Theory

CULTIVATION THEORY AND TELEVISION

Cultivation theory suggests that exposure to television messages can be an important

factor influencing the behavior of individuals who spend a significant amount of time with the

medium (Gerbner, 1969; Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). Further, much of our knowledge about the

world is indirect, not shaped by experiences but by accounts, both fictional and true, of others’

experiences (Shanahan & Morgan,1999). Television viewers today are exposed to a substantial

number of examples of adverse health practices, which (according to cultivation theorists) may

influence behavior (see Gerbner & Ozyegin, 1997, for references to cigarettes, alcohol, and illicit

drugs on television; see DuRant et al., 1997, on alcohol and tobacco use in MTV videos).

Other content analyses show that children and teenagers continue to be inundated with

sexual imagery and innuendoes in programming and advertising (Brown & Steele, 1995; Huston

et al., 1998; Kunkel, Cope, & Colvin, 1996). Although the prevalence of exposure to negative

health practices among television viewers is well documented, interestingly, there are no data

available (to date) to substantiate the behavioral impact of this exposure (Kunkel et al., 1996).

Development of Cultivation Theory

Cultivation theory, developed by George Gerbner in 1977, states television has the power to

influence our reality, and it is "primarily responsible for our perceptions of day-to-day norms and

reality (Infante et al., 1997, p. 383). Gerbner believed television was a central part of the

American culture, and because of this it has become the main source of information in American

society. "'The television set has become a key member of the family; the one who tells most of

the stories most of the time,' wrote Gerbner and his associates" (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, &

Signorielli, 1980, p. 14; Severin & Tankard, 1997, p. 299). This concern for the prominence of
television in America led to the development and further research of cultivation theory. Gerbner

tested his research using comparisons of light to heavy television viewers and their perceptions

of reality. He and his associates found heavy-television viewers are more likely to perceive the

world as it was portrayed on television. In fact, heavy viewers had a tendency to view the world

as a scarier place (Severin & Tankard, 1997).

Hawkins and Pingree expand the study. Hawkins and Pingree (1980) attempted to expand

on Gerbner's cultivation theory hypothesis by looking at the learning processes involved. They

examined the relationship of cultivation "under a variety of social and psychological conditions

and attempting to tie cultivation more directly to individual types of television content"

(Hawkins & Pingree, 1980, p. 201). Their research focused on demographic conditions that

included age and viewing habits and psychological conditions that included cognitive ability and

perception of television reality. Their research confirmed Gerbner's argument that television

content and message contribute to viewer biases or perceptions (Hawkins & Pingree, 1980).

Additionally, they discovered cultivation theory could not be explained away by researched

conditions. However, the results of their research indicate age or cognitive ability determines

cultivation (Hawkins & Pingree, 1980).

Criticisms of cultivation theory. Although early data supported cultivation theory, researchers

still criticized Gerbner's hypothesis (Infante et al., 1997). Critics such as Michael Hughes (1980)

and Paul Hirsch (1980) believed Gerbner's research was flawed and oversimplified. Hughes felt

television in American society may be related to the diffusion of culture and to alterations in

social structure, both of which affect the behavior of virtually all persons regardless of how much
television they watch (Hughes, 1980). Hughes (1980) and Hirsch (1980) reanalyzed Gerbner's

research using the same techniques Gerbner used. However, Hughes reexamined the researched

demographics of sex, age and income by introducing confounding variables such as hours

worked per week, income and church attendance. After reanalyzing Gerbner's data using those

confounding variables, Hughes (1980) and Hirsch (1980) discovered the relationship between

fear and frequency of television viewing behaviors disappeared. Additionally, Hughes' research

disputed Gerbner's assertion that television content is so violent it causes heavy viewers to

perceive violence as reality (1980). Hughes did support the need for research to determine the

long-term effects of heavy media exposure. However, Hughes added, "some of the more subtle

effects might be more apparent only if we knew precisely what people watched and were able to

control for predetermined personality and other characteristics which are related to the selection

of certain kinds of programs" (Hughes, 1980, p. 300). Hirsch (1980) concluded cultivation

theory was unsupported, unwarranted, and premature.

Gerbner's response. In response to Hughes and others' criticisms, Gerbner and his associates

pioneered the factors of mainstreaming and resonance (Infante et al., 1997). Mainstreaming is

defined as creating uniform messages to appeal to a wide audience (Cohen & Weimann, 2000).

According to Cohen and Weimann (2000), mainstreaming is a process where television viewers

"learn facts about the real world from observing the world of television" (p. 3). The second term

defined by Gerbner is resonance. Resonance is the comparison between the mainstream

constructs and the viewer's real-life experiences (Cohen & Weimann, 2000, p. 3).

