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Aeronautics
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Main page Aeronautics (from the ancient Greek words ὰήρ āēr,
Contents which means "air", and ναυτική nautikē which means
Featured content
"navigation", i.e. "navigation of the air") is the science or
Current events
art involved with the study, design, and manufacturing of
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airflight-capable machines, and the techniques of
Wikimedia Shop operating aircraft and rockets within the atmosphere. The
British Royal Aeronautical Society identifies the aspects of
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Help "aeronautical Art, Science and Engineering" and "the
About Wikipedia profession of Aeronautics (which expression includes
Space Shuttle Atlantis on a Shuttle
Community portal Astronautics)." [1] Carrier Aircraft.
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While the term—literally meaning "sailing the air"—
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originally referred solely to the science of operating the aircraft, it has since been expanded to
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include technology, business and other aspects related to aircraft.[2] The term "aviation" is
Print/export sometimes used interchangeably with aeronautics, although "aeronautics" includes lighter-than-air
Languages craft such as airships, and includes ballistic vehicles while "aviation" technically does not.[2]
‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬ A significant part of aeronautical science is a branch of dynamics called aerodynamics, which
Aragonés
deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft.
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 deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft.
Asturianu
Brezhoneg Contents [hide]
Català
1 History
Čeština
Corsu
1.1 Early ideas
Dansk 1.2 Balloon flight
Deutsch 1.3 Cayley and the foundation of modern aeronautics
Eesti 1.4 The 19th century
Ελληνικά
2 Branches
Español
2.1 Aviation
Esperanto
2.2 Aeronautical science
Euskara
‫ﻓﺎرﺳﯽ‬ 2.3 Aeronautical engineering
Français 2.3.1 Aerodynamics
Gaeilge 2.4 Rocketry
Galego 3 See also
한국어 4 References
हद
4.1 Notes
Ido
4.2 Bibliography
Bahasa Indonesia
Italiano 5 External links
‫עברית‬
Kreyòl ayisyen
Latina History [edit]
Latviešu
Magyar Early ideas [edit]
मराठ
Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made

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 मराठ
Attempts to fly without any real aeronautical understanding have been made
Bahasa Melayu
from the earliest times, typically by constructing wings and jumping from a
日本語 tower with crippling or lethal results.[3]
Occitan Wiser investigators sought to gain some rational understanding through the
Polski
study of bird flight. An early example appears in ancient Egyptian
Português
texts.[citation needed] Later medieval Islamic scientists also made such studies.
Română
Русский The founders of modern aeronautics, Leonardo da Vinci in the Renaissance
and Cayley around 1800, both began their investigations with studies of bird Francesco
Sardu
Lana de Terzi's
Shqip flight. flying boat
Sicilianu
Man-carrying kites are believed to have been used extensively in ancient concept c.1670.

Simple English China. In 1282 the European explorer Marco Polo described the Chinese
Slovenščina techniques then current.[4] The Chinese also constructed small hot air balloons, or lanterns, and
Српски / srpski rotary-wing toys.
Svenska
An early European to provide any scientific discussion of flight was Roger Bacon, who described
ไทย
Türkçe principles of operation for the lighter-than-air balloon and the flapping-wing ornithopter, which he
Українська envisaged would be constructed in the future. The lifting medium for his balloon would be an
‫اردو‬ "aether" whose composition he did not know.[5]
中文
Edit links In the late fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci followed up his study of birds with designs for some
of the earliest flying machines, including the flapping-wing ornithopter and the rotating-wing
helicopter. Although his designs were rational, they were not based on particularly good science.[6]
Many of his designs, such as a four-person screw-type helicopter, have severe flaws. He did at
least understand that "An object offers as much resistance to the air as the air does to the
object."[7] (Newton would not publish the Third law of motion until 1687.) His analysis led to the
realisation that manpower alone was not sufficient for sustained flight, and his later designs

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 included a mechanical power source such as a spring. Da Vinci's work was lost after his death and
did not reappear until it had been overtaken by the work of George Cayley.

Balloon flight [edit]

Main article: History of ballooning

The modern era of lighter-than-air flight began early in the 17th

century with Galileo's experiments in which he showed that air has
weight. Around 1650 Cyrano de Bergerac wrote some fantasy
novels in which he described the principle of ascent using a
substance (dew) he supposed to be lighter than air, and
descending by releasing a controlled amount of the substance.[8]
Francesco Lana de Terzi measured the pressure of air at sea level
and in 1670 proposed the first scientifically credible lifting medium
in the form of hollow metal spheres from which all the air had been
pumped out. These would be lighter than the displaced air and
able to lift an airship. His proposed methods of controlling height
are still in use today; by carrying ballast which may be dropped
overboard to gain height, and by venting the lifting containers to Francesco Lana de Terzi's
lose height.[9] In practice de Terzi's spheres would have collapsed flying boat concept c.1670
under air pressure, and further developments had to wait for more
practicable lifting gases.

