INSTRUMENT ENGINEERS’ HANDBOOK | Keeets Control and Optimization BELA G. LIPTAK, Editor-in-Chief (a 1h een Sts Fourth Edition ININSTRUMENT ENGINEERS’ HANDBOOK Fourth Edition Process Control and Optimization VOLUME II Béla G. Lipték EDITOR-IN-CHIEFThis reference tent is published in cooperation with ISA Press, the publishing division of I$A--Lnsrumentaic, Syste, and Automation Soeiy ‘computers sti ysl fr messuersent and central ina wie sanety of apoleatons, For mune ifort, ssh ewig or sall 619) 49-84 Published in 2006 by RC Press ‘Teslor& Francis Group S00 Boke Soune Parkway’ NW, Suite 200 aca Reton, FL 3887-2742 CCRC Press isan imprint af Teor & Frans Group [Noli wo cig U.S. Goverment works nea nthe Unie Sees of Armenia om ache paper Iwermational Stand Book Naber 10; 08493-10814 (Hades) Inernatioal Saaaré Dook Number 13: 976:08893-10812 (Mandeosen Lnary of Congres Card Nomber 2003038453, ‘This book contains ifnmation obsined fom ahem and highly eepnded sources, Reprinted maria is quete with permission, and souees se lew pb tine deta are indicted. A wide verity of rolrenses ate itd. Reweonable eff hve born Iiblishrcansot ssa responsiblity forthe saldity ofall materi r forte eonsenees oftheir we Np par ofthis book may be reprinted, reproduced, ransmited, ce uid in any form by any eletoni, mechanical, or oher means, now known Fram the poblishers Fer permission to phtueypy or use materia cleanly fiom hs wrk, conn (aiptvw:copyrightcen) er contact the Copyright Clesnce Center, Inc (CCC) 222 Revewed Drive, Darvers, MA 01933, 98-750 840. CCC ts xno fe pt organi that Ca separa sie ase access wwrncopyig Provides horses a repststion fra Narelyof users, Porongaizations that have been gram & shores sense by the Teeter: Nate: Pid cpa tmed tay bt tear vege tale md ie ied oaly Fer edit wth iment to inns Library af Congress Cataloging Pen Process canto. 01985 Includes Sbliograptical tsterences and ines. Content, 2 Proess contol and opinion, ISBN 08493-1081-4 4.2) Process cortrol-Hantooks, manus ct 2. Measuring istruments-Handbooks, mansals te. Lith BelaG. Il astument engineers handbook, Process messuerent an analysis, TSIS6S 56 2005, (20 Vii he Taslor & Francis Web site a informa pswstnlorandfanescom Taybr & Franch Groep isthe Academic Dsin of TRF Informa pe, hupafwwwscreproseom sonseasessContributors — xi Introduction xix Definitions — xxix Societies and Organizations li Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Acronyms, and Symbols General 1 1 Analog vs. Digital Instruments 3 2 Computer Configurations of Supervisory Units 15 3 Computers — Simulation by Analog and Hybrid Sysiems 26 Electronic ¥s. Pneumatic Instruments 41 5S Homan Engi 16 6 Process Alarm Management 59 is and Voice Recognition 64 8 snd Signal Condiioning’ 7 Control Theory 89 21 Control Basics 96 2.2 Control Modes. 2.3 Control Modes. 24 Contro! Mo PID Controllers 114 PID Variations 12: —Digital PID Controllers 130 2.5. Control Modes —Closed-L oop Response 135 2.6 Control Systems— Cascade Loops 148, 2.7 Empirical Process Optimization 157 28 Expert Systems 162 2.9 Feodhack and Feedforward Control 173 210 Genetic and Other Evolutionary Algorithms 181 2.11 Hierarchical Control 193 2.12. Ineraction and Decoupli 13 Model-Based Control Model-Based Predictive Contiol Patents 214 2.15 Model-Feee Adaptive (MFA) Control 16 Modeling and Simulation of Processes 234 Model Predictive Control and Optimization 242 Neural Networks for Process Modeling 283 Nonlinear and Adaptive Control Optimizin PID Al 205 Comal orithms and Programming 284 CONTENTS IIITviii Contenss PANAMA Process Gains, Time Ratio Control 30. Real-Time Perfor Relative Gain Caleulations 318. 26 Robustness: A Guide for Sensitivity and Stability 323 27 Sampled Data Control Systems 326 28 Selective, Override, and Limit Controls 336 Solf-Tuning Controllers 345 Sliding Mode Control in Process Industry 351 Soltware for Fuzzy Logie Control 360 Stability Analysis, Transfer Functions State Space Coatrol 393 Statistical Process Control 405 Tuning PID Controllers 414 Tuning Level Control Loops 432 Tuning Interacting Loops, Synchronizing Loops Tuning by Computer 446 ition Curves 296 nance Assessment 311 Transmitters and Local Controllers 457 3.1 Controllers— Pneumatic 460 3.2 Controllers —Electronie 478 3.3. Converters and Dampeners 488 34 Relays for Computing and Programmers 493 3.5. Telemetering Systems 507 3,6 