieval mining techniques comes from books such
as Biringuccio’s De la pirotechnia and probably most importantly from Georg Agricola's De re
metallica (1556). These books detail many different mining methods used in German and Saxon
mines. A prime issue in medieval mines, which Agricola explains in detail, was the removal of
water from mining shafts. As miners dug deeper to access new veins, flooding became a very
real obstacle. The mining industry became dramatically more efficient and prosperous with the
invention of mechanical and animal driven pumps.
Classical Philippine civilizationEdit
See also: Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines

The image of a Maharlika class of the Philippine Society , depicted in Boxer Codexthat the Goldused as a form
of Jewelry(ca.1400).

Mining in the Philippines began around 1000 BC. The early Filipinos worked various mines of
gold, silver, copper and iron. Jewels, gold ingots, chains, calombigas and earrings were handed
down from antiquity and inherited from their ancestors. Gold dagger handles, gold dishes, tooth
plating, and huge gold ornamets were also used.[19] In Laszlo Legeza's "Tantric elements in pre-
Hispanic Philippines Gold Art", he mentioned that gold jewelry of Philippine origin was found
in Ancient Egypt.[19] According to Antonio Pigafetta, the people of Mindoro possessed great
skill in mixing gold with other metals and gave it a natural and perfect appearance that could
deceive even the best of silversmiths.[19] The natives were also known for the jewelries made of
other precious stones such as carnelian, agate and pearl. Some outstanding examples of
Philippine jewelry included necklaces, belts, armlets and rings placed around the waist.
The AmericasEdit
Lead mining in the upper Mississippi River region of the U.S., 1865.

There are ancient, prehistoric copper mines along Lake Superior, and metallic copper was still
found there, near the surface, in colonial times. [20] [21] [22]
Indigenous peoples availed themselves of this copper starting at least 5,000 years ago,"[20]and
copper tools, arrowheads, and other artifacts that were part of an extensive native trade network
have been discovered. In addition, obsidian, flint, and other minerals were mined, worked, and
traded.[21] Early French explorers who encountered the sites[clarification needed] made no use of the
metals due to the difficulties of transporting them,[21] but the copper was eventually traded
throughout the continent along major river routes.

Miners at the Tamarack Mine in Copper Country, Michigan, U.S. in 1905.

In the early colonial history of the Americas, "native gold and silver was quickly expropriated
and sent back to Spain in fleets of gold- and silver-laden galleons,"[23] the gold and silver
originating mostly from mines in Central and South America. Turquoise dated at 700 AD was
mined in pre-ColumbianAmerica; in the Cerillos Mining District in New Mexico, estimates are
that "about 15,000 tons of rock had been removed from Mt. Chalchihuitl using stone tools before
1700."[24][25]
Mining in the United States became prevalent in the 19th century, and the General Mining Act of
1872 was passed to encourage mining of federal lands.[26] As with the California Gold Rush in
the mid-19th century, mining for minerals and precious metals, along with ranching, was a
driving factor in the Westward Expansion to the Pacific coast. With the exploration of the West,
mining camps were established and "expressed a distinctive spirit, an enduring legacy to the new
nation;" Gold Rushers would experience the same problems as the Land Rushers of the transient
West that preceded them.[27] Aided by railroads, many traveled West for work opportunities in
mining. Western cities such as Denver and Sacramento originated as mining towns.
When new areas were explored, it was usually the gold (placer and then lode) and then silver that
were taken into possession and extracted first. Other metals would often wait for railroads or
canals, as coarse gold dust and nuggets do not require smelting and are easy to identify and
transport.[22]
Modern periodEdit

View showing miners’ clothes suspended by pulleys, also wash basins and ventilation system, Kirkland Lake, Ontario,
1936.

