CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
A responsive building envelops are one that facilitates co- evolutionary
interaction between the building , the inhabitant and the environment in a meaningful
way . One of the primary performance mandates for high – performance envelopes has
been energy optimization and reduction in the use of resources and their inhabitants .
Intelligent facade system put their impact far deeper than this. They are climatic
moderators in the sense they connect the inside and outside environments. The
passage of air , solar radiation , sound , and moisture through the facade affect air
quality , temperature , humidity , and sound levels and hence influence our sense of
well-being .
Beyond this there are very subtle impacts that affect our mood , such as
the view and sense of time , So the material that compose the facade are vitally
important , and the way it is punctuated with windows all contribute as to whether the
built environment is fresh , airy , and has lots of daylight .

During the last decades facade technology have undergone to substantial

innovations by integrating specific elements to adapt the variations of the outside
conditions to occupant requirements . Facades are crucial to energy consumption and
comfort in building . Incorporative intelligence solutions in building design is an
effective way to achieve comfort condition for occupants and minimize energy
consumption in building .

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 CHAPTER 2
FACADE SYSTEM
2.1 GENERAL
Facade is generally one exterior side of a building , usually but not
always the front . In architecture , the facade of a building is often important aspect
from a design standpoint , as it sets the tone for the rest of the building . From the
engineering perspective of a building , the facade is also of great importance due to
its impact on energy efficiency .

2.2 FACADES SYSTEM

Facade system comprises the structural elements that provide lateral and
vertical resistance to wind and other actions and the building envelope elements that
provide the weather resistance and thermal , acoustic and fire resisting properties .The
type of facades that are used depends on the type and scale of the building and on
local planning requirements that may affect the building in relation to its neighbours.
Examples of facades are shown in figure 2.1 and 2.2 .

Fig 2.1. Clay tile facade Fig 2.2. Curtain wall facade

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 Brickwork is often specified as the external facade material , but the
modern way of constructing the inner leaf consist of light steel wall elements called
infill walling that have efficiency replaced more traditional block work. Other types of
facade materials may be attached to light steel walling , such as insulated render ,
large boards and metallic panels . A wide variety of facade treatments and shapes may
be created using light steel walls including large ribbon windows , curved and inclined
walls , and with projections such as solar shading or balconies . Facade materials may
be mixed to enhance aesthetics of the building .
In multi-storey buildings , unitized curtain walling systems have been
developed that are attached to the floors or edge beams of the primary steel structure.
Steel and glass are also widely used in facade and roofing systems , and the local
attachments are in the form of stainless steel brackets .
Other interfaces that affect the design of the facade include the
attachment of brickwork to steel edge beams , the design of projecting balconies , solar
shading and attachments of parapets .[1]

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 CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF FACADE SYSTEM
3.1 GENERAL
The facade system is mainly divided in to five ,based on their
materials used . It includes Steel and Glass facades ,Cladding facades ,Solar shading ,
Insulated render , Insulated wall panels .It is again subdivided in to many types .

3.2 STEEL AND GLASS FACADES

Steel and glass are synergistic materials and are often used in
facades and roofs of multi-storey buildings. The glass panels are generally supported
by separate vertical steel elements to the main structural frame of the building that
may be internal or external to the building. Stainless steel and hollow steel sections
are often used in combination with glass .. Figure 3.1 shows the glazing facade .

Fig.3.1 Glazing facade

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 The glazed walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions of
weather-tightness, natural lighting and shading, and thermal insulation. The silicone joints
between the glazing panels are therefore very important to these functions .The glass is
designed to accommodate the movement of its support system due to the wind and other
forces acting on it .

