Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Amir Arifin, Abu Bakar Sulong, Norhamidi Muhamad, Junaidi Syarif, Mohd
Ikram Ramli
PII: S0261-3069(13)00897-2
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.09.045
Reference: JMAD 5876
Please cite this article as: Arifin, A., Sulong, A.B., Muhamad, N., Syarif, J., Ramli, M.I., Material Processing of
Hydroxyapatite and Titanium Alloy (HA/Ti) Composite as Implant Materials Using Powder Metallurgy: a Review,
Materials and Design (2013), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.09.045
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Material Processing of Hydroxyapatite and Titanium Alloy (HA/Ti) Composite as Implant
Amir Arifin1,2, Abu Bakar Sulong1, Norhamidi Muhamad1, Junaidi Syarif1, Mohd Ikram Ramli1
1
Department of Mechanical and Material Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sriwijaya University,30662 Indralaya,
Sumatera Selatan, Indonesia
Abstract
The bio-active and biodegradable properties of hydroxyapatite (HA) make this material a
preferred candidate for implants such as bone replacement in replacing natural tissues damaged
by diseases and accidents. However, the low mechanical strength of HA hinders its application.
titanium (Ti) alloy, to form a composite has been of interest to researchers. A HA/Ti composite
would possess characteristics essential to modern implant materials, such as bio-inertness, a low
Young’s modulus, and high biocompatibility. However, there are issues in the material
compatibility between the two phases. This paper reviews the HA and Ti alloy interactions under
various conditions, in vitro and in vivo tests for HA/Ti composites, and common powder
metallurgy processes for HA/Ti composites (e.g., pressing and sintering, isostatic pressing,
mechanical properties
1
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +603-89216678; Fax: +603-89259659
1. Introduction
The rapid growth of the global population is leading to an increased demand for implants for
bone dysfunction caused by diseases such as arthritis and cancer [1]. Such implants are necessary
to repair or alter natural body tissues [2]. However, given the unique structures and mechanical
properties of natural tissues such as bone tissue, repairing or changing them is challenging. Since
the introduction of bioceramics as medical implants in the 1960s, metal implants such as
titanium alloy, stainless steel, and cobalt-chromium alloys have been extensively used in medical
applications [3]. In the early period of medical implant development, the only criteria for implant
material suitability were appropriate physical properties and non-toxicity [4]. Today, the criteria
include the physical properties of the bone implant material and its ability to promote the growth
of body tissue [5]. Metal-based implants have a higher Young’s modulus than bones, which
leads to stress shielding. Metal implants also have poor biocompatibility, which is necessary to
promote the growth of natural tissue. However, metal-based implants have the beneficial
material with poor mechanical properties, especially for load-bearing applications. However, HA
has a similar structure to bones and can promote the growth of natural tissues. Combining a
titanium alloy with HA creates a new biomaterial with excellent mechanical and biological
properties. Thus, research on this material and its preparation process has been conducted [6-10].
