Available online at http://www.urpjournals.

com

Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal

Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved

Review Article
“Research Approach & Prospects of Non Edible Vegetable Oil as a Potential
Resource for Biolubricant - A Review”
Amit Kumar Jain*, Amit Suhane#
*
Research Scholar, #Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering M.A.N.I.T Bhopal MP India.
*
amitkumarjain05@gmail.com
Accepted 31 December 2012
Abstract
Increasing environmental pollution concerns and diminishing petroleum reserves has brought in attention towards the use
of non edible vegetable oils as an alternative to petroleum oil based lubricants. Non edible vegetable oil plant contains high
amount of oil in its seeds which can be converted into biolubricant. Biolubricant is a renewable lubricant that is
biodegradable, non toxic and has a net zero greenhouse gases. There is a need to explore the possibility of using non edible
varieties and their blends as biolubricant in order to achieve the twin objectives of reducing environmental and energy
security of the country.
Biolubricant have come a long way in recent years, and they are now capable of providing extremely low friction and wear
coefficients under certain or highly controlled test conditions. Biolubricant from non edible vegetable oils have received
considerable research attention in the last decades owing to their remarkable improved tribological characteristics. Yet full
potential has not been explored for the biolubricant production. This paper is a review of non edible varieties of oils which
can prove to be premium source of biolubricants emphasizing the benefits on the rural and urban economy.
© 2012 Universal Research Publications. All rights reserved
Keywords: - Biolubricant, Non edible vegetable oils, Biodegradability, Renewable resource, Tribological characteristics,
Applications, Environmental compatibility.
I. Introduction
Lubricant: Lubricants act as an antifriction media, easing source of lubricant. Vegetable oils are perceived to be
smoother working, cutting down the risks of undesirable alternatives to petroleum oils for lubricant formulations
frequently encountered failures and maintaining authentic because of certain inherent technical properties and their
machine operations. Lubricants are essential for lubrication, ability towards biodegradability. Due to environmental
heat transfer, power transmission and corrosion protection concerns, future lubricants must be ecofriendly and come
in machinery in general. Lubricants consist of a mixture of from a renewable source.
base oils with various additives, which can act to improve Biolubricants: Formulations made from vegetable based
some of their properties. The basestocks may be of oils together with corresponding additives are usually
petroleum, vegetable or synthetic nature. Mineral oils are coined ―biolubricants‖ [3]. Recently, increasing attention to
derived from petroleum and represent about 95% of the environmental issues has driven the lubricant industry
lubricants market in the world. The final composition of the toward ecofriendly products from renewable sources. The
lubricant may have 60–99% of base oil and the remaining use of biodegradable and environmentally accepted
as additive, depending on the desired performance. The lubricants from vegetable oil has increased over the past 25
chief characteristic [1] of a lubricant is its viscosity, since years [4]. Biolubricants have been the most anticipating as
this is what prevents contact between the bearing surfaces. they have useful physicochemical properties, but they are
Other significant elements used to select a lubricant are also have unsuitable properties that make petroleum based
compatibility, toxicity, chemical stability, corrosiveness, lubricants the evident option. A lot of development and
flammability, environmental effects, availability, research is being done to vegetable oils to meliorate the
temperature stability and price [2]. physicochemical properties so that they may prove to be a
Annually, 40 million tonnes of lubricants are consumed cheap and good substitute of petroleum based lubricants.
worldwide, to be used in everything from car engines to Compared to petroleum based lubricants, vegetable oils in
office chairs. The most usual type of lubricant is petroleum general possess high flash point, high viscosity index,
based. The fact is that, this oil may not be longer available; higher lubricity and low evaporative losses [5, 6, 7].
industries have been exploring for a cheap, renewable Traditionally vegetable oils have been applied in food uses,
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
23
but recent courses of action suggest their economic Soyabean, Sunflower, Palm, Peanut, Rapeseed, Corn etc.
usefulness in industrial application. Various countries import edible for their food requirements.