In the early 20th century, the gold and silver rush to the western United States also stimulated
mining for coal as well as base metals such as copper, lead, and iron. Areas in modern Montana,
Utah, Arizona, and later Alaska became predominate suppliers of copper to the world, which was
increasingly demanding copper for electrical and households goods.[28] Canada's mining industry
grew more slowly than did the United States' due to limitations in transportation, capital, and
U.S. competition; Ontario was the major producer of the early 20th century with nickel, copper,
and gold.[28]
Meanwhile, Australia experienced the Australian gold rushes and by the 1850s was producing
40% of the world's gold, followed by the establishment of large mines such as the Mount
Morgan Mine, which ran for nearly a hundred years, Broken Hill ore deposit (one of the largest
zinc-lead ore deposits), and the iron ore mines at Iron Knob. After declines in production,
another boom in mining occurred in the 1960s. Now, in the early 21st century, Australia remains
a major world mineral producer.[29]
As the 21st century begins, a globalized mining industry of large multinational corporations has
arisen. Peak minerals and environmental impacts have also become a concern. Different
elements, particularly rare earth minerals, have begun to increase in demand as a result of new
technologies.
Mine development and lifecycleEdit

Schematic of a cut and fill mining operation in hard rock.

The process of mining from discovery of an ore body through extraction of minerals and finally
to returning the land to its natural state consists of several distinct steps. The first is discovery of
the ore body, which is carried out through prospecting or exploration to find and then define the
extent, location and value of the ore body. This leads to a mathematical resource estimation to
estimate the size and grade of the deposit.
This estimation is used to conduct a pre-feasibility study to determine the theoretical economics
of the ore deposit. This identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and
engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. The next step
is to conduct a feasibility study to evaluate the financial viability, the technical and financial
risks, and the robustness of the project.
This is when the mining company makes the decision whether to develop the mine or to walk
away from the project. This includes mine planning to evaluate the economically recoverable
portion of the deposit, the metallurgy and ore recoverability, marketability and payability of the
ore concentrates, engineering concerns, milling and infrastructure costs, finance and equity
requirements, and an analysis of the proposed mine from the initial excavation all the way
through to reclamation. The proportion of a deposit that is economically recoverable is
dependent on the enrichment factor of the ore in the area.
To gain access to the mineral deposit within an area it is often necessary to mine through or
remove waste material which is not of immediate interest to the miner. The total movement of
ore and waste constitutes the mining process. Often more waste than ore is mined during the life
of a mine, depending on the nature and location of the ore body. Waste removal and placement is
a major cost to the mining operator, so a detailed characterization of the waste material forms an
essential part of the geological exploration program for a mining operation.
Once the analysis determines a given ore body is worth recovering, development begins to create
access to the ore body. The mine buildings and processing plants are built, and any necessary
equipment is obtained. The operation of the mine to recover the ore begins and continues as long
as the company operating the mine finds it economical to do so. Once all the ore that the mine
can produce profitably is recovered, reclamation begins to make the land used by the mine
suitable for future use.
Mining techniquesEdit

Underground longwall mining.

Mining techniques can be divided into two common excavation types: surface miningand sub-
surface (underground) mining. Today, surface mining is much more common, and produces, for
example, 85% of minerals (excluding petroleum and natural gas) in the United States, including
98% of metallic ores.[30]
Targets are divided into two general categories of materials: placer deposits, consisting of
valuable minerals contained within river gravels, beach sands, and other unconsolidated
materials; and lode deposits, where valuable minerals are found in veins, in layers, or in mineral
grains generally distributed throughout a mass of actual rock. Both types of ore deposit, placer or
lode, are mined by both surface and underground methods.
Some mining, including much of the rare earth elements and uranium mining, is done by less-
common methods, such as in-situ leaching: this technique involves digging neither at the surface
nor underground. The extraction of target minerals by this technique requires that they be
soluble, e.g., potash, potassium chloride, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, which dissolve in
water. Some minerals, such as copper minerals and uranium oxide, require acid or carbonate
solutions to dissolve.[31][32]
Surface miningEdit
Main article: Surface mining

Surface mining is done by removing (stripping) surface vegetation, dirt, and, if necessary, layers
of bedrock in order to reach buried ore deposits. Techniques of surface mining include: open-pit
mining, which is the recovery of materials from an open pit in the ground, quarrying, identical to
open-pit mining except that it refers to sand, stone and clay;[33]strip mining, which consists of
stripping surface layers off to reveal ore/seams underneath; and mountaintop removal, commonly
associated with coal mining, which involves taking the top of a mountain off to reach ore
deposits at depth. Most (but not all) placer deposits, because of their shallowly buried nature, are
mined by surface methods. Finally, landfill mining involves sites where landfills are excavated
and processed.[34]Landfill mining has been thought of as a solution to dealing with long-term
methane emissions and local pollution[35]