2
This paper aims to review the interaction between titanium alloys and HA as a medical implant
In the early period of implant material development, a material was considered suitable to
replace natural tissue when it had minimal or zero toxicity [11]. Later on, the ability to promote
natural tissue growth was considered. Several studies have been conducted to achieve this goal in
terms of the processing route, design and material modification [12-18]. Biomaterials for
implants should not be cytotoxic. Cytotoxicity is caused by increased metallic ion content in the
blood. Thus, biocompatibility itself can be translated simply as “do no harm” to the body and due
to encourage healing [19]. The roughness of an implant surface is conducive to the bonding
between implant materials and tissues [20]. Porous structures and rough surfaces are necessary
for facilitating bone ingrowth and osteointegration [11, 21-23]. Rough surfaces and porous
Stress shielding is a common problem of biomaterials [30, 31]. This phenomenon arises
when the Young’s moduli of bones (Fig.1) and the implant material are different, which causes
bone resorption. Most biomaterials based on metals and ceramics have higher Young’s moduli
than cortical and trabecular bones [32, 33] (Table 1). Material selection and manufacturing
processes have been performed to address this problem. Titanium alloys are potential implant
materials because their Young’s moduli are closer to that of bone (10–30GPa) compared to other
metal implants [34]. Another approach involves controlling the Young’s modulus of bone by
3
(Insert Fig. 1. Stress shielding mechanism [36])
Since the mid-1940s, titanium and its alloys have been widely used for medical applications,
aerospace structures, and chemical industries [37, 38]. Many researchers continue to develop
titanium alloys for medical applications because of their unique properties, such as high specific
strength, lightweightness and bioinertness [1, 39-41]. Titanium and its alloys are classified as
light materials with adequately high specific strength in engineering structures (Fig. 1). Titanium
has a density of 4.5 g/cm3 and a melting point of 1668 °C. Titanium alloy has a tensile strength
reactive with other materials. Meanwhile, titanium alloys have high corrosion resistance at room
temperature because of the good biocompatibility and stable passivity of their surface oxide
films [6]. Titanium alloys can be divided into α-, (α + β)-, and β-type alloys. β-type alloys have
the lowest Young’s modulus (Table1), which is closest to the Young’s modulus of bone (10–30
GPa) [42].
4. Hydroxyapatite
Hydroxyapatite theoretically exists as the hydroxyl end-member of apatite, which was suggested
in 1912 [44]. Hydroxyapatite is one of the apatite structures that were observed in rock, the
4
apatite structure has the basic formula Ca10(PO4)6X2. X in the formula is the representation group
member of apatite and refers to a hydroxyl (OH) group for hydroxyapatite, a fluoride (F) group
for fluorapatite, and a chloride (Cl) group for chlorapatite [45]. Synthetic HA is widely applied
as a substitute for the hard tissues of the human body damaged by disease or accident. HA as an
implant can bond and promote natural tissue growth because of its chemical similarity to bone
next stage is decomposition, which produces tetra calcium phosphate (TTCP) and tri calcium
phosphate (TCP). TCP consists of β-TCP at <1200 °C and α-TCP at >1200 °C. HA loses many
hydroxyl groups above 1300 °C and thus loses significant weight [45]. Other studies have
5. Porous Structure
A porous structure in an implant material has the function not only to decreasing the Young’s
modulus of the material implant [50] but also of facilitating osteointegration. Moreover,
characteristics of the porous structure play an essential role in the regeneration of bone [51-53].
Porous structures can be divided into open or closed cells. In an open cell condition, each cell in
the structure has a connection. In a closed cell, no connection exists between cells on the
structure [54]. The interconnection of each cell is critical for allowing blood and nutrition into
the structure to encourage bone ingrowth and osteointegration. The pore size depends on the
application and thus has no standard size. For bone ingrowth, the minimum pore size is 50 µm.
Large pores tend to be drained of blood and nutrient more than small pores. Thus, the pore size
5
must be considered when examining the mechanical properties of an implant [51, 55]. Powder
metallurgy (PM) processes can be used to produce combined small and large pores by adjusting
the powder size, pressure, sintering temperature, and method of adding the powder to the space
The interaction between titanium alloys and hydroxyapatite has been studied by several
researchers [6, 35, 59-65]. Thermal stability has been observed to affect the synthesis of HA
[45], such that in the thermal processing of a HA/Ti system, TCP and TTCP are commonly
in HA/Ti composites, Ti ions react with the dehydrated water of HA to yield titanium oxide,
CaO and TTCP are the main products of HA decomposition in a Ti/HA system with increased
sintering temperature. TTCP then decomposes to CaO at >1200 °C such that only two phases are
formed, namely, CaO and an amorphous phase [64]. Balbinotti et al. reported that at
approximately 1026 °C under an argon atmosphere, calcium titanate, TixPy, and TCP phases are
the decomposition products, as observed in the XRD result in Fig. 3 [65]. These phases are
6
(Insert Fig. 3. XRD pattern of Ti/10%HA composite at 1200oC for 2 hour under argon
condition [65])
Egorov et al investigated and characterized the interactions within Ti/HA composites in air at
700–1200 °C and observed that titanium is oxidized (Fig. 4) [59]. This result is supported by
TiO2 is produced at 800 °C, and only two crystalline phases exist: TiO2 and calcium titanate
(CaTiO3). CaTiO3 is produced by the interaction between titanium and HA [59]. Berezhnaya et
al. compared annealing results in air and argon [62]. Specimens annealed in argon have a smooth
surface, and those annealed in air have a surface covered with titanium oxide. Moreover,
Berezhnaya et al. revealed that annealing in air reduces the biocompatibility because the
optimum Ca/P ratio is not reached [45, 62]. The optimum biocompatibility of HA is achieved at
approximately 1.5–1.7Ca/P.