3.3 TYPES OF GLAZING FACADES

3.3.1 Double-Skin Facade Systems

The Double Skin Facade is a system consisting of two glass skins
placed in such a way that air flows in the intermediate cavity. The ventilation of the
cavity can be natural, fan supported or mechanical. The glass skins can be single or
double glazing units with a distance from 20 cm up to 2 meters. Often, for protection
and heat extraction reasons during the cooling period, solar shading devices are placed
inside the cavity.
Following are the components of a double skin facade
1. Exterior glazing.
2. Interior glazing.
3. Structural frame.
4. Operable sun shade.
5. Sun shade canopy.
6. Upper operable ventilation.
7. Maintenance catwalks.
The choice of the glass type for the interior and exterior panes depends
on the typology of the facade . Openings in the external and internal skin allow the
ventilation of the cavity .Aluminium framing offers several advantages including long
life span, fire resistance, corrosion resistance, strength, durability and the potential to
be re-cycled when the building reaches the end of its useful life. Glazing infill consists
of an aluminium frame attached directly to structure. The frame has rubber gaskets
to hold the panes of glass in place. This type of system is simple to construct and is
particularly prevalent in low to mid-rise office structures. Aluminium is more malleable

5
and elastic than steel. And also it can be shaped into different shapes .Solar shading
devices are placed between the inner and the outer skins. Typically this is an adjustable,
horizontal blind that may be rotated or raised and lowered . The role of the solar
shading device is to absorb or reflect solar radiation, particularly during the cooling season.
Once the radiation passes into the building, it is absorbed by the building fabric and re-
radiated as short wave, infrared energy that does not pass back through the glass. Instead it
serves to heat the air. Figure 3.2 shows the components of a double skin facade .

Fig 3.2 Components of Double Skin Facade

An air inlet located at the bottom and an exhaust vent at the top are
used to introduce airflow into the cavity. In cool climates the bottom air inlet and
top exhaust vent are closed and the solar gain within the cavity may be circulated to
the occupied space to offset heating requirements, while in hot climates cooler
air is introduced through the air inlet into the cavity which rises as it warms and exits
the top vent . The heat absorbed by the sun shading devices can then be removed,
primarily through convection. Shading within the cavity is achieved via perforated
aluminium venetian blinds at the upper half of each floor which are used to minimize

6
glare and provide even light levels to the interior library space . A sunshade canopy is
provided to protect the solar sun shading device from sun and rain. Maintenance catwalks
are generally provided for cleaning the windows . [3]

3.3.2 Curtain Wall

A curtain wall system is an outer covering of a building in which
the outer walls are non-structural, but merely keep the weather out and the occupants
in. As the curtain wall is non-structural it can be made of a lightweight material,
reducing construction costs. When glass is used as the curtain wall, a great advantage
is that natural light can penetrate deeper within the building. The curtain wall facade
does not carry any dead load weight from the building other than its own dead load
weight. The wall transfers horizontal wind loads that are incident upon it to the main
building structure through connections at floors or columns of the building. A curtain
wall is designed to resist air and water infiltration, sway induced by wind and seismic
forces acting on the building, and its own dead load weight forces . Figure 3.3 shows
the unitized curtain wall .

Fig. 3.3 Unitized curtain wall .

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 Curtain wall systems are an assembly of factory-made components
which are either made up into panels in the factory and the interlocking units brought
to site and installed (unitized curtain walling) or brought to site as components and
assembled on the building (stick curtain walling).
Unitized curtain walling can be designed to be installed without using the
main crane and this method is favored on high-rise buildings. Methods used are a
mini-crane mounted on the office floor or a hoist mounted on a temporary rail
round the perimeter of the building.
The size of the unitized panels is dictated by the floor to floor height
and a sensible width for transportation and installation and should be compatible
with the planning dimensions of the facade (normally a multiple of 300mm).Panels
up to 1.5m wide and 4.2m high are typical. .The curtain walling system is designed to
provide the necessary functions of weather-tightness, natural lighting and shading,
and thermal insulation. The joints between the elements of the curtain walling are
therefore very important to these functions. In unitized systems, the panels are
manufactured so that they are highly sealed and insulated, and the joints between
the large panels are made by rubber gaskets and silicone sealants . Figure 3.4 shows the stick
curtain wall

Fig. 3.4 Stick curtain wall .

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 Stick curtain walling is more often used on low-rise buildings and in relatively
small areas because external access is required to the building elevations, e.g. from
scaffolding or wall climbing work platforms. . In stick curtain walling, the mullions
and transoms are all individual elements. Intermediate transoms may divide the panel
vertically. Insulated glazed units and solid insulated panels fill the openings framed
by the mullions and transoms. They are supported on plastic setting blocks from the
transom below and secured on all four edges with pressure plates screwed to the mullions
and transoms and concealed by a capping plate.[4]

3.3.3 Steel in Atria and Canopies

Atrium roofs and feature entrances are often supported by exposed
structural steelwork detailed to provide visual excitement. Structural hollow sections
are often used to form the elements because of their clean appearance. Also, stainless
steel wires are used to minimize the intrusion of structure. Figure 3.5 shows an atrium
roof .

