METHODOLOGY

OBJECTIVES :

1. Observe the corrosion process of pure metal and metal alloys.

2. Determine the difference of corrosion between one metal/alloy and other metal alloy
in term of physical behaviour and rate of corrosion.
3. Define a galvanic cell, its important elements, the role of electrolyte in it and various
circumstances under which a galvanic cell is created in real life.

MATERIALS/CHEMICALS

- Agar, iron nail, magnesium ribbon, copper wire, aluminium strip, lead/tin, Pb/Sn solder
wire, Phenolphthalein indicator, distilled water, iron(II) chloride,𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 powder,
Copper(II)sulphate,𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 powder, zinc(II) nitrate,𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 )2 , powder,lead(II)
nitrate, 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 )2 powder, potassium nitrate, 𝐾𝑁𝑂3 powder.

APPARATUS/EQUIPMENTS

- Weighing boats, spatulas, analytical balance, 250 mL volumetric flasks, glass rods,
conical flasks, 100ml, beakers, filter papers, galvanometer, petri dishes, hot plate, 1000
mL beaker.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

PART A : GALVANIC CELL

1. 1 M of KNO3, CuNO3, Pb(NO3)2, ZnNO3, FeCl3 for 50 ml each are prepared in 50

ml volumetric flask.

2. 4 filter papers are soaked into KNO3.

3. The apparatus are set up as shown below

4. The filter papers are immersed to different metal into their ion
solution

5. The voltmeter reading are recorded

6. The reading obtained are filled up in Table 1.

7. The experimental result is compared with

theoretical results.
PART B : METAL CORROSION

1. Iron nail and magnesium strip are cleaned using sandpaper. All dirt
and rust are make sure completely removed

2. Metal samples are put on petri dish by following the

arrangement in Table 2.

3. 10 g agar is put in beaker glass and 600 ml distilled water is added

4. Agar is heated up until it boils and dissolves in water completely

5. 1 ml of phenolphthalein is dropped into agar solution. It is gently stirred to

ensure the uniformity of solution

6. Agar solution is poured into petri dish. Metal samples are completely
immersed in agar solution.

7. The initial condition of metal samples (0 minute), 30 minutes and 2 hours

after the samples are immersed are observed and recorded.
 Table 2 : Arrangement of metal sample

Dish no. Sample A Sample B

1 Copper wire Iron nail wrapped by copper wire

Iron nail wrapped by Magnesium

2 Magnesium ribbon
ribbon

Magnesium ribbon wrapped by Aluminum strip wrapped by copper

3
copper wire wire

Iron nail wrapped by aluminum

4 Aluminum strip
strip

Iron nail wrapped by Pb/Sn solder

5 Pb/Sn solder wire
wire

Aluminum strip wrapped by Pb/Sn Magnesium ribbon wrapped by

6
solder wire Pb/Sn solder wire

Pb/Sn solder wire wrapped by

7 Iron nail
copper wire
ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this experiment is to observe the corrosion process of pure metal
and metal alloys, determine the difference of corrosion between one metal/alloy and other
metal alloy in term of physical behaviour and rate of corrosion and define a galvanic cell, its
important elements, the role of electrolyte in it and various circumstances under which a
galvanic cell is created in real life. This experiment consists of two parts which is Part A and
Part B that indicated the Galvanic Cell and metal Corrosion respectively. In Part A, we begin
the experiment by preparing four different analyte which is 1 M of KNO3, CuNO3, Pb(NO3)2,
ZnNO3, FeCl3 for 50 ml and then 4 filter papers are used and each of it need to soak into
KNO3. After that, each of the filter papers are immersed into four different metal to their ion
solution. Lastly, the voltmeter reading were recorded at the end of the test. While in Part B, it
involved the metal corrosion. This part is very important due to identify the corrosion that
occur on iron metals and other alloy metals .Firstly, we need to clean iron nail and
magnesium by using sandpaper. This step is to ensure all dirt and rust are completely
removed. Next, each metal samples are placed in petri dish and each petri dish should have
two different sample after that, agar solution is prepared by heating mixture of 10g agar with
600 mL of distilled water. Then, phenolphthalein indicator was added about 1ml and we need
stirred the solution for a while. Last but not least, the agar solution poured into each petri
dish until all samples are completely immersed. All the samples are being observed at 0
minutes,30 minutes and 3 hours .
INTRODUCTION

Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that examines the phenomena

resulting from combined chemical and electrical effects. An electrochemical cell is the set-up
of apparatus and chemicals that can generate electricity from chemical reactions or uses
electrical energy to from chemical reactions.An electrochemical cell is a device that produces
an electric current from energy released by a spontaneous redox reaction. This kind of cell
includes the galvanic, or voltaic, cell, named after Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta. These
scientists conducted several experiments on chemical reactions and electric current during the
late 18th century. Electrochemical cells have two conductive electrodes, called the anode and
the cathode. The anode is defined as the electrode where oxidation occurs. The cathode is the
electrode where reduction takes place. Electrodes can be made from any sufficiently
conductive materials, such as metals, semiconductors, graphite, and even conductive
polymers. In between these electrodes is the electrolyte, which contains ions that can freely
move. This field covers an Electrolytic processes where the reactions in which chemical
changes occur on the passage of an electrical current .The second fields in electrochemistry is
Galvanic or Voltaic processes. This process involved chemical reactions that result in the
production of electrical energy.1

A galvanic cell is an electrochemical device that can produce electrical energy from
spontaneous single replacement redox reactions. All electrochemical cells have two
electrodes, a cathode and an anode. Solution species are always reduced at the cathode, and
oxidized at the anode. In galvanic cells the cathode is then charged positive and the anode
negative. When two different metals are used, the identity of which is the anode and which is
the cathode is determined by their relative position in the activity series. The electrode that is
higher in the series (more easily oxidized) is the anode.2 Then, a Galvanic cell (or voltaic
cell), utilizes a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction to produce electrical energy. To
help us understand the process, we can think of a Galvanic cell as being composed of two
half-cells, one of which is the site of oxidation (anode) and the other the site of reduction (the
cathode). 3
 There are many advantages of using electrochemical cells concept to be applied in
industrial and daily life usage. Examples of electrochemistry applications are prevention of
rusting by a few methods such as by alloying, applying protective coating, electroplating,
cathodic protection and galavanisation, aluminium extraction by electrolysis of bauxite,
anodising of aluminium, manufacture of chlorine from brine(concentrated sodium chloride
solution), treatment of effluent in wastewater and electroplating of plastic to form light, cheap
plastics and has expensive finished look of metals. In this experiment, a galvanic cell consist
of negative terminal or anode is an electrode where oxidation occurs positive terminal where
cathode is an electrode where reduction takes place.

Corrosion engineering is the application of science and art to prevent or control corrosion
damage in a safe and economical manner. To perform this function properly, the corrosion
engineer must rely on experimental research. This is because the major aspects of corrosion
engineering are largely empirical in nature. A body of theory exists that can be very helpful
in solving corrosion problems, but in the final analysis, most decisions are based on the
results of empirical tests. The importance of corrosion can be seen in daily life. Corrosion
causes accidents in industry, on highways, and in homes. It is wasteful financially, costing
industrialized nations 4-5% of their gross domestic products annually. A little knowledge of
electrochemistry, material science and corrosion could save nations some 25% of this loss 4.
Corrosion tests are conducted for a number of reasons including:

1. Establishing corrosion mechanisms.

2. Defining corrosion resistance of materials and how to develop new corrosion resistant

alloys.

3. Estimating service life of equipment.

4. Developing corrosion protection processes.

5. Defining the critical potential values for materials in various environments.

RESULTS :

PART A : GALVANIC CELL

𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 ) 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 ) 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2

2 2

𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4 +6V +14V +9V

𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂3 ) +6V +8V +3V

2

𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂3 ) +14V +8V +5V

2

𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙2 +9V +3V +5V

TABLE 1 : VOLTMETER READING FOR EACH SAMPLE USED

PART B : METAL CORROSION

Dish Sample A Sample B

no.
1 No colour changes of agar Agar turned from colourless to pink
colour appeared at part of the iron
nail that is not wrapped by copper
wire
2 Agar turned from colourless to Agar turned from colourless to pink
pink colour and some bubbles colour
appeared around the iron nail
3 Agar turned from colourless to No colour changes of agar
pink colour.