Yang et al. studied HA/Ti composites in a vacuum at 1100 °C, and observed the formation of
TCP, TTCP, and calcium titanium oxide (Ca2Ti2 O5) [60]. Fractured surface analysis revealed
three types of surface morphologies of the HA/Ti composite, as shown in Fig. 5. Granular
7
aggregation (calcium phosphate and Ca2Ti2O5), a porous structure, and a glassy phase are
observed in HA, and α-TCP and TTCP are present in the composite. This morphology is caused
by the unequal melting points of the two materials as well as by the fusion between HA and
molten Ti
(Insert Fig 5. Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture morphology of Ti/HA composite in a
vacuum: (a) 80% HA (1500× original magnification) and (b) 90% HA (1200× original
magnification). (A) Granular aggregation, (B) porous area, and (C) glassy phase.[60])
There is a possibility of reactions between hydroxyapatite and Ti under vacuum condition [60].
In the first stage, hydroxyapatite loses a hydroxyl chain in the following reaction:
The fabrication of a HA/Ti system in a nitrogen environment has been reported by several
8
(Insert Fig. 6. XRD spectra of HA-20vol%Ti in a nitrogen environment for 60 min at (a)
1000 and (b) 1100 °C[67])
Fig. 6 shows that at 1000 °C, only a small quantities of α-Ca3(PO4)2,(α-TCP), and Ca4O(PO4)2
were detected. The decomposition phase of Ti/HA composites increase with increased sintering
temperature, and no reaction occurs between HA and titanium [67]. TCP in HA/Ti composites
degrades faster than HA, promoting new natural tissues and leading to unstable mechanical
At the HA/Ti interface, the Ti atoms at elevated temperature tend to oxidize to become TiO2, and
normally, the TiO2 position on top of the titanium surface; however, parameter processing tends
to alter the formation passivation of TiO2. In this situation, Ti atoms from the metallic bulk
move and inter-diffuse on the film while oxygen atoms migrate to the titanium bulk [69, 70]. The
result of this simultaneous process is titanium oxide in amorphous or crystalline form. The
interstitial atom diffuses to the Ti lattice until reaching a saturation level, followed by oxidation
of titanium. The diffusion rate of oxygen will decelerate when TiO2 occur [71]. Ye et al. and Chu
et al. also reported that dehydroxylation of hydroxyapatite would be accelerated by the presence
of Ti atoms, under this condition, oxygen diffuses to the Ti metallic bulk to form titanium oxides
[64, 67]. Furthermore, calcium and phosphorous ions diffuse into the Ti substrate to affect the
Ca/P ratio of apatite. The phosphorous ion has the ability to migrate rapidly into the Ti substrate
due to its smaller radii and lower activation energy. Other authors reported that Ca, P and Ti
have been detected on some regions but other phase that are common results of the reaction
9
between HA and TiO2 were not observed. The presence of Ca, P and Ti atoms demonstrated that
(Insert Fig 7. SEM image of the polished surface of a HA/Ti composite (a) polished area and
Balbinotti et al. performed EDS line scans on the polished part of a HA/Ti composite; titanium
and a small amount of calcium were detected on the polished area [65]. It was believed that the
titanium formation phase Titanium and calcium tend to be fragile and are partially lost because
of the polishing mechanism. At the HA/Ti interface, titanium and phosphorous were detected, as
observed in Fig 7. The vertical arrow indicates the area where phosphorus was detected; under
this condition, Ti and P were detected in the formation TixPy phase which demonstrates that the
phosphorus ion has diffused to the titanium ion during sintering. Commonly, differences in the
thermal expansion of ceramic will lead to cracking due to non uniform of residual stresses in the
material [72]. Cracks have also been observed in HA / Ti composites that will degrade their
mechanical properties. Shi et al. observed micro cracks in the HA/Ti composites, which were
addition, micro cracks were also found in the results using MIM products as reported by Thian et
al. [63].