Fig.3.5 curved tubular steelwork to support an atrium roof

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 Glazed atrium roofs let light deep into a building allowing the use
of large building footprints while reducing the external perimeter. Atria are also
used to promote natural ventilation by the inclusion of opening vents in the roof.
Warm air rising in the atrium and escaping through the vents draws outside air
through open windows in the facade. Atria are used in offices with deep floor plans
and are also a feature of shopping centers where retail units face onto a central
atrium. Various glazing support systems are available including steel, aluminium or
timber framing .[1]

3.4 CLADDING
Cladding is the application of one material over another to provide a
skin or layer. In construction, cladding is used to provide a degree of thermal insulation
and weather resistance, and to improve the appearance of buildings. Cladding can be
made of any of a wide range of materials including wood, metal, brick, vinyl .stone, and
composite materials that can include aluminium, wood, blends of cement and
recycled polystyrene, wheat/rice straw fibres. Figure .3.6 shows how cladding is done .

.
Fig.3.6 An example of cladding
The cladding does not itself need to be waterproof, merely a control
element: it may serve only to direct water or wind safely away in order to control
runoff and prevent its infiltration into the building structure. Cladding may also be
a control element for noise, either entering or escaping. Between the cladding and
the wall there is a cavity where rain can run down .

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3.5 TYPES OF CLADDING

3.5.1 Rainscreen Cladding

The system is a form of double-wall construction that uses an outer
layer to keep out the rain and an inner layer to provide thermal insulation, prevent
excessive air leakage and carry wind loading. The outer layer breathes like a skin
while the inner layer reduces energy losses. The structural frame of the building
is kept absolutely dry, as water never reaches it or the thermal insulation.
Evaporation and drainage in the cavity removes water that penetrates between
panel joints. . Figure 3.7 shows the principle of rain cladding system

Fig.3.7 Principle of raincladding system

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 The rainscreen system provides for two lines of defense against the water
intrusion into the walls: The rainscreen and a means to dissipate leakage often referred
to as a channel. In a rainscreen the air gap allows the circulation of air on the
moisture barrier. This helps direct water away from the main exterior wall which in
many climates is insulated. Keeping the insulation dry helps to prevent problems such
as mold formation and water leakage. The vapour-permeable air barrier prevents water
molecules from entering the insulated cavity but allows the passage of vapour, thus
reducing the trapping of moisture within the main wall assembly.
A water/air resistant membrane is placed between the furring and
the sheathing to prevent rain water from entering the wall structure. The membrane
directs water away and toward special drip edge flashings which protect other parts
of the building. Insulation may be provided beneath the membrane. During extreme
weather, a minimal amount of water may penetrate the outer cladding. This, however,
will run as droplets down the back of the cladding sheets and be dissipated through
evaporation and drainage. Rain screen panels are made from durable materials and are
chosen by the architect to achieve the desired visual effect. Stainless steel, weathering steel,
anodized aluminium, glass and terracotta are all materials which can be used .[5]

3.5.2 Precast Concrete Panels

Precast concrete cladding is formed by off-site manufactured
precast concrete panels, which can be used to clad a wide range of buildings,
such as commercial buildings, residential, retail, leisure, hospitals, schools,
and so on. Precast concrete is a form of concrete that is prepared, cast and cured
off-site, usually in a controlled factory environment, using reusable moulds. Precast
concrete elements can be joined to other elements on site to form a complete
cladding structure. The production of precast concrete elements takes place under
controlled conditions in factories, and so tolerances can be accurately controlled,
waste can be minimised, and that a denser, stronger and better-quality concrete
produced. Due to innovative production methods, precast concrete panels can be
manufactured in a wide range of colours, finishes, facings, shapes and sizes. It can
replicate the colour and finish of stone, masonry or terracotta and can incorporate

12
architectural details such as cornices, quoins, arches and decorative relief panels.
Sculptured shapes such as recessed windows, shading devices and so on can be included,
and insulation can be fixed to the back of the panels, or incorporated into a
sandwich wall panel composition. Figure 3.8 shows the installation of precast concrete
panels .