From the mid-18th century the Montgolfier brothers in France began experimenting with balloons.
Their balloons were made of paper, and early experiments using steam as the lifting gas were
short-lived due to its effect on the paper as it condensed. Mistaking smoke for a kind of steam,
they began filling their balloons with hot smoky air which they called "electric smoke" and, despite

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 not fully understanding the principles at work, made some successful launches and in 1783 were
invited to give a demonstration to the French Academie des Sciences.

Meanwhile the discovery of hydrogen led Joseph Black in c. 1780 to propose its use as a lifting
gas, though practical demonstration awaited a gastight balloon material. On hearing of the
Montgolfier Brothers' invitation, the French Academy member Jacques Charles offered a similar
demonstration of a hydrogen balloon. Charles and two craftsmen, the Robert brothers, developed
a gastight material of rubberised silk for the envelope. The hydrogen gas was to be generated by
chemical reaction during the filling process.

The Montgolfier designs had several shortcomings, not least the need for dry weather and a
tendency for sparks from the fire to set light to the paper balloon. The manned design had a
gallery around the base of the balloon rather than the hanging basket of the first, unmanned
design, which brought the paper closer to the fire. On their free flight, De Rozier and d'Arlandes
took buckets of water and sponges to douse these fires as they arose. On the other hand, the
manned design of Charles was essentially modern.[10] As a result of these exploits, the hot-air
ballon became known as the Montgolfière type and the hydrogen balloon the Charlière.

Charles and the Robert brothers' next balloon, La Caroline, was a Charlière that followed Jean
Baptiste Meusnier's proposals for an elongated dirigible balloon, and was notable for having an
outer envelope with the gas contained in a second, inner ballonet. On 19 September 1784, it
completed the first flight of over 100 km, between Paris and Beuvry, despite the man-powered
propulsive devices proving useless.

In an attempt the next year to provide both endurance and controllability, de Rozier developed a
balloon having both hot air and hydrogen gas bags, a design which was soon named after him as
the Rozière. The principle was to use the hydrogen section for constant lift and to navigate
vertically by heating and allowing to cool the hot air section, in order to catch the most favourable

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 wind at whatever altitude it was blowing. The balloon envelope was made of goldbeaters skin. The
first flight ended in disaster and the approach has seldom been used since.[11]

Cayley and the foundation of modern aeronautics [edit]

Sir George Cayley (1773-1857) is widely acknowledged as the founder of modern aeronautics. He
was first called the "father of the aeroplane" in 1846[12] and Henson called him the "father of aerial
navigation."[3] He was the first true scientific aerial investigator to publish his work, which included
for the first time the underlying principles and forces of flight.[13]

In 1809 he began the publication of a landmark three-part treatise titled "On Aerial Navigation"
(1809–1810).[14] In it he wrote the first scientific statement of the problem, "The whole problem is
confined within these limits, viz. to make a surface support a given weight by the application of
power to the resistance of air." He identified the four vector forces that influence an aircraft: thrust,
lift, drag and weight and distinguished stability and control in his designs.

He developed the modern conventional form of the fixed-wing aeroplane having a stabilising tail
with both horizontal and vertical surfaces, flying gliders both unmanned and manned.

He introduced the use of the whirling arm test rig to investigate the aerodynamics of flight, using it
to discover the benefits of the curved or cambered aerofoil over the flat wing he had used for his
first glider. He also identified and described the importance of dihedral, diagonal bracing and drag
reduction, and contributed to the understanding and design of ornithopters and parachutes.[3]

Another significant invention was the tension-spoked wheel, which he devised in order to create a
light, strong wheel for aircraft undercarriage.

The 19th century [edit]

During the 19th century Cayley's ideas were refined, proved and expanded on. Important
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 investigators included Otto Lilienthal and Horatio Phillips.

Branches [edit]

Aeronautics may be divided into three main branches comprising Aviation, Aeronautical science
and Aeronautical engineering.

Aviation [edit]
Main article: Aviation

Aviation is the art or practice of aeronautics. Historically aviation meant only heavier-than-air flight,
but nowadays it includes flying in balloons and airships.

Aeronautical science [edit]

Aeronautical science covers the practical theory of aeronautics and aviation, including operations,
navigation, air safety and human factors.

A candidate pilot is likely to study for a qualification in aeronautical science.

Aeronautical engineering [edit]

Main article: Aerospace engineering

Aeronautical engineering covers the design and construction of aircraft, including how they are
powered, how they are used and how they are controlled for safe operation.[15]

A major part of aeronautical engineering is aerodynamics, the science of passage through the air.

With the increasing activity in spaceflight, nowadays aeronautics and astronautics are often
combined as aerospace engineering.