The replacement of petroleum based lubricants with India is the biggest importer of edible oils in the world.
lubricants derived from vegetable oils is a very worthy and Approximately, 16.6 million tonnes of edible oils
alluring objective. The lessening of dependence on non- consumed each year in India. Therefore, edible oil seeds
renewable resources, reduction of greenhouse gases and usage for lubricant needs may not be able to meet domestic
increase in markets for agricultural products these all requirements for ever increasing population.
outcomes are attractive to many countries. Non edible vegetable oils: As an alternative non edible
Vegetable oils: Vegetable oils are chemically triglycerides vegetable oil and tree borne seeds can prove to be
of fatty acids, Vegetable oils are known to have superior worthwhile. These products from non edible vegetable oils
inherent qualities like excellent biodegradability and like Neem, castor, Mahua, rice bran, karanja, Jatropha, and
lubricity, much higher viscosity and viscosity index, linseed oils which offer better or at least same performance
enhanced flash and fire points and lower toxicity. Lubricity as petroleum oil based products besides being less
of vegetable oils is attributed to their ability to adsorb to the expensive [8, 9]. Non edible vegetable oils are technically
metallic surfaces and to form a tenacious monolayer, with and environmentally acceptable and easily available
the polar head adhering to the metallic surfaces and the resource for biolubricants.
hydrocarbon chains orienting in near normal directions to II. Current Status — Non Edible Vegetable Oils
the surface. Being a tropical country, India is rich in forest resources
Vegetable oils are extracted from plants by placing the having a wide range of trees, which yield a significant
relevant part of the plant under pressure, to squeeze the oil quantity of oilseeds. India is importing crude petroleum &
out. Vegetable oils can be classified in various ways petroleum products from Gulf countries. Indian scientists
depending upon the source, applications etc. Oils can be searched for an alternate to petroleum based lubricant to
edible or non edible in nature. Globally innumerable preserve global environment and to withstand economical
amount of such varieties are present. crisis.
Edible vegetable oils: A liquid fat that is capable of being List of Some Non Edible Vegetable Oils Available in India
eaten as a food or food access, like Coconut, Olive, [10]:
Non Edible Species Oil Content (% of
S.No Scientific Name Annual Oil Production
Available in India volume)
1 Jatropha Jatropha Curcas L 25-35 % 15,000 Tonnes/Annum
2 Karanja Millettia Pinnata 20-25 % 55,000 Tonnes/Annum
3 Castor Ricinus Communis L 37.2-60.6 % 0.73 MT/ Annum
4 Mahua Madhuca Indica 35 – 40 % 100,000 Tonnes/Annum
5 Neem Azazdirachta Indica 20 – 30 % 180,00 Tonnes/Annum
6 Kusum Schleichera trijuga Wild (Sapindaceae) 34% 25,000 Tonnes/Annum
7 Sea mango tree Cerbera manghas 54 % -
8 Rubber Seed Hevia Brasiliensis 45 - 49 % 3500 Tonnes/Annum
9 Wild Apricot Prunus Armeniaca 40-45 % 8-10 Tonnes/Ha
10 Linseed Linum usitatissimum, Linaceae 35-45 % 150,000 MT/Annum
11 Rice Bran Oryza sativa 16-32 % 474,000/Annum
12 Jojoba Simmondsia chinensis 45-55 -
13 Simarouba Simarouba glauca DC 60-75% 1.1-2.2oil/Ha Yr

III. Chemical Composition of Non Edible Vegetable Oils countries throughout the tropics. Jatropha has good drought
The chemical composition of oil plays a very important resistance characteristics, and can grow on exhausted and
role. Oils contain fats which can be divided into three broad sandy soils, except clay soil and water logged area. It is
categories, viz. saturated, monounsaturated and also good for protecting soil and to prevent erosion on hills.
polyunsaturated. Saturated fats are not counted amongst the Jatropha is a perennial tree, which has a life span of 40-50
healthy fats, so it's better to consume this in limited years and can bear fruits for 25 years. It can grow in
quantity. Unsaturated fats are actually considered to be marginal lands, and does not compete for the food
healthy fats, as these help in strengthening the immune production with human or for land with food. Jatropha
system [11]. Using unsaturated types of fats in our diet curcas has great potential as feedstock for producing
would also help in controlling the cholesterol levels. biolubricants. Tests have shown that pure Jatropha oil can
Unsaturated fats are found mostly in fish, nuts, seeds and be used as lubrication oil during 400 running hours in slow
non edible vegetable oils. turning diesel engines and in a few other cases. The
IV. Research Approach on Various Non Edible production of jatropha biolubricant was done via
Vegetable Oils. transesterification of jatropha methyl ester and
A) According to tree borne oil seeds. trimethylolpropane. Pour point achieved for jatropha
Jatropha Curcas L: Non edible Jatropha curcas is a biolubricant was at -3°C for all tested temperatures and VI
succulent shrub from the Euphorbiaceae family. The plant ranged from 178 to 183. The viscosities and pour point of
originated from East Africa and is known today in many jatropha biolubricant are comparable to other plant based
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
24
biolubricant. [12]
In a study, 55% of product was successfully synthesized
using fatty acid of Jatropha curcas oil with
trimethylolpropane in the presence of sulfuric acid as
catalyst. The results obtain suggest that the following
reaction time: 3 hours, temperature: 150 °C, molar ratio of
FA: TMP is 4:1 and catalyst concentration: 2 % w/w (based
on weight of FA) are sufficient for the esterification of ester
TMP as biolubricant base stocks. [13] Samples of Jatropha
curcas seeds are tested to investigate their biological
Property Value
Density 0, 92 g/cm3
Ignition point 340 °C
Solidification point 5 Kin
Viscosity 75 to 7 10-6m2/s
Iodine value 13
Saponification value 198
Heating value 39,628 MJ/kg
Flash point 240/110 °C
Carbon residue 0.64
Distillation point 295 °C
Kinematics Viscosity 50.73 cs
Sulphur 0.13 %
There was a high degree of interaction between the effects
of seed moisture content, cooking temperature, and cooking
time on oil recovery. The highest oil recovery of 73.14%
was obtained when Jatropha seed was conditioned to 9.69%
(db) moisture and cooked at 110 _C for 10 min. Oil
recovery from the screw press uncooked Jatropha seed was
lower than from the cooked seed, but the pressing rate from
uncooked seed was higher than that from cooked seed. The
values of chemical properties investigated were similar to
literature values. The oil expressed at optimum processing
conditioned exhibited good chemical properties and could
be useful as biolubricant feedstock and for other industrial
applications. [16].