Transmitters Electronic 520 3.7 ‘Transmitters —Fiber-Optie Transmission 535 3.8 Transmiwers—Pneumatic $47 3.9 Transmitters: SelF-Checking and Self-Valigating 559 3.10 ‘Transmitters: Smart, Multivariable, and Fieldbus 56 Control Room Equipment 575 4. Annunciacors and Alarms 580 4.2 Control Centers and Panels — Traditional 598 43° Control Center Up ois 44 Contutlers— Electronic Analog and Digital 633 1S CRT Displays 650 46 BCS: Basic Trends and Advances 663 1.7 BCS: Control end Simulation Advances 677 18 DCS: Installation and Commissioning 687 49 Invegration with Buses and Networks 693 1.10 DCS: Integeation with Other Systems 700 1.1] DCS: Mangement of Abnormal Situations 706 4.12 BCS: Modern Conti! Graphics 720 an 2 44 nv Architecture 739 415 Digital Readouts and Graphic Displays 75 416 Fieldfuses and Network Protocols 770 1.17 Human-Machine Interface Evolusion 790 4.18 Indicators, Analog Displays. $03 419° Lights 812 1.20 Recorders, Oscllographs, Loggers 4.21 Switehes, Pushbuttens, Keyboards 829 422 “Touch Sereen Displays 845 son's Graphios Recorders 81823. Uninterruptible Power and Voltagy 424 Workstation De PLCs and Other Logic Devices 877 SA Bina e Supplies (UPS and UVS) 85: » 868 Logie Diagrams for Process Operations 880 5.2 Ladder Diagrams 893 5.3. Optimization of Logie Circuits 898 54 PLCs: Programmable Logie Controllers 96 5.5 PLC Programming 944 5.6 PLC Softwate Advances 966 5.1 Practical Logie Design 976 5.8 Programmable Safety Systems 993 5.9 Relays 1006 5.10 Solid-State Logic Elements 1015 5.11 System Integration: Computers with PLCs 1023 5.12 Time Delay Relays 1030 5.13 ‘Timers and Prog amming Timers 1036 Control Valve Selection and Sizing 1045 6.1 Application and Selection of Control Valves 1050) 62 Accessories and Positioners 1087 63 Actuators: Digital, Flectric, Hydraulic, Solenoid 1105 64 Actuators: Pneumatic 124 65 — Advanced Stem Packing Designs [144 66 Capacity Testing 115% 6.7 Characteristics and Rangeability 1154 6.8 Diagnesties and Previctive Valve Maintenance L161 Dynamic Performance of Control Valves 1165 Emergency Partial-Siroke Testing of Block Valves 1172 clabus ind Smart Valves 1182 Inyelligent Valves, Positioners, Accessories 1193 as 1199 jon, Prediction, and Reduction 1213, Ball Valves aterfly Valves 1273 Valve Types Valve Types Valve Types: Pinch Valves Valve Types: Plug Valves 1341 Valve Types: Saunders Diaphragm Valves 1348 Sliding Gate Valves 1353 Regulators and Final Control Elements 1359 Dampers and Louvers 1362 Bleetrie Energy Modulation 1368 Linear and Angular Positioning of Machinery Pumps as Control Elements 1382 S Regulators Plow 1307 6 Regulators —Level 1405 7 Regulalors— Pressure 1412 78 Regulstors—Temperanie 1426 9 ‘Thermostats and Humidistats 140 10. Variable-Speed Drives 1434 Contents ix mnCoaten PATA 8 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations 1473 8 82 83) 84 85 86 8 88 89 Aeration and BO Contrals 1484 Airhandler and Buikling Conditioning Controls 1507 Batch Conteol Description, Terminology, and Standard S88 1528 Batch Processes and their Automation 1544 Blending and Rati Controls 1558 Boiler Control and Optimization 1572 Contrifuge Comrols 16 Chemical Reactors: Batch Seguencing 1640 Chemical Reactors: Basie Control Strategies 1664 Chemical Reactors: Control and Optimization 1697 u Chemical Reactors: Simslation and Modeling Chiller Control 1720 Chiller Optimization 1729 Clean Room Controls and Optimization 1753 Compressar Control and Optimization 1765 Cooling Tower Control 1794 Cooling Tower Optimization 1805 Crystallizer Controls 1811 Distillation: Basic Contols 1820 Distilhition: Csleulstions of Relative Gains 1855 Distillation: Optimization and Advanced Controls 1866 Dryer Controls 190% Evaporator Controls 1914 Extruder Controls 1932 Fan Controls 1946 Fuel Cell Contols 1952 Furnace and Reformer Controls 1965 Heatdet-Supplied Distribution Control 1993 Heat Exchanger Coatrol and Optimization 2004 Inert Gas Blanketing Controls 2025 CORP Contiols 2032 pH Control 2044 Power Plant Controls: Cogeners Pump Controls 2084 Pump Optimization 2110 Rolling Mill Controls 2116 Separation Controls, Air 2123 ‘Steam Turbine Wastewater Treatment Controls 2152 Water Supply Plant Conitols 2172 Well-Supplied Underground Gas Storage Controls 2194 jon and Combined Cycle 2057 ‘ontrols 2137 Appendix 2209 Al AQ AS Aa AS Ao A. AS Ao A.10 International Systern of Unite 