4 Agar turned from colourless to No colour changes of agar

pink colour at part of the metal
that is not wrapped by
aluminium stripped
5 Agar turned from colourless to No colour changes of agar
pink colour around the iron nail
that is wrapped by Pb solder
wire
6 No colour changes of agar Agar turned from colourless to pink
colour
7 Agar turned from colourless to No pink solution appeared around
pink colour the metal

TABLE 4 : SHOWS THE CONDITION OF SAMPLE AFTER BEING

IMMERSED IN AGAR AFTER 30 MINUTES.
 Dish Sample A Sample B
no.
1 -No colour changes of agar - Agar turned from colourless to
-No corrosion occurred pink colour at part of the iron nail
that is not wrapped by copper wire
-Corrosion occur at part that is
wrapped by copper wire
2 - Agar turned from colourless to -Agar turned from colourless to pink
pink colour and some bubbles colour
appeared around the iron nail -No corrosion occurred
-no corrosion occured
3 - Agar turned from colourless to - No colour changes of agar
pink colour - No corrosion occurred
-Corrosion occurred
4 - Agar turned from colourless to - No colour changes of agar
pink colour at part of the iron - No corrosion occurred
nail that is not wrapped by
aluminium stripped
-No corrosion occurred
5 - Agar turned from colourless to - No colour changes of agar
pink colour appeared around the -No corrosion occurred
iron nail that is wrapped by Pb
solder wire
-Corrosion occurred on part that
is not wrapped
6 -No colour changes of agar -Agar turned from colourless to pink
-No corrosion occurred colour
–No corrosion occurred
7 -Agar turned from colourless to -No colour changes of agar
pink colour -No corrosion occurred
-Corrosion occured

TABLE 5 : SHOWS THE CONDITION OF SAMPLE AFTER BEING IMMERSED IN AGAR AFTER 3 HOURS
DISCUSSION

By referring to this experiment, we are conducted two different test which is Part A was test

Galvanic cell and for the second Part B was on Metal Corrosion. First and foremost, Part A is

focused on the study of electrochemistry in which by conducting a simple galvanic cell.

Electrochemistry is defined as the branch of chemistry that examines the phenomena

resulting from combined chemical and electrical effects. An electrochemical cell is the set-up

of apparatus and chemicals that can generate electricity from chemical reactions or uses

electrical energy from chemical reactions. One of the most important types of chemical

reactions that occur in galvanic cell is the oxidation–reduction or known as redox reaction.

An oxidation reduction reaction involves the transfer of one or more electrons from one

species to another.

Reduction means an element gained electron(s) or its oxidation number decreases while

Oxidation means an element that has loses their electron (s) or the oxidation number

increases. Oxidation and reduction or redox reaction are always occur together. Hence, in

this experiment , we had use a Galvanic cell. A galvanic cell or voltaic cell is a device in

which a redox reaction, such as the one in equation , spontaneously occurs and produces an

electric current. In order for the transfer of electrons in a redox reaction to produce an electric

current and be useful, the electrons are made to pass through an external electrically

conducting wire instead of being directly transferred between the oxidizing and reducing

agents.
 In the simplest cells, the barrier between the two solutions can be a porous

membrane, but for precise measurements, a more complicated arrangement, known as

a salt bridge, is used. The salt bridge consists of an intermediate compartment filled with a

concentrated solution of KCl and fitted with porous barriers at each end. The purpose of the

salt bridge is to minimize the natural potential difference, known as the junction potential,

that develops (as mentioned in the previous section) when any two phases (such as the two

solutions) are in contact. This potential difference would combine with the two half-cell

potentials so as introduce a degree of uncertainty into any measurement of the cell potential.

With the salt bridge, we have two liquid junction potentials instead of one, but they tend to

cancel each other out.

So that, as in this experiment .we had use a filter paper as a salt bridge and then allowed it

to soak into the potassium nitrate solution. In this experiment, metal will act as the electron

and immersed in its ionic solution or better known as electrolyte and thus exhibits specific

electrical potential. In this experiment. Another important thing in this galvanic cell, we

should have anode and cathode electrodes due to perform the galvanic cell well. Then, in this

experiment metal will act as the electron and immersed in its electrolyte.