Fig.3.8 Precast Concrete Panels

Panels can be supported by fixing back to the structural frame of the

building or can be self-supporting. They can also be designed themselves to parts
of the building structure such as floors. Panels are typically in the range of 150 mm
thick, designed to span either between columns or between floors. Panels are
manufactured by casting in purpose-built timber or fibre glass moulds. Steel
reinforcement cages can be placed in the mould prior to pouring the concrete.
Increasingly, prefabrication can incorporate the fixing of other elements such as
insulation and windows. When the moulds are removed, the exposed surfaces can
be treated in a number of ways, such as acid-etching, smooth or coarse grounding,
grit or sand-blasting, rubbing or polishing, according to the surface finish specified.
Having been transported to site, tower or mobile cranes lift the panels into position,
with fixings restraining them back to the structure. This means that external
scaffolding may not be required . Precast concrete panels can result in a thinner

13
external wall construction than traditional walls, and so they can allow a larger
settable floor area .

3.5.3 Stone Cladding

Stone cladding is a thin layer of real or simulated stone applied to a
building or other structure made of a material other than stone. Stone cladding is
sometimes applied to concrete and steel buildings as part of their original
architectural design . Figure 3.9 shows a building with stone cladding .Stone cladding
often refers to lightweight simulated stone products with a concrete-type base. These
stone cladding products are often fitted to lightweight substrates to reduce the material
cost of construction Alternatively, stone cladding can be a natural stone that has
been quarried and then cut into thin pieces to reduce weight. Being heavier, natural
stone cladding often needs mechanical fixing to be adhered to substrates. Mechanical
fixing could be using shelf angles, or perhaps a product called stone clip .[6]

Fig.3.9 Stone Cladding

3.5.4 Brick Cladding

Brick Slip cladding is a non-load bearing skin attached to the
building that combines the traditional look and warm feel of natural bricks. Brick
slips are made of natural eco-friendly materials and then baked in the kiln. Brick slips
are shown in figure 3.10 . This type of cladding material highly sustainable and

14
widely used as a green building material. They are a very good ecological solution
to cladding and no coloring agents are added to the bricks .Using real bricks to
create a natural looking facade is a cumbersome process. The bricks are very heavy to
use and they are so thick that they tend to block too much space. Hence the concept of thin
brick slip tiles was brought so as to replace brick masonry and replicate the
looks of conventional bricks. It is a lightweight construction technique with the
added appeal of traditional brickwork. During the manufacturing process extruded
clay is cut down to standard sizes and slim profiles, the extruded brick slips go
through a brick kiln to convert into brick slip tiles .In many cases the brick slip
cladding can be cut from aged reclaimed bricks. In such case the bricks are
collected from dismantled buildings, then they are cleaned, processed and cut into
brick slip tiles . Figure 3.11 shows the installation of brick slips .

Fig.3.10 Brick slips Fig.3.11 Installation of brick slips

3.5.4.1 Advantages of Brick Slip Cladding

 They replicate the natural look of real bricks.

 They are light in weight and used as a cladding material. It is nearly one third the
weight of natural bricks.
 The bricks slips are of accurate sizes and thickness hence they give a very good finish
and have good adhesion properties to the substrate.

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  The speed of installation of brick slips is very fast and easy, it is very similar to the
speed of fixing of conventional tiling.
 They are suitable for both external and internal wall applications.
 They also find their application as a fine finish for external wall insulation. In this
case the normal brick slip tiles are attached to an insulating layer of polyurethane
foam to form a good thermal insulation cladding for the walls.
 The Brick slip cladding is a highly durable and maintenance free material. It prevents
the building structure from wear and tear and from the effects of extreme heat or cold.
 Brick Slip cladding is non-combustible and hence fire resistant.
 The Brick slips are vapor-permeable and allow the walls to breathe. Hence they can
be easily applied on traditional plaster surfaces or used as an insulating material.

3.5.4.2 Installation of Brick Slip Cladding

The most common method is using wall tile adhesive .Clean and prepare the
surface, mix the adhesive according to the pack instructions, apply a small amount to area
you can lay before it goes off using a trowel or rake and then stick the brick slips.