2210 Engineering Conversion Factors 2220 Chemical Resistance of Materials (Table A.3) 2242 Composition of Mesallic and Other Materials (Table Aa) Steam and Water Tables 2254 Friction Lass in Pipes ‘Tank Volumes 2266 Partial Lis! of Suppliers Direcory of “Lost” Companies (Revised 6/200) 2295 ISA Standards 2302 51r Here, their e names ofall the authors of all four editions of this handbook CONTRIBUTORS ction of e ed at the beginning of each se th chapter esitions shat they held at the time of making dieir bast conuibations ave also listed. Those authors who hase participated in the preparation of this fourth edition are distinguished by an asterisk “JANOS ABONY! ROBERT H. APPLEBY *JAMES B. ARANT “TIBOR BAAN MIGUEL J. BAGAJEWICZ “STEVEN BAIN ROBERT J, BAKER ROGER M. BAKKE *ANDRAS BALINT “RUTH BARS CHET S, BARTON “HANS D. BAUMANN CHESTER S. BEARD *KEN BEATTY “JONAS BERGE JOHN W. BERNARD PAD, Assistant Professor, University of Veseprém, Hungary BSMath, MSStat, Facilivies Manager, Immaculate Conception Church (ChE, PE, Principal of J. B, Arant & Assoc, Consulting, U.S.A, BME, CEO, Aalby struments andl Controls Ine PhD, AIChe, Professor, University of Oblshomis, Not 1, Ohlahonna, U.S.A. BscEE, PE, L&C Engineer, CH2M Hill BS, Technical Director, Wallace & Tiernan Div, of Pennwalt Corp, BS, MS, Senior wgineet, IBM Corp. PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Veszprém, Hungary PAD, Associate Professor, Budapest University of Technolo; Hungary and Evonomies, PE, PSEE, Senior Process Automation Engineer, Jacobs Engineering, Baton Rouge Louisiana, U.S.A. PADME, PE, President, H.B. Services Par BSEE, Aultor, Retired from Bechet Corp BSME, MEMME, Director af Advanced Product Development, Flowserve Engineer. SMAR, Singapoi BSCHE, MSIE, PE, Manager, Systems Technology, The Foxboro Co,Contriburors *MICHAEL L. BERNS *PETER GRAHAM BERRIE “VIPUL BHSANAR PAUL B. BINDER *TERRENCE BLEVINS RICHARD W. BORUT STUART A. BOYER “WALTER BOYES AUGUST BRODGESELL ROBERT D. BUCHANAN GEORGE C. BUCKBEE ERIC J. BYRES *FRED M. CAIN ANTHONY M. GALABRESE *OSCAR CAMACHO BRYAN DELL CAMPBELL DANIEL E. CAPANO RICHARD H. CARD ‘MICHAEL D. CHAPMAN HARRY L. CHEDDIE “GEORGE S, CHENG *XU CHENG WILLIAM N. CLARE SCOTT ¢. CLARK JOHN A. COPELAND ARMANDO B, CORRIPIO MSEE, PE, Electrical Engineer, Alean Plastic Pack: PhD, Marketing Communications Manaet, Endress + Hauser Process Solutions AG, Switzerland BE, 1&C Specialist, Consultant, Canaila BSME, Program Manager, Leeds & Northrup MSEE, Principal Technologist, Emerson Process Management, U.S.A Senior Manager, M. W. Kellogg Co. PE, BSc, EE, President, Iliad Engineer ne, Canada Editor in Chief, Control M: SEF, President, CRB Systems Inc BSCE, MS, Environmental Consultant MSCHE, Control Engineer, Top Control, Clarks Summit, Pennsylvania, PE, Research Facility, British Columbia Institue of Technology, Canada RSME, PF, Director of Engineering, Flowserve Carp, BSChE, BSEE, MSChE, PE, Senior Engineering Mana M.W. Kello PhD, Professor, Universidad de Los Andes, Venezuela BSEE, MEE, Electrical Engineer, Staaley Toole President, Diversified Technical Services, Inc., Starnford, Connecticut, U.S.A BChE, MS, MBA, CMC Associates, Acton, Massachusetts, U.S AAS, Startup and Control System Eng. Supervisor, Bechtel Corp. PE, BSc, Principal Engineer, Exida.com, Sarnia, Ontario, C PAD, Chaim CTO, CyboSoft, General Cybemation Group, Ine PAD, Emerson Process Management, Power and Water Solutions: BSChE, MSChE, Engineering Manager, Automated Dyramies Corp. BS, CoE, Project Engineer, Merck & Co., Ine., Etkion, Virginia, U.S.A BSEE, MSEE, PhDEE, Partner, Jackson Associates BSChE, University ISCHE, PDC PE, Professor of Chemical Bi Louisiana StateNICHOLAS 0. CROMWELL LOUIS D, DINAPOLI ROBERT G. DITTMER ASEGEIR DROIVOLDSMO SAMUEL 6. DUKELOW “WATSON PARNELL DURDEN “RANDY A. DWIGGINS LAWRENCE S, DYSART SHIBI EMMANUEL “HALIT EREN GEORG F. ERK EDWARD J. FARMER “BRIDGET ANN FITZPATRICK PAUL G. FRIEDMANN JEHUDA FRYOMAN LUDGER FUCHTLER *STEPHAN E. GAERTHER “WINSTON GARCIA-GABIN “DAVID J. GARDELLIN CHARLES E. GAYLOR “BRUCE J. GEDDES “JOHN PETER GERRY *ASISH GHOSH “PEDRO M. B. SILVA GIRAO “ALAN CHARLES GIBSON “IAN H. GIBSON Conrriburors xiii BSCHE, Principal Systems Architect, The Foxboro Co, BSEE, MSEE, Manager, Flowmeter Marketing and Technology, BIF Products 0} Leeds & Northrup Co, SEE, Corporate Process Control Engineer, PPG Industries