10
7. Nanostructure of HA/Ti system
Nanomaterials are known as great potential candidates for implant material application [73];
Webster at al , reported that nanostructure materials (with grain sizes less than 100 nm ) have the
ability to increase function osteoblast adhesion, which supports the next stage of tissue growth
[27, 29, 74], as shown on the Fig.8. Others researchers also reported that nanoscale topography
played a critical role in increasing cell activity, which rapidly encouraged tissue growth
compared with conventional materials [75-77]. The fabrication of HA/Ti composites on the
nanoscale have the advantage of increasing consolidation between Ti and HA such as the
hardness value, young’s modulus and corrosion resistance [14, 78]. The combination of
mechanical alloying and the powder metallurgical process has been proposed by Niespodziana et
al. in the fabrication of nanostructure HA/Ti [78]. A unique method has been proposed by
Farnoush et al, these researchers have combined friction stir processing and electrophoretic
(Insert Fig. 8. Nanophase materials promote greater amounts of protein adsorption and
encourage additional new bone formation compared with conventional materials [73].)
Tests of biological properties are important in the manufacture of implant materials [8]. These
tests determine the suitability of an implant material. In vivo and in vitro tests are extensively
used for biological evaluation. In vivo or “in the living organism” tests are performed inside the
body of a living organism, and in vitro or “in glass” tests are performed in inanimate laboratory
a few weeks in simulated body fluid (SBF) whose conditions are similar to those in human blood
11
plasma [81]. The ion concentrations in SBF and human blood plasma are listed in Table 2. Thian
et al. reported that HA/Ti composites are tested through immersion in SBF solution to induce
complete dissolution of the secondary phase after 2 weeks [8, 81]. Complete dissolution of the
calcium phosphate phase occurs during the initial stage of immersion, which results in the
deterioration of the mechanical properties of the specimen. In the next stage, the mechanical
properties of the HA/Ti composites significantly increases because of the precipitation of the
apatite layer [8]. The combination of titanium and HA promotes apatite nucleation. In the
secondary phase, Ti2O helps generate apatite on the composite surface [82, 83]. In addition, the
dissolution of CaO encourages a constructive location for apatite nucleation and growth [82].
(Insert Table.2. Concentration of ion Simulated body fluid (SBF) and human blood plasma
[81])
In vivo tests of a HA/Ti composite have been conducted by Chu et al.[66, 68]. using New
Zealand white rabbits. These researchers cut the implant model into rectangular shapes 3.3 mm
wide, 3.3 mm thick, and 5–6 mm long rectangular shapes, as illustrated in Fig. 9.