3.5.4.3 Insulated Brick Slip Cladding

Brick slip cladding can also act as an insulated cladding material. This
has the benefit of having an insulated layer inside and natural looking brick surface
on the outside. The composition of such an insulated brick slip cladding includes a
layer of quartz sand applied on the tile followed by a layer of 40mm polyurethane
foam to form an insulated tile material.

3.5.5 Metal cladding

Metel cladding is a type of exterior cladding made of metals . The
metals used are Zinc , Copper , Aluminium ,Brass , Bronze and Titanium . Metal
cladding helps to add depth and texture and it’s available in several types of metals,
colours, and can be further customized to cater to your exact needs and requirements.

16
Weather tight and secure, it will stand the test of time and is the right choice for
protecting your interior and exterior walls. Besides, metal cladding is energy
efficient which not only helps reduce your carbon imprint but also help reduce
your monthly heating and cooling bills. Furthermore, metal is also recyclable thus
helping reduce your overall impact on the environment as well . Figure 3.12 shows the
metal cladding .
Metal cladding is extremely sturdy and durable and has a very long
lifespan depending on the metal cladding types. Walls can be finished with a wide
array of metals and techniques which provide excellent resistance and coverage
against weather conditions while being completely resistant to abrasions, UV rays
and staining. They not only improve the value and appearance of your interiors or
exteriors but are also lightweight, fireproof and waterproof whilst also providing
excellent acoustic performance. Metal cladding can be painted too and is available in
a wide range of textures and patterns to replicate the look of different materials.
With the right maintenance, it can increase the service life of any structure
while also proving to be one of the best investments you can make to improve the
value of your house. Metal cladding generally has a long lifespan varying from
metal to metal.[2]

Fig.3.12 Metal cladding

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3.5.5.1 Metal cladding process
Cladding refers to a process where a particular metal is bonded
electrically, mechanically or through some other high pressure and temperature
process onto another surface to provide a dual layer of protection against weather
elements. Stronger and less malleable metals like aluminium, steel and titanium
can be directly latched onto the frame without any support. Other metals like copper,
brass, zinc etc. aren’t strong enough to be hung independently and need support by
way of ply boards or other frames so that it can be bound or fastened on it
and hung separately. These panels can be either welded together or laid
across like tiles. Cladding can be applied on either or both sides of the frame or
board and then smeared a layer of coating to prevent corrosion and rusting.
For instance, steel is galvanised or powder coated while aluminium is anodised.
These processes apply a layer of protective coat onto the metal to make it sturdier
and robust enough to withstand the elements of nature.

3.6 SOLAR SHADING

Solar Shading and Sun Screening systems are an integral part of
habitable buildings . Modern sun shading systems are intelligently controlled and offer
tremendous energy savings .Correctly installed, these systems can reduce the energy
required for heating. The usage of lighting and air-conditioning can be reduced
by up to 40% . Figure 3.13 shows the skyscraper with a solar shading system to
prevent unnecessary heat gain .

Fig.3.13 Skyscraper with a solar shading system to prevent unnecessary heat gain

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 The sun rises in the East and sets in the West. The sun travels in an arc,
the design process is to ensure the building is shaded from the sun for as many
hours as possible throughout the whole day, during the course of the entire year.
However a balance must be achieved inorder to ensure that the level of natural light
entering the building is not unacceptably reduced. Controllable fins, unlike fixed,
can hang vertically in front of a window and still optimize solar shading and visibility .
Extruded aluminum louver system is shown in figure 3.14 .
Controllable solar shading systems enable the building to react to the
changes in the weather and to the sun's position so as to optimize the flows of heat
and light energy through the facade. This in turn may have a positive effect on
reducing the heat load and glare, and enhancing the use of natural daylight, thereby
reducing the operating costs of the building .

Fig.3.14 Extruded Aluminum Louver System.

