The Linear Attenuation Coefficient (µ)

The linear attenuation coefficient (µ) describes the fraction of a beam of x-

rays or gamma rays that is absorbed or scattered per unit thickness of the
absorber. This value basically accounts for the number of atoms in a cubic
cm volume of material and the probability of a photon being scattered or
absorbed from the nucleus or an electron of one of these atoms.

Using the transmitted intensity equation above, linear attenuation

coefficients can be used to make a number of calculations. These include:

 the intensity of the energy transmitted through a material when the

incident x-ray intensity, the material and the material thickness are
known.
 the intensity of the incident x-ray energy when the transmitted x-ray
intensity, material, and material thickness are known.
 the thickness of the material when the incident and transmitted
intensity, and the material are known.
 the material can be determined from the value of µ when the incident
and transmitted intensity, and the material thickness are known.

Linear attenuation coefficients can sometimes be found in the

literature. However, it is often easier to locate attenuation data in terms of
the mass attenuation coefficient. Tables and graphs of the mass
attenuation coefficients for all of the elements Z = 1 to 92, and for
compounds and mixtures of radiological interest are available at
the National Institute for Standards and Technology website. The tables on
the NIST website cover energies of photons (x-ray, gamma ray,
bremsstrahlung) from 1 keV to 20 MeV. A mass attenuation coefficient can
easily be converted to a linear attenuation coefficient as discussed below.

Mass Attenuation Coefficient and Conversion to Linear Attenuation

Coefficient
Since a linear attenuation coefficient is dependent on the density of a
material, the mass attenuation coefficient is often reported for
convenience. Consider water for example. The linear attenuation for water
vapor is much lower than it is for ice because the molecules are more
spread out in vapor so the chance of a photon encounter with a water
particle is less. Normalizing  by dividing it by the density of the element or
compound will produce a value that is constant for a particular element or
compound. This constant () is known as the mass attenuation
coefficient and has units of cm2/gm.

To convert a mass attenuation coefficient () to a linear attenuation

coefficient (), simply multiply it by the density () of the material.
Use of Linear Attenuation Coefficients
One use of linear attenuation coefficients is for selecting a radiation energy
that will produce the most contrast between particular materials in a
radiograph. Say, for example, that it is necessary to detect tungsten
inclusions in iron. It can be seen from the graphs of linear attenuation
coefficients versus radiation energy, that the maximum separation between
the tungsten and iron curves occurs at around 100keV. At this energy the
difference in attenuation between the two materials is the greatest so the
radiographic contrast will be maximized.

Half-Value Layer

The thickness of any given material

where 50% of the incident energy has
been attenuated is know as the half-
value layer (HVL). The HVL is
expressed in units of distance (mm or
cm). Like the attenuation coefficient, it
is photon energy dependant.
Increasing the penetrating energy of a
stream of photons will result in an increase in a material's HVL.

The HVL is inversely proportional to the attenuation coefficient. If an

incident energy of 1 and a transmitted energy is 0.5 is plugged into the
equation introduced on the preceding page, it can be seen that the HVL
multiplied by mmust equal 0.693.

If x is the HVL then m times HVL must equal 0.693 (since the number 0.693
is the exponent value that gives a value of 0.5).

Therefore, the HVL and m are related as follows:

The HVL is often used in radiography

simply because it is easier to remember
values and perform simple calculations.
In a shielding calculation, such as
illustrated to the right, it can be seen
that if the thickness of one HVL is
known, it is possible to quickly
determine how much material is needed
to reduce the intensity to less than 1%.

Approximate HVL for Various Materials when Radiation is from a Gamma

Source

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Source Concrete Steel Lead Tungsten Uranium
Iridium-192 44.5 (1.75) 12.7 (0.5) 4.8 (0.19) 3.3 (0.13) 2.8 (0.11)
21.6
Cobalt-60 60.5 (2.38) 12.5 (0.49) 7.9 (0.31) 6.9 (0.27)
(0.85)

Approximate Half-Value Layer for Various Materials when Radiation is from

an X-ray Source

Half-Value Layer, mm (inch)

Peak Voltage
Lead Concrete
(kVp)
50 0.06 (0.002) 4.32 (0.170)
100 0.27 (0.010) 15.10 (0.595)
150 0.30 (0.012) 22.32 (0.879)
200 0.52 (0.021) 25.0 (0.984)
250 0.88 (0.035) 28.0 (1.102)
300 1.47 (0.055) 31.21 (1.229)
400 2.5 (0.098) 33.0 (1.299)
1000 7.9 (0.311) 44.45 (1.75)

Note: The values presented on this page are intended for educational
purposes. Other sources of information should be consulted when
designing shielding for radiation sources.

Sources of Attenuation

The attenuation that results due to the interaction between penetrating

radiation and matter is not a simple process. A single interaction event
between a primary x-ray photon and a particle of matter does not usually
result in the photon changing to some other form of energy and effectively
disappearing. Several interaction events are usually involved and the total
attenuation is the sum of the attenuation due to different types of
interactions. These interactions include the photoelectric effect, scattering,
and pair production. The figure below shows an approximation of the total
absorption coefficient, (µ), in red, for iron plotted as a function of radiation
energy. The four radiation-matter interactions that contribute to the total
absorption are shown in black. The four types of interactions
are: photoelectric (PE), Compton scattering (C), pair production (PP),
and Thomson or Rayleigh scattering (R). Since most industrial radiography
is done in the 0.1 to 1.5 MeV range, it can be seen from the plot that
photoelectric and Compton scattering account for the majority of
attenuation encountered.
https://www.nde-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Physics/attenuation.htm