(Insert Fig. 9. Implant model of a HA/Ti composite: a) rectangular specimen and b) cross-
sectional view of specimen (DB = defective bone region; region for bone healing area) [66])
In vivo tests revealed that the HA/Ti composite has excellent biocompatibility that enables it to
integrate with bone, which increases osteointegration and bonding strength with time after the
initial stage of implantation [66, 68, 84]. According to Congqin Ning and Yu Zhou, HA/Ti
composites produce a bone-bonding interface with bone through an apatite layer. The bioactivity
12
value of HA/Ti compositesis determined by increasing the titanium content in a HA/Ti system
[85]. These researchers also revealed that the in vivo and in vitro tests have similar results as
9. Powder Metallurgy
PM is a manufacturing method in which powder metals are compressed with or without other
materials, and then heated without a melting stage for solidification and strengthening [87]. PM
products [88]. Several methods have been proposed to produce HA/Ti composites, such as
conventional PM [61, 65, 89], non-conventional PM [90], and plasma spraying [91-93]. The
conventional method or “pressing and sintering process” usually consists of mixing the powder,
compacting the powder in a desired mold, and sintering [94]. Occasionally, during the
compaction step, the mold temperature is raised to high temperatures and is classified as hot
pressing [66, 68]. Non-conventional processes include powder injection molding (PIM) and
isostatic pressing, which can be further divided into hot and cold processes [94].
Mixing is commonly required in PM and involves mixing the powder with other powders as well
as with a binder. Failure in mixing irreversibly affects the next step. The mixing stage involves
numerous parameters such as mixing time, mixing temperature, powder size, and powder shape,
composition of powder, and composition of the binder [95]. Thian et al. proposed the ceramic
slurry approach for applying PIM and hot/cold isostatic pressure. Ti6Al4V and HA powder were
mixed with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as a binder for a certain time [96]. To remove the binder,
the Ti6Al4V slurry was heated at 450 °C in air and the consolidation stage was performed at
13
higher temperatures (~600–700 °C). Using this method, HA can be coated around the titanium
(Insert Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrograph of HA/Ti6Al4V composite powder using the
ceramic slurry approach [96])
In conventional PM, uniaxial pressure is applied when the pressing powder is contained in a die.
Removal of powder from the die can only be performed through the in-line movement of a punch
using this method. Moreover, the density of green compacts through conventional PM varies.
However, despite these limitations, PM has numerous advantages such as low manufacturing
Isostatic pressing is one well-known near-net-shape methods to produce parts with highly
complex shapes [97]. Unlike conventional PM which uses uniaxial pressure, isostatic pressing
powder makes use of a flexible mold “enveloped”-contained powder with applied pressure
through hydraulic pressure from all directions as shown in Fig.11 [98]. Isostatic pressing can be
divided into hot and cold types, wherein cold isostatic pressing operates at room temperature
using water and oil as the fluid pressure. In contrast, hot isostatic pressing operates at elevated
temperature [94].
(Insert Fig.11. Illustration of flexible mold movement in the isostatic pressing process[98])
14
Isostatic pressing is performed to induce maximum density [99]. In hot isostatic pressing, some
parameters such as the sintering temperature and pressure can be controlled to produce
interconnected porosity, good mechanical properties, and high permeability [100]. The resulting
complete diffusion bond is one of the main advantages of this method. The complexity of the
inner and outer surfaces of the product must be overcome to avoid the negative effects of the
large product size [97]. Under correct design and control, the mechanical properties of the
product of hot isostatic pressing, i.e.,near-wrought materials, significantly improve [97, 101].
Hot isostatic pressing requires necessary precision control for every stage to achieve optimum
results. Therange time per cycle is counted in hours to produce a specific component. However,
producing many parts in one batch can decrease the running cycle. Sometimes, a product
requires a high cooling rate to change its microstructure and mechanical properties. Thus,
conventional hot isostatic pressing is the common option [97]. At high temperatures, HA
decomposes into a secondary phase [45], especially when the plasma-spraying method is used.