For the first electrochemical cell which involved the reaction of copper and lead, it shows

that copper will be cathode because it has more positive sign of standard electrode potential

value than lead. Hence, copper will undergo reduction reaction in which copper ions in

copper(II) sulphate solution accept electrons and then reduced to copper atom. Differ from

the lead, it will undergo oxidation reaction in which it will release electrons and then oxidized

to lead(II) ions.
 In fact, as we know in a redox reaction, the reactant that loses electrons (is oxidized) causes

a reduction and is called a reducing agent. So that, as shown in the copper-zinc

electrochemical cell zinc metal is the reducing agent it loses two electrons (is oxidized) and

becomes 𝑍𝑛2+ ion. The reactant that gains electrons (is reduced) causes an oxidation and is

called an oxidizing agent. 𝐶𝑢2+ ion gains two electrons (is reduced) to form copper metal.

Hence, zinc loses two electrons and copper(II) accepts both. The half reaction involved are

as below :

Zn → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 2e (oxidation half-reaction, reducing agent)

𝐶𝑢2+ + 2e− → Cu (reduction half reaction, oxidizing agent)

Next, in copper-iron electrochemical cell, copper metal is the cathode and positive terminal.
So that, reduction occurs when copper(II) ions accept two electrons to form copper from
external circuit. Whereas iron metal is oxidized and releases electrons to copper half-cell,
thus this metal is the anode or negatively charged. Then, for the next electrochemical cell it
involved the reaction of lead-zinc and lead-iron electrochemical cell respectively. For both
reaction, lead with more positive standard electrode potential and thus it will directly be the
cathode. Hence, reduction may take place in when lead(II) ions accept two electrons due to
form lead at positive terminal. However, for both reaction four and reaction five zinc and iron
metals will be oxidized and thus from the reaction it will form zinc ions and iron(II) ions in
their electrolytes respectively.

In conclusion for Part A, as it can be seen from table above (Table 1, Table 2, Table 3 ),
there are some differences in the theoretical and measured values of the cell potential. There
are some possible reasons which may lead to these deviations in this experiment. Firstly, it is
may occur when there were not fully clean metals or beakers. Hence, this will lead to a
changes of composition of each half cell, by remaining some particles of previous solutions.
However, this human error can be prevent by do a regular cleaning of the equipments. So
that, it will help to avoid or minimize the errors. Moreover, the standard conditions were not
ideally kept. Also, instability of voltmeter scale was probable cause of the errors in the values
 Next, for the Part B in this experiment which test on metal corrosion. In analyzing
corrosion, the first thing that must be determined is whether a metal reacts with its
environment. If so, the nature of the reaction must be understood. It is generally accepted that
corrosion processes are caused by the formation of electrochemical cells . So that , by
referring to our experiment, agar had been used as a medium that are able to stabilize and
form semi-solid gel. Then , we also had used phenolphthalein as our indicator. This is
because as we know phenolphthalein is a common acid-base indicator. This acid-base
indicator, Phenolphthalein was added to the agar solution is to detect the formation or
presence of hydroxide ions. Phenolphthalein is colourless in acidic or neutral solutions but
turns bright pink in basic solutions (pH > 8–10) due to reaction with OH– ions. The reason
why this indicator is used because it remained as colourless in neutral and acidic solutions but
changes to bright pink in the presence of basic solution, in this case it is due to the reaction
with hydroxide ions at about more than pH8 to pH10. The presence of hydroxide ions
indicates that reduction reaction takes place and thus will act as cathode or negative terminal.

By looking the result obtained in petri dish A which is copper wire and iron nail wrapped
by copper wire for Sample A and sample B respectively, we were observed that copper wire
in sample A was not corrode easily compared to the sample B which is part of an iron nail
that is not wrapped by copper wire had been corrode. This can be proven when agar solution
turned from colourless to pink colour at part of the iron nail that is not wrapped by copper
wire and thus corrosion occur at this part. This means the concentration of hydroxide ions
increased at the unwrapped iron nail and it will indicate that the iron nail will act as anode in
which oxidation of iron occurs. Morever, iron has more negative value than copper in the
periodic table. The half reaction of the iron are as below :
Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e-

Next, for the second petri dish it is shown that both of the sample in A and B had turned the
agar solution from colourless to pink colour. However, there was a slightly differences
between those sample A and b which is magnesium ribbon have more bigger area of pink
colour compared to the iron nail. This can be understand by comparing both standard
electrode potential values of magnesium and iron.
 It is shown that magnesium ribbon was more negative standard electrode potential
compared to the iron nail and thus it will able to protect the iron nail from rust. The half
reaction of magnesium are :

Mg(s) Mg2+ (aq) + 2 e-.