Ricinus Communis L: Castor oil is a non edible vegetable
oil obtained from the castor bean (technically castor seed as
the castor plant, Ricinus communis (Euphorbiaceae), is not
a member of the bean family). Castor oil is a color less to
very pale yellow liquid with mild or no odor or taste. Its
boiling point is 313 °C (595 °F) and its density is 961
kg/m3. It is a triglyceride in which approximately 90
percent of fatty acid chains are ricinoleic acid. Oleic and
linoleic acids are the other significant components [17].
Oil from the seed of the castor plant is an important
commodity for a number of industries, ranging from
pharmaceuticals to renewable energy resources. However,
the seed and subsequent seed meal contain ricin (RCA60),
a potent cytotoxin, making it an unusable product. In order
to investigate the efficiency of previously researched
methods of reducing the toxicity of the meal, cold-pressed
oil extracted seed meal known to contain ricin was boiled
in the presence of 50mM calcium hydroxide (pH 12.5).
Heat and chemical treatments were performed to determine
their effects on the denaturation of the ricin within whole
seed, milled un-extracted seed, and cold-pressed extracted
seed. Boiling and autoclaving showed varying degrees of
effectiveness depending on the sample type. Ricin within
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
25
characters and chemical components. Viscosity, acid
number and oxidation stability of the mixed oil are found to
be comparable with the petroleum oil and the pour point
reduced significantly. [14]
Esterified jatropha oil has been successfully produced using
structural modification method. It shows good anti wear
characteristics at 2.5 %.v/v addition. This behavior taken
place by acting as flushing agent during the sliding contact.
[15]
Property Value
Calorific value 9 470 kcal/kg
Pour point 8 °C
Color 4.0
Acid value 1.0 - 38.2
Specific gravity 0.917/ 0.923(0.881)
Solidifying Point 2.0
Refractive Index 1.47
Palmitic acid 4.2
Stearic acid 6.9
Oleic acid 43.1
Linoleic acid 34.3
Other acids 1.4
the cold-pressed extracted meal was rendered unresponsive
to antibody probing after 10 min of boiling or autoclaving.
In contrast, treatment of cold-pressed extracted meal with
8M urea and 6M guanidine–HCl for 60 min produced no
observable reduction in the response of the ricin to the
antibody. Critically, hot pressing of the castor seed
produced meal that exhibited no reactivity with the
antibody, indicating that the ricin had been denatured
during the oil extraction. By removing the toxic component
of the castor meal, this by-product could create a new
commodity from the production of castor oil, thereby
making castor oil production more profitable. [18]
The effect of alcohol and catalyst loading on
transesterification of castor oil at the optimum condition
could provide valuable experimental data for future
industrial application. Lipozyme TL-IM was successfully
used as a biocatalyst for castor oil transesterification with
different alcohol propanol, butanol and iso amyl alcohol
under supercritical carbon dioxide to produce castor oil
alkyl esters. The maximal conversion to propyl, butyl and
amyl esters of 65%, 79% and 83.5% respectively was
attained by using 20 % bound lipase as catalysts (wt of oil)
with 75 bar of carbon dioxide, 50 °C. The COAE can be
used as potential biolubricants due to enhanced cold flow
properties and lubricity. Castor oil fatty acids:
Smoky emissions from two-stroke gasoline engines (2T)
are a problem for the environment. Use of non edible
vegetable oil (oxygenate) is one solution. A biodegradable
2T-oil was developed from castor oil, which consisted of
tolyl monoesters and performance additives but no
miscibility-solvent. Evaluation revealed that on one hand it
reduced smoke by 50–70% at 1% oil fuel ratio and on the
other hand it was at par with standard product specification.