3.7 INSULATED RENDER

Insulated render, commonly known as External Wall Insulation (EWI).
It has been used increasingly to meet the demand for lightweight,
energy efficient, architecturally interesting facades. Student accommodation
and other residential and mixed-use buildings are often clad in this material.
Rigid insulation board is applied to a supporting frame and coated with a polymer-modified

19
render which may be cement-based or acrylic-based and fibre reinforced. Light steel
framing systems made from cold formed sections have increasingly been used to
provide the supporting structure. Additional insulation can be placed within the depth
of the framing. Early partial closure of the building is achieved by fixing cement
particle board to the outer surface of the light steel framing system , prior
to fixing the insulation . Layers of insulated render is shown in figure 3.15 .

Fig.3.15 Insulated render

3.8 INSULATED WALL PANELS

Insulated wall panels are interlocking, composite metal-faced sandwich

panels or concrete panels with insulation between internal and external concrete
elements. Steel-faced insulated panels are frequently used on single storey and
low-rise industrial and commercial buildings .
Panels are usually designed to span either vertically or horizontally
and are made to suit commonly-used frame spacings without intermediate supports.
Various insulation materials are available such as expanded polyurethane ,
polyisocyanurate and mineral fibre with a range of insulating, fire-resisting and other
physical properties. Insulating materials should be selected with care, taking into
consideration all the performance and functional requirements. Various surface
profiles and colours are available. Insulated wall panel systems have interlocking

20
joints which include overlaps and compression gaskets to prevent water ingress.
For horizontally-laid panels, vertical joints at supports are butt joints with
compression gaskets and sealed or gasketted cover strips .Figure 3.16 shows the metal
sheets with insulation .[2]

Fig.3.16 Insulated wall panel

3.9 SUMMARY

A facade system is the modification that are done to the exterior of the
building .It is divided in to Steel and Glass facades ,Cladding facades ,Solar shading
Insulated render , Insulated wall panels .

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 CHAPTER 4
FACADE FUNCTIONS
4.1 GENERAL
The building facade provides the separation between the inside
and the outside environments but is also required to provide acceptable light levels
and a visual connection with the outside in the form of views out of the building.
The facade may also be required to provide the building user with openable windows
for ventilation. The separating functions include: Weather tightness including elimination
of water ingress and control of air permeability and resistance to wind actions; Insulation
(both thermal and acoustic);Control of solar gain and ultraviolet radiation and the
management of views into the building.

4.2 FUNCTIONS
Intelligent facade system is carried out many benefits in a building .
There are many functions of intelligent facade system for a building .

 Elimination of water ingress

 Control of air permeability
 Resistance to wind actions
 Thermal and acoustic insulation
 Control of solar gain and ultraviolet radiation
 Enhancement of natural light and ventilation
 Protection from glare
 Provision of inside and outside view
 Protection from pollution
 Fire resistance

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4.2.1 Elimination Of Water Ingress
The fundamental requirement of a cladding system is that water
does not leak through it into the building . Facade should be tight in many ways.
Rain and wind must not penetrate the facade from the outside, and moisture
must not penetrate into the facade from the inside . Figure 4.1 shows the face seal wall
assembly .
One means of eliminating leaks is to create a face-sealed system
over the whole building , equivalent to a weather proof membrane . Once such
a system is perforated water leaking through the perforations is inside the building .
In practice, it is difficult to achieve such a face-sealed system because of the
complexity of the interfaces between the various materials and components in a
building envelope and its exposure to weathering . A more reliable way of
providing resistance to water ingress is to adopt a system with primary and
secondary defences . The primary defence is intended to resist most of the incident
rain but if water leaks past the primary (outer) defence , the secondary defence
intercepts the water and directs it to the outside . Rain screen systems and
glazing and framing profiles are designed in this way. [1]

Fig.4.1. Face seal wall assembly

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4.2.2 Resistance To Wind Actions
The level of exposure of buildings to the weather is related to the
design wind pressure . The level of performance of a building envelope can be specified
and resistance to water penetration tested . The Centre for Window and Cladding
Technology (CWCT) publishes a ‘Standard for systemized building envelopes’ which
sets out performance categories and corresponding weather tests related to the design
wind pressure. Mullions and transoms are shown in figure 4.2 .
Building cladding systems are required to sustain wind actions and
transfer them to the main building structure .Systems are usually mounted on a
building floor by floor so at each floor level the building frame supports the weight
of one storey height of the envelope. The envelope may either be bottom-supported
or suspended from the floor above .Wind actions are transferred by the cladding
system to the building floors which act as a linear support. Building cladding
systems formed of large panels are usually one-way spanning. Each floor level
therefore supports one level of wind load on a building. Figure 4.3 shows the curtain
walling system .