MS, Reseurch Scientist, OBCD Halden Reactor Project, Halen, Norway BSME, National Sales Manager, Bailey Meter Co. ASInst‘Tech, Systems Eaginger, Westin Engineer: BCCHE, MSS)SE, PE, Performance Improvement Consultan, Invensys Systems BSE, Engineer, Robertshaw Controls Co. MTech, B'Tech, Head of T& C, Dar A Riyablh Consultants, Al Khobar, Saudi Arabi PaD, Curtin University of Technology, Australia BSME, MSChE, PE, Consult Retired from Sun Refining Engineer in Instrumentation and Cor BSEE, PE, President, Ed Famer & Associates, Inc PSCHE, MBA, Senior Consultant, Mustang BSChE, MSE, Conirol Consultant, CRB S Manage Electrical Engineering Section, Mobil Chemical Co., Plastics Div Dipl. Bs ser Process Solutions AG, Reinach ting Manager, Endress + Hi Switzerland gincer, Clipper Controls PAD, MSc, Professor, Universidad de Los Andes, Venezuela BSME, PE, President and CEO of Onyx Valve Co. BSC |, PE, Manager of Enginearing Services, Hooker Chemica Corp. Plane L&C Design Consultant, Calvert Cliffs Nuclear Po MSCHE, PE, President, ExperTune Ine. CE, MIEE, View President, ARC Advisory Group Professor, Laboratétio de Medidas Eléotri BAS, ADE, Contract Instrument En BSc, DipChE, Pracess, Controls & Safety Consultant, AustraliaContributors *RICHARD A. GILBERT DAVID M. GRAY JOSEPH A. GUMP BHISHAM P. GUPTA BERNHARD GUT *cdrey GyGROK DIANE M. HANLON HASHEM MEHRDAD HASHEMIAN HAROLD I. HERTANU *JENG HETHESSY CONRAD H. HOEPPNER HAROLD L. HOFFMAN PER A. HOLST *KARLENE A. HOO MICHAEL F. HORDESKI FRANKLIN B, HOROWITZ DAVID L. HOYLE DAVID W. HOYTE JOHN C, HUBER STUART P. JACKSON RAJSHREE RANKA JAIN “JAMES EDVIARD JAMISON “BRUCE ALAN JENSEN KENNETH J. JENTZEN DONALD R. JONES PAD, Professor of Cher University of South Florida BSCHE, Specislist Engineer, Leeds & Northrup Insiruments BSCHE, Provess Panel Manager, Control Products Corp, BS, MSM DSc, PE, Instrument Engineer, Arumeo.Saudi Arabia Dipl. Eng. Informatik, Head of Depantment for Communications. Endress + Hauser Gmbk + Co., Germany PhD, Vice Director, Budapest Polytectinie, Hu BSEE, BSME, Engineer, E.1, DuPont de 5 emours & Co, MSNE, ISA Fellow. President, Analysis and Measurement Services Corp., Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A MSEE, PE, Senior Project Engineer, Malenlin Pirie Ine PAD, Associate Professor, Budapest University of Technology and Feonomies Hungary BSEF, MSEE, PhD, PE, President, Industiial Flectwonies Comp. BSC . PE, Refining Director, Hydrocarbon Processing MSEE, Director of Comp Foxboro Co, uting Technolo PAD, Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering Texas Tech University BSEE, MSEE, PE, Control System Consultant, Siltan Digital BSChE, MSChE, PE, Process Engineer, Crawford & ussell Inc BSCH®, Principal Field Application Eng Foxboro Co, MACantab, Consultant, IBM Corp, PADEE, Laboratory Manager, 3M Co. BSEE, MSEE, PhD, PE, President, Engineering and Marketing Corp. of Virginia BSChE, Applications Engineer, Capital Controls Co BScCik, PE, Lead Engineer, Instrumentation, Electrical & Control Systems, OPTI Canaca Ine CHE, BS, ‘agawa Corp. of Ans DSEE, MSEE, Manger, Project Engineering and Maintenance, Mobil Chemical Co, SME, PE, Consuliant, Powell-Process Systems, Ine.BABU JOSEPH VAUGHN A. KAISER “BABAK KAMALL LES A. KANE GENE T. KAPLAN DONALD C. KENDALL “PRABHAKAR Y. KESKAR CHANG H. KIM PAUL M. KINTNER, KLAUS H. KORSTEN *BELA LAKATOS JAMES W. LANE “CULLEN G. LANGFORD AVERLES 6. LASPE DONALD W. LEPORE CHENG S. LIN *KLAUS-PETER LINDNER “BELA LIPTAK DAVID H. FLU MICHAEL H. LOUKA ORVAL P. LOVETT JR. DALE E. LUPFER “MATTHEW H. MACCONNELL *JANOS MADAR VICTOR J. MAGGIOLI CHARLES L. MAMZIC Connibuiors xx PADCHE, Professor of Chemical Engineering, Washington University BSME, MSE, PE, Member ef Technical Staff, Profimaties Inc BSEE, Control and Aulomavon Designer, PSE Co., Iran BSEE, Mechaticall ectrical Editor, Hydrocarbon Processing BSME, Project Design Engineer. Automated Dynamics Corp. BSChE, MSChE, Senior Sysicms Analyst, The Foxboro Co, PHDE PE, Principal Technologist, CH2M Hill BSCHE, Senior Group Leader, UniRoyal Ine BSEE, MSEE, PhDEE, Manager, Digital Products,Cutler Hammer Ine Dipl. & Marketing Manager, Endiess + Hauser Process Solutions AG, Reinach, Switzerland MSc, PHD, Professor, University of Veszpsém, Hungary RSCHE, MSCHE, PE, Executive Direetnr, Tennsee Ine BSME, PE. Presideat, Cullen G. Langford Ine BS, PE, Senior Control