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Aerodynamics [edit]
Main article: Aerodynamics
The science of aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way that it interacts with objects
in motion, such as an aircraft.
The study of aerodynamics falls broadly into three areas:
Incompressible flow occurs where the air simply moves to avoid objects, typically at subsonic
speeds below that of sound (Mach 1).
Compressible flow occurs where shock waves appear at points where the air becomes
compressed, typically at speeds above Mach 1.
Transonic flow occurs in the intermediate speed range around Mach 1, where the airflow over an
object may be locally subsonic at one point and locally supersonic at another.
Rocketry [edit]
See also: Rocket
A rocket or rocket vehicle is a missile, spacecraft, aircraft
or other vehicle which obtains thrust from a rocket engine.
In all rockets, the exhaust is formed entirely from
propellants carried within the rocket before use.[16] Rocket
engines work by action and reaction. Rocket engines push
rockets forwards simply by throwing their exhaust
backwards extremely fast.
Rockets for military and recreational uses date back to at
Launch of Apollo 15 Saturn V rocket:
least 13th century China.[17] Significant scientific,
T - 30 s through T + 40 s.
interplanetary and industrial use did not occur until the
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20th century, when rocketry was the enabling technology
of the Space Age, including setting foot on the moon.
Rockets are used for fireworks, weaponry, ejection seats, launch vehicles for artificial satellites,
human spaceflight and exploration of other planets. While comparatively inefficient for low speed
use, they are very lightweight and powerful, capable of generating large accelerations and of
attaining extremely high speeds with reasonable efficiency.
Chemical rockets are the most common type of rocket and they typically create their exhaust by
the combustion of rocket propellant. Chemical rockets store a large amount of energy in an easily
released form, and can be very dangerous. However, careful design, testing, construction and use
minimizes risks.
See also [edit]
Aeronautical abbreviations
Aeronautics Defense Systems
Aerospace engineering
Aerostatics
Air safety
Aircraft design process
Aircraft flight control system
The Eurofighter Typhoon.
Aircraft flight mechanics
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Astronautics
Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms
Avionics
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Flight dynamics
Longitudinal static stability
The Royal Aeronautical Society
Antonov An-225 Mriya, the largest
References [edit]
aeroplane ever built.
Notes [edit]
1. ^ A Learned and Professional Society (Retrieved 8 March 2014)
2. ^ a b "Aeronautics". Encyclopedia Americana 1. Grolier. 1986. p. 226.
3. ^ a b c Wragg 1974.
4. ^ Pelham, D.; The Penguin book of kites, Penguin (1976)
5. ^ Wragg 1974, pp. 10–11.
6. ^ Wragg 1974, p. 11.
7. ^ Fairlie & Cayley 1965, p. 163.
8. ^ Ege 1973, p. 6.
9. ^ Ege 1973, p. 7.
10. ^ Ege 1973, pp. 97–100.
11. ^ Ege 1965, p. 105.
12. ^ Fairlie & Cayley 1965.
13. ^ "Sir George Carley" . Flyingmachines.org. Retrieved 2009-07-26. "Sir George Cayley is one of
the most important people in the history of aeronautics. Many consider him the first true scientific
aerial investigator and the first person to understand the underlying principles and forces of flight."
14. ^ Cayley, George. "On Aerial Navigation" Part 1 , Part 2 , Part 3 Nicholson's Journal of
Natural Philosophy, 1809–1810. (Via NASA). Raw text . Retrieved: 30 May 2010.
15. ^ Aeronautical engineering , University of Glasgow.
16. ^ Sutton, George (2001). "1" . Rocket Propulsion Elements (7th ed.). Chichester: John Wiley &
Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-32642-7.
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 17. ^ MSFC History Office "Rockets in Ancient Times (100 B.C. to 17th Century)"

Bibliography [edit]
Ege, L. (1973). Balloons and airships. Blandford.
Fairlie, Gerard; Cayley, Elizabeth (1965). The life of a genius. Hodder and Stoughton.
Wragg, D.W. (1974). Flight before flying. Osprey. ISBN 0850451655.

External links [edit]

Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's How Wikisource has the text of the
Things Fly website 1911 Encyclopædia
Britannica article
Aeronautics History in Turkey Aeronautics.
Aeronautics History - Charles Vivian - 1920 (eLibrary
Project - eLib full text) Wikiquote has a collection of
quotations related to:
Aerospace courses at MIT OpenCourseWare Aeronautics
American Academy of Aeronautics aeronautical
Look up aeronautics in
science
Wiktionary, the free
American Helicopter Society dictionary.
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Examples of Aeronautic Designs
What is aeronautics? The history of world Aeronautics (Russian)
Aircraft Design: Synthesis and Analysis
ACARE Taxonomy
CREating innovative Air transport Technologies for Europe

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