Fig.4.2. Mullions and transoms Fig.4.3. Curtain walling

Curtain walling panels are usually two-way spanning, supported on

four sides by the transoms and mullions which frame them . Transoms span
side to side, supported by the mullions which span from floor to floor . Loads are

24
transferred by brackets, usually fixed at the edge of the floor slab. The mullions are
usually provided with sleeved joints to achieve transfer of shear forces at the joints.
Mullions are usually top-hung so that they act in bending and tension . Rain screen
cladding, masonry and insulated render are fixed to supporting systems which are
usually designed to span from floor to floor.

4.2.3 Thermal And Acoustic Insulation

The building facade is required to perform a thermal insulating
function which is becoming increasingly onerous under the pressure to reduce
energy consumption and CO2 emissions. Insulating material is incorporated
into the opaque parts of the facade and insulating glazed units are used
in the transparent areas. Minimum U-values are given in the Building Regulations,
equal to 0.35 W/m2 for walls and 2.2 W/m2 for windows and curtain walling .
U- value measures how effective a material is an insulator . Lower the U- value is ,
the better the material is as heat insulator . Better insulation averaged over the
building envelope can be achieved by increasing the areas of opaque wall and reducing
the areas of windows .
A facade should be dimensioned and designed with regard to
existing noise sources and in a way which limits the occurrence and
propagation of disturbing noise. The factors which determine the overall sound
insulation of a building from the environment, include the construction of the
facade, the sound insulation properties of the windows, and the fitting and
sealing of the window in the facade . The building envelope also provides acoustic
separation between the external and internal environments. In general , a building
envelope constructed of more massive elements (e.g. masonry or pre-cast concrete)
provides better acoustic separation. The walls in steel buildings will generally be
formed from light steel wall studs , insulation and boards . The careful selection of
stud , insulation and board is necessary to provide the required acoustic insulation[1]

25
4.2.4 Solar gain, Light Levels And Views Out
Large areas of glazing which extend from floor to ceiling in many office
developments provide excellent views out of the space and good levels of natural
light. Levels of natural light diminish with distance from the facade and 18m is
the plan depth (facade to facade or facade to atrium) above which natural light
is considered to be too low . Figure 4.4 shows the double-glazed unit with laminated
glass .

Fig.4.4. Double-glazed unit with laminated glass

The penetration of direct sunlight into a building causes solar gain and
glare, both of which increase with a greater expanse of glazing . These effects vary
with the time of day and with the seasons and both need to be allowed for in the
design of the facade . South elevations receive stronger sunlight from a higher angle
and can be shaded using horizontal louvers . Glare from low-angle sunlight can be a
particular problem in the early morning and late evening for east- and west-facing
elevations. Shading can be provided with vertical fins or with user-operated blinds. .
Horizontal glass louvers and vertical aluminium fins are shown in figure 4.5 and 4.6.
Solar gain can be reduced by specifying a selective solar control coating on
one of the surfaces of the glass . The coating is called selective because solar radiation
of different wavelengths is selectively allowed to pass through the coating: visible
wavelengths of light are allowed to pass more freely than infrared wavelengths For

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spaces for exhibitions or displays of materials susceptible to ultraviolet degradation,
a UV-inhibiting film can be applied to the surface of glazing or laminated glass
can be specified with sufficient interlayers between the glass laminates to absorb
UV radiation .
Solar gain must be allowed for in the design of the building services.
The benefits of full-height glazing have been questioned as a result of pressure
to reduce energy costs because there is little advantage to natural light levels in
having glazing below desk level but full-height glazing increases the heating
and cooling demand and increases energy costs. Schools, hospitals and residential
buildings frequently have larger areas of solid wall and smaller windows as a
proportion of the facade area and so these issues are less significant .[7]

Fig.4.5. Horizontal glass louvers Fig.4.6. Vertical aluminium fins

4.2.5 Control Of Air Permeability

Air permeability is controlled in the design and construction of
building envelopes to manage the rate of heat loss or gain due to the exchange of air
with the outside, to assist in reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Standards of air
permeability are identified in the Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association
(ATTMA) guide .