Application Consultant, Honeywell Ine BSME, Design Engineer, The Foxboro Co. PE, Consultant, Tenneco Ine Dipl, Infomm., Specialis! for New Technologies, Endress + Hauser GmBH + Co, Switzerland ME, MME, PE, Process Control Consultant PADCHE ncipal Seientist, J.T. Bakor Ine BS, Section Head, IPE Halden Virtual Reality Centre, Halden, Norway BSChE, Consulting Bagineet, E.1. DuPont de Nemours & Co. BSME, PE, Process Automation Consultant, Eagel Engineering Co, BSChE, MBA, PE, Technology Manager, Air Products and Chemicals, Ine MSCSCHE, Research Assistant, University of Veszprém, Hungary BSEE, Princip Sensuliant, El. DuPont de Nemours & Co, BSME, CA. Director, Marketing and Application Engineering, Moore Products Incxvi Contributors *M. SAM MANNAN ALAN F, MARKS “EDWARD M, MARSZAL FRED D. MARTON “GREGORY K. MCMILLAN “RICK MEEKER DANIEL 7. MIKLOVIC *HERBERT L. MILLER FERENG MOLNAR CHARLES F. MOORE JOHN A. MOORE RALPH L. MOORE “DOUG MORGAN PAUL W. MURRILL THOMAS J. MYRON, JR. MIKLOS (NICHOLAS) NAGY “MARK NIXON *DAVID S. NYCE *SHINYA OCHIAI RICHARD H. OSMAN GLEWN A. PETTIT *MICHAEL J. PIOVOSO WALLACE A PRATT, JR. *SUBRAMANIUM RENGANATHAN *R, RUSSELL RHINEHART JAMES B. RISHEL PAD, PE, Associate Professor of Chemical Texas A&M University BSCt PE, Engineering Specialist, Control Systems, Bechtel Petroleum Ine BSCHE, CPSE, PE, Principal Engineer, Exiga Dipl. Eng,, Munaging Editor, Instruments and Cont Systems MSEE, Professor. Washington University of Saint Louis Process Control Solutions, Ine ASNT, BSEE, MSSM, CMIgE, MIMC, Senior Consultant, H.A. Simons Ltd MSME, PE, Vice President, Control Components jeal and Chemical Works Ltd, MSEE, Depari Hungary Manager, Chinon Pharmacel BSChE, ISCHE, PADCE, Professor of Chemistry, University of Tennessee BSChE, PE, Senior Application Specialist, Leeds & Noshrup Instrum RSME, MSMB, MSinst®, PE, Instrument Engin 1 F. DuPont de Nemours & Co BSChE, Project Et ineer, Control Systems International, U.S.A BSC , MSCHE, PADCHE, PE, Vice-Chaneellor, Louisiana State University BSChE, Senior Systems Design Engineer, The Foxhoro Co. ME, Chief Engineer, Flygt Submersible Pump Co. BSE, Chief Architect, Delta V Conti System, Emerson Process Management BSEE, MBA, Owner, Revolution Senior Company BSME, MSME, PhD, PE, Adjunct Professor, Texas A&M University PE, Engineering Manager, Robicon Corp Manager, Plastic Instrumentation, Rosemount Engineering Co. PAD, PE, Assoviate Professor, Pennsylvania State University BSI HART Communication Foundation, Austin, Texas, U.S.A. Chief Eng PhD, Vice Chancellor, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research, Chenns PADCHE, Professor and Head, School of Chemical Engincering, Oslahoma State University BSME, President, Corporate EquipmentHOWARD C. ROBERTS “ALBERTO ROHR “RUBEN DARIO ROJAS DERRICK KEITH ROLLINS, SR. “MICHEL RUEL DOUGLAS D. RUSSELL DONALD R. SADLON CHAKRA J. SANTHANAM PETER SZILARD SCHERMANN: WALTER F, SCHLEGEL PHIL D, SCHNELLE, JR. MICHAEL R. SHAFFER “FRANCIS GREGWAY SHINSKEY JOSEPH P. SHUNTA BURBINDER B. SINGH “ROBERT J. SMITH II DAVID A STROBHAR ‘ANGELA ELAINE SUMMERS *GUSZTAV SZECSO JAMES E. TALBOT *JAMES F. TATERA MAURO C, TOGNERI *G, KEVIN TOTHEROW THOMAS H. TSAI “ANN TUCK AISTVAN VAJK JANOS (JOHN) VENCZEL Conrribusors BARE, PE, Consultant, Lectu 1 a1 Univensity of Colorado, Demer FE, DeEng., Constant, aly Pu, Universidad de Los Anes, Venere BS. MS. PAD. AICHE, Associate Professor, lowe State Univesity, Ames, lov, US.A PE, Presi Top Control BSEE, MSEE, Group Leader, The Foxboro Co BSE General Manager, Automated Dynamies Corp, BSCHR, MSChE, PE, Management Staff, Arthur D. Little In Senior Consultant at Comprimo BY and Professor of Process Dynamies, University ‘of Groningen, the Netherlands BE, Assistant Chief Process Engineer, Crawford & Russell Inc BSEE, MSEE, PE, Technical Service Bi ingineer, E.. DuPont de Nemours & Co. PAD, PE, Adjunct Professor, Florida Institute of Technology BSChE, Process Control Consultant PADCaE, PE, Principal Consultant, E21, DuPont de Nemours & Co, BE, MBA, MCSE, Consultant Control Systems Engineer, Chicago, Mlinoie, U.S.A. BET, Plant F winees, Rock-Tean PE, SBHFE, President, Beville Engineeri ne., Dayton, Ohio, U.S.A, PAD, PE, Pre ent, Sis-Teeh Solutions, LLC BSEE, MSEE, PhD, Professor of Control Engineering University of Miskole, Hungary BSEP, Senior Account Executive, Lewis, Gilman & Kynett |, MBA, Senior