Starting problems, piston-seizer or any other driving
problems were not observed during the test. There is
excellent potential for castor oil based biodegradable 2T-
 Acid name Average Percentage Range
Ricinoleic acid 85 to 95%
Oleic acid 2 to 6%
Linoleic acid 1 to 5%
Linolenic acid 0.5 to 1%
Stearic acid 0.5 to 1%
Palmitic acid 0.5 to 1%
Dihydroxystearic acid 0.5 to 0.3%
Others 0.2 to 0.5%
lubricant as a smoke pollution reducer. [19]
Tung: Investigation about the physical properties of tung
seed at an average moisture content of 13.24% (d.b.) and
oil content of 40.37%. The static coefficient of friction was
lowest (0.44) on aluminum sheet and highest (0.55) on
plywood. The physical properties of tung seeds, enlarging
the knowledge about this species and providing useful data
for its post-harvest handling and further industrial
processing. [20]
Moringa: Moringa oil has 74% oleic acid content and thus
possesses improved oxidation stability over many other
natural oils. Moringa oil exhibits the highest thermo-
oxidative stability measured using PDSC and TG. The
friction and wear properties were measured using HFRR.
Moringa oil has potential in formulation of industrial fluids
for high temperature applications [21].
B) According to chemical modification.
Oxidative stability and low temperature performance of
non edible vegetable oils is much lower and poor. Chemical
modification of triglycerides is necessary to completely
eliminate polyunsaturation (for better oxidative stability);
an optimal extent of chemical alteration (improved low
temperature behavior) [20].
The effect of chemical structure on the tribochemistry of
non edible vegetable oils for use in industrial applications
is vital. In order to qualify for broad industrial use, bio
based fluids must have high and low temperature stability
as well as excellent lubricating properties. These properties
are inherent weaknesses in regular seed oils. Chemical
modification of triacylglycerol structures has great potential
in achieving broad temperature range stability as well as
excellent wear/friction characteristics. Increasing the polar
functionality in non edible vegetable oil structure has a
positive impact on wear protection resulting from stronger
adsorption potential on metal surface as well as greater
lateral interaction between the ester chains. Greater
availability of ester moieties results in the formation of
phosphate-esters on the wear track, which can effectively
function as friction modifiers in the system [23].
A slightly technical run-through of the various fatty acid
produced by different plants and were the gene has been
cloned and expressed in a model plant. Stress the
importance of using the approach of EST analysis for
identifying genes coding for enzymes producing unusual
fatty acid without prior knowledge of the biosynthetic
pathway [24]. A series of structural modifications of non
edible vegetable oils using anhydrides of different chain
lengths was monitored the thermo-oxidation stability of
these new lubricant base fluids was tested using pressure
differential scanning calorimetry and TGA. The chemically
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
26
modified base fluids exhibit superior oxidation stability in
comparison with unmodified vegetable oils. These base
fluids in combination with suitable additives exhibit
equivalent oxidation stability compared with petroleum oil
based formulations. [25]
Catalyst support of different surface area and pore size for
the transesterifcation of non edible vegetable oil
(triglycerides) with alcohol. The best support (clay, K-10)
was modified by loading different heteropolyacids (HPA)
by wetness incipient technique. The present catalyst of
10%TPA/Clay was observed to be tolerable with 5–6% free
fatty acid with marginal compromise of oil conversion and
ester selectivity. [26]
Synthesis of biolubricant from epoxidized non edible
vegetable oil and alcohol using solid acid catalyst
Amberlyst 15 leads to dramatic improvement of low pour
point value. It was observed that the catalyst has excellent
reusability and stability. Lubricants are non-toxic and
biodegradable. [27]
The use of ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer allows
improving viscosity data for conventional non edible
vegetable oils opening good perspectives in some fields of
applications, especially if some other parameters as the
resistance to the oxidation of the non edible vegetable oils
will be improved. EVA addition always yields an important
increase in non edible vegetable oil viscosity. The most
important viscosity increments have been found for low-
viscosity non edible vegetable oils, (SO, HOSO and SYO),
at moderate temperatures. Viscosity increments up to 330–
420% respecting the original oil have been obtained for
these non edible vegetable oil/EVA blends at 40 ◦C.