Besides, for the third petri dish which consist sample of magnesium ribbon and aluminium
strip for sample A and B respectively. Both of the sample had been wrapped by the copper
wire. So that, from the sample we can see that there is corrosion occur on magnesium sample.
However, for the sample A, it had changed the agar solution from colourless to pink solution
. This might occur because aluminium has a layer of oxide layer that will protect it from
easily corrode.

Other than that, for the forth dish show that there was no corrosion occurred for both
samples. However, for sample A which is iron nail wrapped by aluminium strip, it changed
the agar solution from colourless to pink colour at part of the iron nail that is not wrapped by
aluminium stripped and it was occurred earlier in 30 minutes. Hence, we can say that
unwrapped iron region is the anode and it will undergo oxidation process.

In the fifth dish, for sample A it shows that agar turned from colourless to pink colour
around the iron nail that is wrapped by Pb solder wire but it does not happen in sample B
which only consist of lead or tin solder. Then after the test was observed after 3 hours, it is
show that corrosion only occurs at unwrapped part of iron nail which is differ from sample B
in which there is no corrosion occur. So that, from the results obtained we can say that
reduction might occur at Lead/Tin solder while oxidation occur on iron nail. This is due to
lead or tin solder is an alloy which means it has a stronger metallic structure to resist
corrosion.

For sixth petri dish, it was shown that there was no colour changes in sample A whereas the
agar solution turn from colourless to pink solution in samples B. However, there was no
corrosion occur on both sample after 3 hours. This is because aluminium has excellent
corrosion resistance property and thus it does not show any changes.
 Last but not least, for the seventh sample, it is shown that agar solution turns from
colourless to pink solution and also corrosion had occurred for the Sample A .But, it is totally
different from sample B which is the agar solution are remain constant and thus no corrosion
occur. So that, it was clearly shown that lead or tin solder wire can be observed that they are
able to protect copper from corrosion. In conclusion, the best metals to provide resistant
against corrosion are aluminium and lead/Tin solder whereas magnesium is the weakest
resistance ability followed by iron and copper.

From all the in Part B which is Sample A and sample B,they involved seven dish, we can
see that we are using 5 iron nails. All the iron nails are immersed in a agar which forms a
moist solid gel. The agar also contains phenolphthalein which it will forms a deep blue colour
( “Prussian blue”).The blue colours are clearly associated with those parts of the nail that
have been stressed. The pink colour shows the cathodic regionsthat have been made alkaline
by the reaction.

𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 + 4e 4𝑂𝐻 −

So that, this clearly shows the separation between the anodic and cathodic processes in
corrosion.

As a justification for Part B, The best metals to provide resistant against corrosion are
aluminium and lead/Tin solder whereas magnesium is the weakest resistance ability followed
by iron and copper. So that, it is clearly shown that, alloying is one of the best method that
can be used in order to protect iron metal from corrosion by using a suitable metals.
Throughout, the experiment, there are several error that had occur such as inconsistent
standard conditions, rusty crocodile clips and impure metals . All this error will affect the
result obtained. Thus, in order to obtain more precise and accurate result, human errors
should be overcome by using properly cleaned clips and working in suitable laboratory
environment will improve accuracy of experimental data.
CONCLUSION

In conclusion, objectives of this experiment had been achieved successfully. In Part A

which is Galvanic Cell, we can conclude that, the half-reaction with the greater reduction
potential will be a reduction and the other half-reaction will be an oxidation. The electrode in
the oxidation half-reaction is called the anode. The electrode in the reduction half-reaction is
called the cathode .In this part, the practical achieved the overall aim by finding the values of
the cell potential in all the samples as stated above. Then, for the Part B which is Metal
Corrosion, we can conclude that the best metals to provide resistant against corrosion are
aluminium and lead/Tin solder whereas magnesium is the weakest resistance ability followed
by iron and copper. So that, good corrosion resistance metals such as aluminium and lead/tin
solder can be suggested to form alloy with any iron material to improve on this
characteristics.
REFERENCE

1. Basic Concepts in Electrochemistry.

http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~jmfent/CHEG320_electrochemistry lectures.pdf.
Accessed November 11, 2017.