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 Pressure testing is required under the Building Regulations which
state that all buildings that are not dwellings must be subject to pressure testing
(subject to some exceptions) . Compliance is demonstrated if the measured air
permeability is not worse than the limiting value of 10 m3/(hr.m2) at 50Pa and the
Building Emission Rate (BER) calculated using the measured air permeability is not
worse than the Target CO2 Emission Rate (TER). Requirements are also specified for
dwellings . Standards of air permeability are shown in table 4.1 .
In a typical pre-finished steel-clad building , the air tightness barrier is
provided by the interior side of the envelope . While the outer sheet of an insulated
envelope will provide weather protection , and will be sealed in order to prevent water
leaks.

Table 4.1 Standards of air permeability

Air permeability
Building type (m3/ (hr.m2) at 50 Pa)

Best practice Normal

 Offices:
*Naturally ventilated 3.0 7.0
*Mixed mode 2.5 5.0
*Air conditioned / 2.0 5.0
low energy
 Factories/warehouses 2.0 6.0
 Superstore 1.0 5.0
 Schools 3.0 9.0
 Hospitals 5.0 9.0

4.2.5.1 Air Tightness Testing Procedure

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 In order to test the Air tightness of a building it is over or under-
pressurized with respect to atmospheric pressure by the use of large fans . The
volume of air required to maintain this pressurization is recorded and the air leakage
at 50Pa (Q50) (in m3/hr) is calculated . Figure 4.7 shows the air pressure testing of
an industrial building .Air permeability is then defined by
Air permeability = Q50/SA
Where SA is the area of external envelope including the floor (m2).
Testing should be carried by Air Tightness Testing and Measurement Association

Fig.4.7. Air pressure testing of an industrial building

4.2.6 Resistance To Fire

A facade should be generally made from non-combustible materials.
Any smoke shutters/windows should be dimensioned according to the needs .

4.3 SUMMARY
Intelligent facade system is carried out many benefits in a building.
There are many functions of intelligent facade system for a building such as
Enhancement of natural light , protection from glare , sound and noise insulation,
provision of inside and outside view , enhancement of ventilation , heat or cold
collection , protection from pollution , safety protection , protection from rain ,
solar gain , and solar protection

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 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS

5.1 GENERAL
This chapter describe major content included behind the facade .

5.2 MAIN POINTS

For designing intelligent facade local climatic conditions , outdoor
environment , and indoor spaces with view to parameters such as energy performance ,
thermal comfort , indoor air quality , visual comfort etc . parameters should be taken
account .
A facade system is the modification that are done to the exterior of the
building .It is divided in to Steel and Glass facades ,Cladding facades ,Solar shading
Insulated render , Insulated wall panels .
The glazed walling system is designed to provide the necessary functions
of weather-tightness, natural lighting and shading, and thermal insulation .Cladding
is the application of one material over another to provide a skin or layer .Solar
Shading and Sun Screening systems are an integral part of habitable buildings . Modern
sun shading systems are intelligently controlled and offer tremendous energy savings
.Insulated render, commonly known as External Wall Insulation (EWI). It has been
used increasingly to meet the demand for lightweight, energy efficient,
architecturally interesting facades . Insulated wall panels are interlocking, composite
metal-faced sandwich panels or concrete panels with insulation between internal and
external concrete elements.

5.3 SUMMERY

In this chapter include the main conclusions about the facade system and its
application in building construction .

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REFERENCES
1. www.steelconstruction.info/Facades and interfaces
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding
3. Mingotti, Nicola; Chenvidyakarn Torwong; Woods A. W (2010). "The fluid
mechanics of the natural ventilation of a narrow-cavity double-skin facade". Building
and Environment.
4. Nik Vigener, PE and Mark A. Brown (5 October 2016). "Curtain Walls – WBDG".
Whole Building Design Guide – National Institute of Building Sciences. Retrieved
22 June 2017
5. Micheal J. Lough and David Altenhofen, "The Rain Screen Principle"
6. Aruna Malini and Premalatha , Facades of Tall Buildings – Modern Applied Science,
Vol. 4, No. 12; December 2010
7. Responsive Building Envelopes: Characteristics and Evolving Paradigms, By: kathy
velikov and geoffrey thün.

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