Garzweiler surface mine, Germany

Underground miningEdit
Main articles: Underground mining (hard rock) and Underground mining (soft rock)

Mantrip used for transporting miners within an underground mine

Sub-surface mining consists of digging tunnels or shafts into the earth to reach buried ore
deposits. Ore, for processing, and waste rock, for disposal, are brought to the surface through the
tunnels and shafts. Sub-surface mining can be classified by the type of access shafts used, the
extraction method or the technique used to reach the mineral deposit. Drift mining utilizes
horizontal access tunnels, slope mining uses diagonally sloping access shafts, and shaft
mining utilizes vertical access shafts. Mining in hard and softrock formations require different
techniques.
Other methods include shrinkage stope mining, which is mining upward, creating a sloping
underground room, long wall mining, which is grinding a long ore surface underground,
and room and pillar mining, which is removing ore from rooms while leaving pillars in place to
support the roof of the room. Room and pillar mining often leads to retreat mining, in which
supporting pillars are removed as miners retreat, allowing the room to cave in, thereby loosening
more ore. Additional sub-surface mining methods include hard rock mining, which is mining of
hard rock (igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary) materials, bore hole mining, drift and fill
mining, long hole slope mining, sub level caving, and block caving.
HighwallminingEdit

Caterpillar Highwall Miner HW300 - Technology Bridging Underground and Open Pit Mining

Highwall mining is another form of surface mining that evolved from auger mining. In Highwall
mining, the coal seam is penetrated by a continuous miner propelled by a hydraulic Pushbeam
Transfer Mechanism (PTM). A typical cycle includes sumping (launch-pushing forward) and
shearing (raising and lowering the cutterhead boom to cut the entire height of the coal seam). As
the coal recovery cycle continues, the cutterhead is progressively launched into the coal seam for
19.72 feet (6.01 m). Then, the Pushbeam Transfer Mechanism (PTM) automatically inserts a
19.72-foot (6.01 m) long rectangular Pushbeam (Screw-Conveyor Segment) into the center
section of the machine between the Powerhead and the cutterhead. The Pushbeam system can
penetrate nearly 1,000 feet (300 m) into the coal seam. One patented Highwall mining system
uses augers enclosed inside the Pushbeam that prevent the mined coal from being contaminated
by rock debris during the conveyance process. Using a video imaging and/or a gamma ray sensor
and/or other Geo-Radar systems like a coal-rock interface detection sensor (CID), the operator
can see ahead projection of the seam-rock interface and guide the continuous miner's progress.
Highwall mining can produce thousands of tons of coal in contour-strip operations with narrow
benches, previously mined areas, trench mine applications and steep-dip seams with controlled
water-inflow pump system and/or a gas (inert) venting system.
The Mining industry in India is a major economic activity which contributes significantly to
the economy of India. The GDPcontribution of the mining industry varies from 2.2% to 2.5%
only but going by the GDP of the total industrial sector it contributes around 10% to 11%. Even
mining done on small scale contributes 6% to the entire cost of mineral production. Indian
mining industry provides job opportunities to around 700,000 individuals.[1]
As of 2012, India is the largest producer of sheet mica, the third largest producer of iron ore and
the fifth largest producer of bauxite in the world. India's metal and mining industry was
estimated to be $106.4bn in 2010.[2]
However, the mining in India is also infamous for human rights violations and environmental
pollution. The industry has been hit by several high-profile mining scandals in recent times.[2]
IntroductionEdit
The tradition of mining in the region is ancient and underwent modernization alongside the rest
of the world as India has gained independence in 1947.[3] The economic reforms of 1991 and the
1993 National Mining Policy further helped the growth of the mining sector.[3] India's minerals
range from both metallic and non-metallic types.[4] The metallic minerals
comprise ferrous and non-ferrous minerals, while the nonmetallic minerals comprise
mineral fuels, precious stones, among others.[4]
D.R. Khullar holds that mining in India depends on over 3,100 mines, out of which over 550 are
fuel mines, over 560 are mines for metals, and over 1970 are mines for extraction of
nonmetals.[3] The figure given by S.N. Padhi is: 'about 600 coal mines, 35 oil projects and 6,000
metalliferous mines of different sizes employing over one million persons on a daily average
basis.'[5] Both open cast mining and underground miningoperations are carried out
and drilling/pumping is undertaken for extracting liquid or gaseous fuels.[3] The country
produces and works with roughly 100 minerals, which are an important source for earning
foreign exchange as well as satisfying domestic needs.[3] India also exports iron
ore, titanium, manganese, bauxite, granite, and imports cobalt, mercury, graphite etc.[3]
Unless controlled by other departments of the Government of India mineral resources of the
country are surveyed by the Indian Ministry of Mines, which also regulates the manner in which
these resources are used.[6] The ministry oversees the various aspects of industrial mining in the
country.[6] Both the Geological Survey of India and the Indian Bureau of Mines[7] are also
controlled by the ministry.[6] Natural gas, petroleum and atomic minerals are exempt from the
various activities of the Indian Ministry of Mines.[6]
HistoryEdit

