4.4.1 Response to Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals: The Frequency Response Function In Chapter 2, it was demonstrated that the response of any relaxed linear time- invariant system to an arbitrary input signal x(n}. is given by the convolution sum formula DY Arm - © @4l) In this input-output relationship, the system is characterized in the time domain by its unit sample response {h(n).~o0 athe (44d) 1 Clearly, the function H(w) exists if the system is BIBO stable, that is, if Yo thin <0 With the definition in (4.4.4), the response of the system to the complex exponential given in (4.4.2) is yn) = AH (we 45)Example 44.1 Determine the output sequence of the system with impulse response u(r) 446) hin) when the input is the complex exponential sequence RU)= AON eee Solution First we evaluate the Fourier transform of the impulse response fir). and then we use (4.4.5) to determine rin), From Example 4.2.3 we recall that wan vin) = (44.8) ym Ze pgtenme we 3 Example 4.4.2, Moving Average Filter Determine the magnitude and phase of H(w) for the three-point moving average (MA) system vin) = [xin + 1) +x) + 26m ~ 1) and plot these two functions for 0 < w = x Solution Since hn it follows thar Hw) = el +14 eM) = ED + 2c05) Hence |H(o) = $1 + 2c0s 0} (4.4.16) ayia {2 Ssesans nm lnfisw 1) or attenuation (|H(a)| < 1) imparted by the system on the input sinusoid. The phase @(w) determines the amount of phase shift impartedby the system on the input sinusoid. Consequently, by knowing H(w), we are able to determine the response of the system to any sinusoidal input signal. Since H(@) specifies the response of the system in the frequency domain. it is called the frequency response of the system. Correspondingly, | («)) is called the magnitude response and (io) is called the phase response of the system. If the input to the system consists of more than one sinusoid, the superpo- sition property of the linear system can be used to determine the response. The following examples illustrate the use of the superposition property. Example 44.3 Determine the response of the system in Example 4.4.1 to the input signal 10~Ssin=n42Wcosmn —oc = T= Hence aprAtw= 2/4, 4(3)- 3 G~ pF (1 = postr /4) + jp sin(r/4))? a-p? C= p/v2 + jp/V3P Hence (— py [a= piv2r+ ppp 2 or, equivalently 1+ VB N30 = pF The value of p = 0.32 satisfies this equation. Consequently. the system function for the desired filter is 046 = 0322 1F HO) Example 4.5.2 Design a wo-pole bandpass filter that has the ezmter of its passband at @ = 22. istic at a = 0 and ws = x, and iis magnitude zero in its frequency response charact response is iv? at w = 409 Solution Clearly. the fer must have poles ai and eros al = = 1 ani fem function is The gain factor is determined by evaluating the frequency response H(w) of the filter Thus we haveThe value of r is determined by evaluating Hw} at w= 47/9. Thus we have an\f _d-F¥ 2 —2cosi8x/9) 1 " (3) TEED cose) ~ or, equivalently, 194d? 1.B8r? = rf The value of 7? desired filter is 0.7 satisfies this equation, Therefore. the system function for the nie A simple lowpass-to-highpass filter transformation. Hyp(@) = Hiplw — =) Example 4.5.3 Convert the lowpass filter described by the difference equation vin) = 0.9y(n — 1) + 0.1 x(n) into a highpass filter Solution The difference equation for the highpass filter. according to (4.5.18). is y(n) = -0.9 pen — 1) + 0.1x(0) and its frequency response is 1 1s 05e—™ The reader may verify that Ayp(w) is indeed highpass. Higa) =4.5.3 Digital Resonators A digital resonator is a special two-pole bandpass filter with the pair of complex- conjugate poles located near the unit circle as shown in Fig. 4.48(a). The magnitude of the frequency response of the filter is shown in Fig. 4.48(b). The name resonator refers to the fact that the filter has a large magnitude response (i.e.. it resonates) in the vicinity of the pole location. The angular position of the pole determines the resonant frequency of the filter. Digital resonators are useful in many applications, including simple bandpass filtering and speech generation. In the design of a digital resonator with resonant peak at or near w = ey, we select the complex-conjugate poles at pase Ord wo)4.5.4 Notch Filters A notch filter is a filter that contains one or more deep notches or, ideally, perfect nulls in its frequency response characteristic. Figure 4.50 illustrates the frequency response characteristic of a notch filter with nulls at frequencies ee and w. Notch filters are useful in many applications where specific frequency components must be eliminated, For example, instrumentation and recording systems require that the power-line frequency of 60 Hz and its harmonics be eliminated. 12 1.0 0.8 0. 04 [ 02 1a)! vie en ‘To create a null in the frequency response of a filter at a frequency wo, we simply introduce a pait of complex-conjugate zeros on the unit circle at an angle eg. That is, 4.5.5 Comb Fitters In its simplest form, a comb filter can be viewed as a notch filter in which the nulls occur periodically across the frequency band, hence the analogy to an ordi- nary comb that has periodically spaced teeth. Comb filters find applications in a wide range of practical systems such as in the rejection of power-line harmonics, in the separation of solar and lunar components from ionospheric measurements of electron concentration, and in the suppression of clutter from fixed objects in moving-target-indicator (MTI) radars.Figure 453 Magnitude response characteristic for the comb filter given by (6.6.32) with M = 10. 4.5.6 All-Pass Filters An all-pass filter is defined as a system that has a constant magnitude response for all frequencies, that is. \Hw)\=1 O<@ $ ‘This system is both causal and stable. Since H(=) is an all-pole system. its inverse is FIR and is given by the system function As Hence its impulse response is fy aun) ~ bain)