Onoki and Hashida proposed a route to avoid this problem. These researchers used hot isostatic
pressing to coat HA on titanium bars at low temperatures through the double-layered capsule
hydrothermal hot-pressing method under hydrothermal isostatic pressure (Fig. 12) [102]. They
(Insert Fig. 12. Cross section of the double layered capsule hydrothermal hot-pressing method
[102])
15
9.3 Plasma spray
Surface modification through plasma spraying may improve the biocompatibility and mechanical
properties of metal implants [93]. Plasma spraying coats a material with other materials
possessing specific properties (Fig.13). For example, HA is used as a coating material and
titanium alloy is used as a substrate. Metal implants with low biocompatibility are usually coated
The structural integrity of bonds between a substrate and coating under fatigue is determined by
the suitability of the chemical and thermal properties. To avoid mismatches between a substrate
and coating, an intermediate layer is used between them [104, 105]. The mechanism of bonding
between HA and titanium through plasma spraying that utilizes CaTiO3as a bond layer is
stronger than the bonding mechanism through mechanical interlocking. HA reacts with TiO2 at
800–1000°C on the Ti surface, where CaTiO3 and TCP are present as secondary phases [91].
Forming composite coatings with Ti increases the strength of the adhesive bonding coating.
Consequently, Ti and HA can uniformly spread on the surface. A SBF testing also indicates no
easy and safe method to coat HA onto Ti alloys. However, in biomedical applications, problems
involving residual stress, a low level of crystallinity, a low level of porosity, and non-uniform
distribution porosity are encountered [107, 108] Microporosity includes sizes of approximately
Combining plasma spraying and isostatic pressing has been proposed by certain researchers to
16
address this problem. Satisfactory results have been obtained in decreasing the microporosity and
MIM is commonly used after modification and innovation at each stage of PIM [111], as shown
in Fig. 14. PIM itself is a combination of two methods: plastic injection molding and PM [95]. In
MIM, the volume fraction of plastic for PIM is substituted by metal powder, which is mixed with
plastic into pasta (feedstock). The feedstock is injected into the molding machine (green part),
followed by an extraction binder and finally by sintering [112] If a material used is ceramic, it
is called ceramic injection molding, whereas MIM denotes covering materials and ceramics
[95]. The metal injection process offers reduced production costs, especially in producing
complex components in large quantities [113, 114]. In titanium processing using MIM, the small
and complex products are contaminated by carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen, which affects the other
processes [115]. Contamination occurs in oxide form at the interface of a particle that initiates
cracking. The contamination level of a material contributes to the fatigue properties of a product
[116].
MIM is used to fabricate biomaterial components [8, 12, 113, 117]. Developing composite
structures containing titanium alloys and HA for medical applications using MIM has been
extensively studied by Thian et al. [8, 63, 90, 118]. HA/ Ti composite powder is prepared
through the ceramic slurry approach with PVA as a binder. PVA is removed from the
homogenized composite powder by heating. The powder is then crushed into small particles
17
using a mortar and pestle [119]. The composite powder is mixed with commercial a multi-
component binder system consisting of natural wax, fatty acid wax, stearic acid, poly-oxi-
alkylen-ether, and olefin-hydrocarbons. A sigma blade mixer is used to mix feedstock consisting
calorimetry [118]. For 50 wt% Ti6Al4V and 50 wt% HA, Thian et al. found that a powder
loading of 60 vol% is the most suitable for yielding homogeneous and moldable feedstock [90].