Process Analysis Consultant, Tatera and Associates Ine. US. Bs E, President, Powell-Process Systems. SEE, President, Sylution Consulting BSE, PE, Director, Tenneco Ine BSME aior Conirol Systems Bechtel C PhD, Professor, Budape 1 University of Technol xy and Economies, Hu BS MSE, Senior RF E neer, Automation Industriesxvili— Coniriburors IAN VERHAPPEN *STEFANO VITTURI “HAROLD L. WADE MICHAEL H. WALLER CHARLES G. WALTERS, JR. MARVIN D. WEISS PETER ERIG WELLSTEAD “CURT W. WENDT *HARRY H. WIEST ANDREW C. WIKTOROWICZ THEODORE J. WILLIAMS ROBERT A. WILLIAMSON *JOHN WILSON WILLY WOJSZNIS PE, BSCE, Engineering Associate, Synerue Canada Lis., Fort MeMurray, Alberta Canada Dr. Eng., Kalian National Council of Research, Haly PAD, President, Wade Associates, Ine. BME, SM, ME, PE, Aswciale Professor, Miami University BSEE, Blectrical/Instrument Engineer, C wghty and Miller Inc BSE, MSChE, Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Valpariso University BSc, MSe, DSc, FIEE, CE, Reader in Control Engineering, University of Manchester, BSET, PE, 1&C Group Leader, COM. PhD, Research Associate, Texas A&M University BS, PE, President, Automated Dynamies Comm BSChE, MSChE, MSEE, PhDCHE, PE, Professor of Engineering, Director of Pardue Laboratory for Applied Industrial Control, Purdue University BSME, BA, PE, Supervisor, The Foxboro Co, BSCHE, Business Manager, Fisher Controls International, LLC PAD, Technologist, Delta Advanced Contral, Emervon Process Management, U.S.A,Tiss the fourth edition of the book (IEA), This handbook serves the automation and contro) engineering (ACE) profession and has been published once every decade since 1969. The subject of the first volume is measurement; the second velume deals with controls and the hind volume is devoted to the topies of software and dig networks. In the introduction to each now edition, I give a summary of the Ke and point (© the challen lecade. Before discuss the provious and the next decades, however, Iwill say «few words about the growing pains of the ACE profession, I will conelude this introduction with a briet summary ofthe history of this handbook jestrument Engineers" Hand AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING (ACE) Durs is a very young profession, When the fist edition of the Instrament Engineers’ Handbook (IEH) was published, Marks’ Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook was in its fifth and Perty"s Chemica lion, It is partly for this reason that while people know what kind of engineer aa ME of @ ChE is, they have no idea what [do when I say thal my field is process control or instrumen lation, just get a blank stare Iris time for us to change that. The first step should be to use a name for our profession that people understand. I is time for our profession to develop a distinet identity When Iwas teeehi gineers' Handbook sis in its sisth ed 12 at Yale, my course was offered under the Chemical Engineering Depanment. This was not hecause Yale had anything against our profession; it was simply because they did not know where fo put my course. Even this handbook of mine proves the confusion about our identity because Taylor & Francis publishes this handbook among its Electrical Engineering books. Once that Taylor & Francis has something against cur profession, No, the reason is that we have not yes developed our distine iden ‘Automation is term that the wider public understands Therefore, I would suggest that we consistently refer to our INTRODUCTION profession as Automation and Control Engincering (ACE), Togeher with that, the name of our professional society should also be changed to International Society of Automa tion (ISA). Another clarifying step could be to chai Lille of ovr waiving from IaTech to AuomationTech because “In” does not say much Te potentials of the ACE profession are great. While as & profession we have been anonymous, we have already ied fully automated Mars explorers and tally optimized industrial plants, Now it is time to let the world know that 1¢ list of ME, EE, or ChE we exist, It is time to add 10. professional engineering five is time for universities to offer degrees in ACE engineering and for publishers to set up ACE departments, {We should not be shy about this, Afterall, a0 engineering profession caa claim what we ean, No engineering profession ccan offer to increase the global gross domesie