This theory can be applied to all television show genres including dramas, soap operas, and
violence. In a study completed by Patiwael and Valkenberg (1998), the researchers applied this

theory to studying how excessive exposure to Court TV—a courtroom drama played by real

people with real cases and not actors—led viewers to believe crime was worse than it actually

was in reality (p. 229). Gerbner called this the "Mean-World Syndrome" (Chang & Reber, 2000,

p. 4). The Mean-World Syndrome results when a person is exposed to an inordinate amount of

television violence. This causes them to perceive the real world as a mean, violent place (Chang

& Reber, 2000). Gerbner and his team also identified the three variables that comprise the

Mean-World Syndrome: People in general only care about themselves, you can never be too

careful when interacting with others, and people will take advantage of another person if given

the chance (Chang & Reber, 2000).

Military use of cultivation theory. While cultivation theory attempts to explain the effects

heavy television viewing has on an individual's perception of reality, the researchers in this study

feel this and agenda-setting theory can be applied to how individuals perceive the military. If

public affairs professionals are able to obtain positive coverage of their unit or military service,

then it is possible to positively influence public perception of the military. This positive influence

is instrumental in gaining public support for military actions, funding for housing, and support

for quality of life initiatives for military members and their families. While the military enjoys

extensive positive media coverage today, the question is how long will it last, and how will

public affairs professionals maintain the high level of trust Americans have in the institution?

The researchers posit in this experiment that taking advantage of the media's propensity to set the

public agenda and a concentrated effort at the local level to make sure their unit or service

receives the most coverage possible is the answer. By heavily publicizing the accomplishments
of military units and armed forces now, public affairs professionals can present a positive image

of the military that will continue after the publicity wanes.

Social Learning Theory

Bandura researched aggression and modeling through his Bobo experiments. The changes

Bandura observed in a child’s behavior after watching an adult show aggression triggered him to

his social learning theory. Bandura continued research with other objects, and even humans,

receiving the aggression. He also experimented with and without rewards and punishments.

Bandura concluded several points. 1. Attention to task affects learning. 2. Information learned

must be retained. 3. You must be able to reproduce or imitate the behaviors learned. 4.

Motivation either from past, promised, or vicarious reinforcement drives imitation and

punishment never works as well as reinforcement.

The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has become perhaps the most

influential theory of learning and development. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of

traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all

types of learning. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new

information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or

modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors.
Basic Social Learning Concepts

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that people

can learn through observation. Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of

this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does

not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Let's explore each of these concepts in greater depth.

1. People can learn through observation.

Observational Learning

In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate

behaviors they have observed in other people. The children in Bandura’s studies observed an

adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a

room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously

observed.

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

1. A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.

2. A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.

3. A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in

books, films, television programs, or online media.

2. Mental states are important to learning.

Intrinsic Reinforcement

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence

learning and behavior. He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as

pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. This emphasis on internal thoughts and

cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many

textbooks place social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his

approach as a 'social cognitive theory.'

3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.

While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational

learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new

behaviors.

The Modeling Process

Not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Factors involving both the model and the

learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps

must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and

modeling process:
 Attention:

In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is

going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a

novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

 Retention:

The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can

be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is

vital to observational learning.

 Reproduction:

Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually

perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to

improvement and skill advancement.

 Motivation:

Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to

imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important

role in motivation. While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can

observing other experience some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you

see another student rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to

show up a few minutes early each day.

 Attentional Retention Production Motivational

Processes Processes Processes Processes

MODELED EVENTS COGNITIVE REPRESENTATIONAL INTERNAL INCENTIVES

CONSTRUCTION
Salience GUIDE Sensory
Affective Valence Symbolic Coding Tangible
Response production
Complexity Cognitive Social
Guided enactment
Prevalence Organization Control
Accessibility
Functional Value CORRECTIVE
REHEARSAL ADJUSTMENT VICARIOUS
Cognitive INCENTIVES
Observer Attributes Enactive Monitoring of Observed benefits
Perception set enactments Observed costs
cognitive Feedback information
Capabilities cognitive OBSERVER Conception matching
Preconception ATTRIBUTES SELF-INCENTIVES
Arousal level Cognitive skills Tangible
OBSERVER
Acquired Preferences Cognitive structure Self-Evaluation
ATTRIBUTES
Physical Capabilities
Component subskills
OBSERVER
ATTRIBUTES
Incentive preferences
Social Comparison
Biases
Internal standrads

Figure 3: Process of Modeling in the Social Learning Theory

Rujukan

Bandura Albert, Ross Dorthea, and Ross Sheila, (1965) “Imitation of film-mediated aggressive

model,” Journal of Abnormal and social Psychology 66, no. 1:3-11.

Bandura, A. (1994). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In J. Bryant. Advances in

Experimental Social Psychology, 36: 199-249.

Bandura, A. (1997). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice – Hall.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A (1965a). Influence of models reinforcement contingencies on the acquisition of

imitative responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1):589.

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