Indian coal production is the 3rd highest in the world according to the 2008 Indian Ministry of Mines estimates. [8] Shown
above is a coal mine in Jharkhand.
Flint was known and exploited by the inhabitants of the Indus Valley Civilization by the 3rd
millennium BCE.[9] P. Biagi and M. Cremaschi of Milan University discovered a number
of Harappan quarries in archaeological excavations dating between 1985-1986.[10] Biagi (2008)
describes the quarries: 'From the surface the quarries consisted of almost circular empty areas,
representing the quarry–pits, filled with aeolian sand, blown from the Thar Desertdunes, and
heaps of limestone block, deriving from the prehistoric mining activity. All around these
structures flint workshops were noticed, represented by scatters of flint flakes and blades among
which typical Harappan-elongated blade cores and characteristic bullet cores with very narrow
bladelet detachments.'[11] Between 1995 and 1998, Accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon
dating of Zyzyphus cf. nummularia charcoalfound in the quarries has yielded evidence that the
activity continued into 1870-1800 BCE.[12]
Minerals subsequently found mention in Indian literature. George Robert Rapp—on the subject
of minerals mentioned in India's literature—holds that:
Sanskrit texts mention the use of bitumen, rock salt, yellow
orpiment, chalk, alum, bismuth, calamine, realgar, stibnite, saltpeter, cinnabar, arsenic, su
lphur, yellow and red ochre, black sand, and red clay in prescriptions. Among the metals
used were gold, silver, copper, mercury, iron, iron ores, pyrite, tin,
and brass. Mercury appeared to have been the most frequently used, and is called by
several names in the texts. No source for mercury or its ores has been located. Leading to
the suggestion that it may have been imported.[13]
The distribution of minerals in the country is uneven and mineral density varies from
region to region.[3] D.R. Khullar identifies five mineral 'belts' in the country: The North
Eastern Peninsular Belt, Central Belt, Southern Belt, South Western Belt, and the North
Western Belt. The details of the various geographical 'belts' are given in the table
below:[14]

Mineral
Location Minerals found
Belt

Coal, iron ore, manganese, mica, bauxite,

copper, kyanite, chromite, beryl, apatite etc. Khullar calls
Chota Nagpur plateau and this region the mineral heartland of Indiaand further cites
North
the Orissaplateau studies to state that: 'this region possesses India's 100
Eastern
covering the states percent Kyanite, 93 percent iron ore, 84 percent coal, 70
Peninsula
of Jharkhand, West percent chromite, 70 percent mica, 50 percent fire clay, 45
r Belt
Bengaland Orissa. percent asbestos, 45 percent china clay, 20
percent limestone and 10 percent manganese.'

Manganese, bauxite, uranium, limestone, marble,

Chhattisgarh, Andhra coal, gems, mica, graphite etc. exist in large quantities and
Central
Pradesh, Madhya the net extent of the minerals of the region is yet to be
Belt
Pradesh and Maharashtra. assessed. This is the second largest belt of minerals in
the country.
Southern Karnatakaplateau
Ferrous minerals and bauxite. Low diversity.
Belt and Tamil Nadu.

South
Western Karnataka and Goa. Iron ore, garnetand clay.
Belt

North Non-ferrous minerals, uranium,

Rajasthanand Gujaratalon
Western mica, beryllium, aquamarine, petroleum, gypsum and emerald
g the Aravali Range.
Belt .

India has yet to fully explore the mineral wealth within its marine territory, mountain
ranges, and a few states e.g. Assam.[14]