product by trillions of dollars simply through optimization, without building a single new plant, while also increasing safety and reducing polation. We can do that, We c: Livity withoutusing a single pound oF addicional raw material and without requiring asingle additional BTU of energy. Yes, ‘our profession does deserve a distinet identity n increase produc DEVELOPMENTS OF THE LAST DECADE These days, the computer is our main tool of control, The chapters of this volume describe how’ the computer is being used in optimizing our processes, provid and displaying status information in operator friendly for ats. Today, the World Wide Web proviles access to great {quantities of data; in the futuse i will also provide problem. solving capability, so that through the grid, every ACE engi reer will have a Supercomputer at his or her dispossl DDucing the last decade, the artinicial separation bewweer the roles of DCS. PLC, and PC packages has started to dis. appear because their separate roles of control (DCS sequencing (PLC), or simulation, a (PC) are beginning to be integrated. I believe that in the near Future DCS will simply mean digital control system Once the self-diagnostics, loge 1 business-related taskswx Innvoduction Uigital bus protocols are integrated into a single global stan- dard, the presently requized interfacing cards (and the asso ciated risk of mixup) will disappear, and therefore our control systems will hecome safer, simpler, and more effective In the paragraphs below I review some of the develop menis of the last decade. |s the Age of the PID Over? Desig valve (TCV) will not suspend the laws of nature, and this arbitrary designation will net, for example, prevent the valve from affecting the process pressure. Similarly, the number of available control valvesin « process will not necessarily coin cide with the number of process properties that need 10 be contiolled. Multivariable herding or envelope control over ‘comes this Fimitation of uncoordinated single loop cantrollers nating a valve on a flow sheet os a temperature control and lets us contro} all varisbles that need to be controlled while minimizing interactions. The majority of our control loops are still keeping process variables on set point, but the ag. ontiol has alteady arrived. In the majority of eases, we still lend to control levels, flows, and temperatures as if these oops operated ina vacuum, but others are already nizing that loops do interset and that the opening oF closing of a control valve affects not only the one variable cof mulivariable important tools in the tool boxes of ACE engin Many of us have concluded thatthe single-loop r tality flows, levels, and saase our plants do not prod temperatures: hence, the control ofthese variables should not be our ultimate goal, Our ultimate goal should be to optimize the productivity and safety of the whole plant. As a conse quence, we are now thinking in terms of unit operation con trollers. In these sultivariable control systems, the total unit operation (be it a boiles, a distillation column, or a compres sor) is being controle. ‘mad in rethinking the role of the Set point, In one aspect, the single set point is often replaced! by a set point gap, so that as long as the controlled variible is within thet gap, the output is unaltered. This teeds to stabilize Sensitive loops, such a flow Another aspect in which the set point is treated differently today isis effect on the controller output. In many’ algorithms 1 change in set point does not change the proportional or Uerivative contributions t© the output bevause the P and D modes acs only on the measurement Inother algorithms, while the set pointchange does affee! ‘he integral contribution to the output, the set point change is “Teedforwarded” directly 10 the output to minimize reset windup. Reset windup is also minimized by extemal feed back, taken from the slave measurement in ease of eascade loops, from the valve signal in case of selective loops, and from the inverse model in feedforward loops. Dynamics and Dead Time ‘The dynamies of control are also better understood today. T i clear that for quarter amplitude damping the gain product of the loop should be about 0.5. This means that in order to keep this product constant, if the process gain doubles, the contoller gain must be cut in half critieal to the control of all