2. Chemistry: Electrochemistry and Galvanic Cells.

https://www.arborsci.com/Data_Sheets/P6-2100/highschool_chemistry.pdf. Accessed
November 11, 2017.

3. Experiment 18: Galvanic Cells and Corrosion.

4. EXPERIMENT #9 CORROSION OF METALS.

http://www.csun.edu/~bavarian/Courses/MSE 227/Labs/9-Corrosion.pdf. Accessed
November 11, 2017.

5. Experiment 18: Galvanic Cells and Corrosion.

https://www.saddleback.edu/faculty/cabel/Saddleback/Chem_1B_Schedule_files/Exp1
8-electrochem-lab.pdf. Accessed November 2, 2017.
 UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY
MATERIAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
BSK 2452
SECTION: 01G
EXPERIMENT NO : 7

EXPERIMENT TITLE: METAL CORROSION

EXPERIMENT DAT : 3/11/17

LAB INSTRUCTOR : ENCIK MUHAMMAD NOR FAZLI BIN ABD MALEK

NAME : NURMA ARISHA BINTI RUZALANI

STUDENT’S ID : SA16026 Marks Contents

/5 Abstract
/15 Introduction
/10 Methodology
/60 Discussion
/5 Conclusion
/5 References
/100 Total
Comments
Table 2 : Voltmeter reading / experimental electrode potential of different metals in their
respective ion solution.
Half reaction 𝐸 𝑜 (V)
𝐶𝑢2+ + 2e Cu + 0.34 V
𝑃𝑏 2+ + 2e Pb -0.13V
𝑍𝑛2+ + 2e Zn -0.76V
𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2e Fe -0.44V

Table 3 : Standard reduction potential table for copper, lead, zinc and iron.

No Half-reaction 𝐸 𝑜 (V) 𝐸 𝑜 cell (V) = 𝐸 𝑜 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑒 − 𝐸 𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒

1. 𝐶𝑢2+ + 2e Cu +0.34V(cathode) +0.34V – (-0.13V) = +0.47V
𝑃𝑏 2+ + 2e Pb -0.13V(anode)
Overall : 𝑪𝒖𝟐+ + 𝑷𝒃 𝑪𝒖 + 𝑷𝒃𝟐+
2. 𝐶𝑢2+ + 2e Cu +0.34V(cathode) +0.34V – (-0.76V) = -1.10V
𝑍𝑛2+ + 2e Zn -0.76V(anode)
Overall : 𝑪𝒖𝟐+ + 𝒁𝒏 Cu + 𝒁𝒏𝟐+
3. 𝐶𝑢2+ + 2e Cu +0.34V(cathode) +0.34V – (-0.44V) = +0.78V
𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2e Fe -0.44V(anode)
Overall : 𝑪𝒖𝟐+ + Fe Cu + 𝑭𝒆𝟐+ +
4. 𝑃𝑏 2+ + 2e Pb -0.13V(cathode) -0.13V – ( -0.76V) = +0.63V
𝑍𝑛2+ + 2e Zn -0.76V(anode)
Overall : 𝑷𝒃𝟐+ + Zn Pb + 𝒁𝒏𝟐+
5. 𝑃𝑏 2+ + 2e Pb -0.13V(cathode) -0.13V – ( -0.44V) = +0.31V
𝐹𝑒 2+ + 2e Fe -0.44V(anode)
Overall : 𝑷𝒃𝟐+ + 𝑭𝒆 𝑷𝒃 + 𝑭𝒆𝟐+
APPENDICES

Diagram 1: Metal samples of set 1 to 4 immersed in agar

Diagram 2: Metal samples of set 5 to 7 immersed in agar.

Diagram 3 : Diagram 3: Preparation of chemical solutions.