The effects of the sintering temperature, heating rate, and cooling rate on the density and
porosity are determined. At a sintering temperature of 1100 °C, the density, hardness, flexural
strength, and flexural modulus increase at heating rate of 7.5 °C/min and cooling rate of 5
At high sintering temperatures, a HA/Ti system decomposes at 800 °C [46, 60]. Ye et al [64]
found that the presence of titanium in HA accelerates the dehydroxylation and decomposition of
HA. The decomposition of HA increases with increased sintering temperature, and significant
decomposition begins after the specimens are sintered above 1100 °C [63]. In vitro experiments
on HA/Ti specimens have revealed their chemical content and surface morphology after
immersion in SBF. After 2 weeks, the dissolution of secondary phases such as TCP, TTCP, and
CaO is complete. At 2–4 weeks, the mechanical properties of the specimens decrease because of
the dissolution of calcium phosphate layers. Afterwards, the mechanical properties are recovered
by the precipitation of the apatite layer[8]. Some methods of fabricating HA/Ti composites that
approach the mechanical properties of bone and have Young’s modules ranging from 10 GPa to
30 GPa have been proposed, as shown in (Table 3). However, the manufacturing cost, size, and
18
(Insert Table.3 Mechanical properties of HA/Ti composites based on various processes)
In the early weeks of in vitro tests, the dissolution of HA/Ti composites generally produce
secondary phases such as TCP, TTCP, and CaO. The mechanical properties of implants
significantly decrease and the mechanical properties increase to achieve the near-initial value
10. Conclusions
Issues concerning the material processing and metallurgy characteristics have been reviewed and
discussed to meet the requirements for medical implant applications using existing
manufacturing process. The composition of titanium and HA determines the effectiveness of the
parameters are critical factors in determining the phase of two materials formed during the
diffusion process. In particular, the sintering temperature plays a dominant role in the fabrication
of HA/Ti composites because this parameter affects the thermal stability of HA. Generally,
HA/Ti composites produce TCP, TTCP, and CaO in air, with the main phases being TiO2 and
calcium titanate. in vivo and in vitro tests validate the ability of HA/Ti composites to form bonds
with natural tissues, especially at the early stages of implantation. In conclusion, optimization of
process parameters especially during sintering parameters (temperature, heating rate, time, gas
condition) should be further investigated to determine a better working processing window for
19
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grant No. UKM-DLP-2012-027 from the Universiti Kebangsaan
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List of Table
Table. 2. Concentration of ion Simulated body fluid (SBF) and human blood plasma [81]
Figure Caption
Fig. 3. XRD pattern of Ti/10%HA composite at 1200oC for 2 hour under argon condition [65]
Fig 7. SEM image of the polished surface of a HA/Ti composite (a) polished area and (b)EDS
line scan analysis [65]
Fig. 8. Nanophase materials promote greater amounts of protein adsorption and encourage
additional new bone formation compared with conventional materials [73].
Fig. 9. Implant model of a HA/Ti composite: a) rectangular specimen and b) cross-sectional view
of specimen (DB = defective bone region; region for bone healing area) [66]
Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrograph of HA/Ti6Al4V composite powder using the ceramic
slurry approach [96]
Fig.11. Illustration of flexible mold movement in the isostatic pressing process [98]
Fig. 12. Cross section of the double layered capsule hydrothermal hot-pressing method [102]
27
Fig. 1. Stress shielding mechanism [36]
28
Fig. 3. XRD pattern of Ti/10%HA composite at 1200oC for 2 hour under argon condition [65]
29
Fig. 5. Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture morphology of Ti/HA composite in a
vacuum: (a) 80% HA (1500× original magnification) and (b) 90% HA (1200× original
magnification). (A) Granular aggregation, (B) porous area, and (C) glassy phase.[60]
Fig. 6. XRD spectra of HA-20vol%Ti in a nitrogen environment for 60 min at (a) 1000 and (b)
1100 °C [67]
30
Fig 7. SEM image of the polished surface of a HA/Ti composite (a) polished area and (b)EDS
line scan analysis [65]
Fig. 8. Nanophase materials promote greater amounts of protein adsorption and encourage
additional new bone formation compared with conventional materials [73].
31
Fig. 9. Implant model of a HA/Ti composite: a) rectangular specimen and b) cross-sectional view
of specimen (DB = defective bone region; region for bone healing area) [66]
Fig. 10. Scanning electron micrograph of HA/Ti6Al4V composite powder using the ceramic
slurry approach [96]
32
Fig.11. Illustration of flexible mold movement in the isostatic pressing process [98]
Fig. 12. Cross section of the double layered capsule hydrothermal hot-pressing method [102]
33
Fig. 13. Illustration of plasma spray process [103]
34
Fig.14. Stages of the metal injection process [111]
35
Table 1. Comparison of the mechanical properties of implant materials [43]
Table. 2. Concentration of ion Simulated body fluid (SBF) and human blood plasma [81]
36
Table.3 Mechanical properties of HA/Ti composites based on various processes
37
Highlights
38