nonlinear processes (heat transfer, chemical reaction, pH, ete.) Clearly understanding this goal also allows fox gain adaptation based on either measurements or modeling. Similarly, the role of dead time is also beter understood today. Most ACE en, ive control modes must be tuaed to match the dead time. Therefore, the control goal is to reduce the loop dead time toa miininum and keep if constant. I that is not possible because the process dead time must vary (ansportation lag ‘caused by displacing a fixed volume), it ismecessary to match that varisile the dead time is large, he regular PID algorithm is replaced with Sample-and-hold or predictor algoritams, This undersianding is ners know that the integral and deriv ad time with adapted [and D settings. When Unit Operations Controllers An already existing multipurpos: reactor package Wescribed in this volume) ca be reconfigured through software modi Fieations to become a stripper, distil controller, Other multivariable, envelope, an matrix control systems described in this volume are aimed at inereasin cflicieney or the productivity of the process. while treating the individual variables —the temperatures, pressures, ang levels —only as constraints, ‘There are hundreds of expect systems, all serving some form of optimization. From the perspective of theit methods ‘of operation, cme can group tiem into model-based nid model Free methods. They both control multivariable unit operations and because they both evaluate the total process, they also climinate the interactions bet manipulated variables. Expert systems, which are used in unit of troller, are alo useful in decoupling the intersetions theough relative gain and other techniques. Probably the greatest progress has occured in the area of model-based control, Which utilizes both steady-state and dynamic models ang allows beth for the prediction of process responses before they ‘occur and for continual refinement of the model by empirical uupdeting, In this regard neural networks, anificial intelligence, statistical process conti, fuzzy log zation strategies have all made some contribution, en the various contolled and and empirical optimi ‘Model-Based and Model-Free Control Model-Based Control (MBC), Model Predictive Control (MPC), and Internal Model Control (IMC) are suited for theoptimization of well-understood unit processes, such as heat tsansfer oF distillation, Their performance iy superior « thas Df model free systems because they are capable of anticipa lion and thereby can predict, situations, In this sense their performa Df feedforward control systems, while model-free systems behave ina feedback manner only process response 10 new js similar to tha foe expert system ean be ;ennis player. The tenis player id Newlon’s laws of motion or Jynanic principles that determine the behavior of tennis bal. The tenais playerhas simply memorized the results of large number of past “process” responses. This is also the basic of most hunvan learning. All the neural network-based software packages mimic this method of learning. Neural networks, fuzzy logic, and statistical process con trol are all such model-free methods, whic without the need for knowing the mathematical model of the process, The major difference heween fuzzy lgic snd neural hetworks is tat the laiter can only be tained by data, but can be used Feed low Distillate Rotiams Steam fow ‘eve fox FG. 1 A three-layer anifcial neural network (ANN) can be used to pred Introduction — xxi not with reason tive because it (importance) of its inputs and in terms ofthe functions oF its inputs The main imitations of all model-frec expert systenis are jod (which can be compared to the ‘that their knowledge is b sly, th ft prepared to handle new situations. Therefore, ifthe process changes, they require retraining because they can only anticipate repetitive 17zy logic is superior from this perspec: a be modified bott in terry of the gait solely on past events. Conseq) Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) One of the tools used in building models is the Anilicial Neural Network (ANN), whic human supervision or can be int fuzzy logic systems. Figure 1 show: work, which serves to prediet the boiling point of a distillate and the Reid vapor pressure of the bottoms product of -an usualy be ated with expert andior Output yerxxii Intvoduction w ww Law | , “Tt