Furthermore, ternary blends of high-oleic castor oil and
EVA may be used to design enhanced bio-lubricant
formulations for some specific applications, taking
advantage of both castor oil high viscosity and HOSO
better stability against oxidation. [28]
C) According to Biolubricant Characteristies.
Biolubricants characteristics, important and desired from
the performance point of view are:- Viscosity
characteristic, Cold flow properties, Ignition properties,
Oxidation Stability, Neutralization Number, Volatility,
Emulsification, Environment Compatibility.
All the physical and chemical properties of seed oils are
dependent on their FA distribution, composition, and
additional functional groups in the chain structure. In a
study, various seed oils are studied for their boundary
lubrication properties using the Langmuir adsorption model
for their possible use as industrial lubricants. This
information can be used to design suitable lubricant
molecules that will have optimum structure for effective
metal adsorption as well as exhibit excellent boundary
lubrication properties. [29]
The combination of chemical additives, diluents
(polyalphaolefin), and high-oleic non edible vegetable oils
offer the best option for achieving the superior oxidative
stability, and improved low temperature properties such as
pour points compared to commercially available industrial
oils such as bio based hydraulic fluids. The above non
edible vegetable oil based formulations compare at par with
petroleum based lubricants for use in high-temperature
applications and often outperforms the competition in some
of its properties. [30] Oil in water emulsions of several non
edible vegetable oils were studied in order to prepare a
useful lubrication fluid. Several previously uncharacterized
systems were studied, including those made from
epoxidized non edible vegetable oils. [31]
Thermogravimetric analysis of castor oil, cotton oil,
macauba‘s almond oil, passion oil, paraffinic petroleum oil,
naphthenic oil (NH-140) and synthetic oil (Etro) was
performed in inert and oxidative atmosphere to study the
thermal and oxidative degradation of the non edible
vegetable oils related to the most common lubricants‘ oils
base. These oils‘ oxidation stability was determined by
standard procedures (ISO 6886). The castor oil and the
cotton oil presented results of thermal analysis similar to
the petroleum and synthetic bases values. The castor oil
was the only non edible vegetable oil that showed a great
oxidative stability. All other vegetable oils had their
oxidative stability significantly increased by the additives.
[32]
D) According to the Tribological Testing’s.
The science of friction, wear and lubrication is called
tribology. The wear phenomena of Jatropha and palm oil
contaminated lubricant in elastrohydrodynamic lubrication
with a four-ball machine was found, both Jatropha and
palm oil has the potential in becoming an alternative
lubricant in conventional machinery usage. However,
Jatropha oil contaminated lubricant was a better lubricant in
terms of low wear scar diameter, low coefficient of friction
and high flash temperature parameter. [33] Anti wear
additives are used in oil to compensate the oil viscosity loss
at elevated temperature as well as to provide better
rheological properties to the oil during operation, load wear
index or load carrying capacity of three oils determined
using four ball testers. [34]
7 CEC L-85-T-99 test can be successfully applied to
distinguish between different quality base oils and types of
additives, particularly detergents and antioxidants. This
method is very responsive to the total antioxidants level,
including additives with partial function as antioxidants and
is able to detect synergisms between antioxidants. It
correlates well with other methods based on PDSC
technique and other types of oxidation tests. [35]
Double-layer-type environmentally friendly lubricants,
which were composed of an undercoat, superior in adhering
to a material, and an overcoat, superior in reducing the
friction between the material and the die. The double-layer-
type lubricants showed comparable friction characteristics
and anti-pick-up properties to a conversion coating
lubricant, when the film thickness and surface treatment
before coating were improved. In a practical application by
cold multistage forging, the double-layer-type lubricants
showed a similar performance to a conversion coating
lubricant. [36]
E) According To Additives Packages.
The trends towards ‗‗greener‘‘ lubricant additives, driven
by environmental legislation and will discuss the
implications for lubrication in the next decade. [37] The
ideal antioxidant would combine effectiveness in low
concentrations with minimal toxicity. Research is still
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
27
ongoing to investigate the applicability of natural extracts
found to possess antioxidant activity, and is yielding
encouraging results.
Potential new lubricants and fuel lubricity enhancers have
been prepared from methyl 9, 10 dihydroxystearate and
long chain aldehydes to form the corresponding cyclic
acetals. These materials are oils down to low temperatures,
as compared to symmetric ketals derived from the same
diol, which are waxes at room temperature. These acetals
are potential candidates for novel biobased lubricants. [38]
The ideal DDA should be effective at low dosages with
non-toxicity. Some of the potential ecofriendly DDA
molecules were identified by the Blotter Spot Test and the
Panel Coker Test. PIB succinimides of tetra- and
pentamides have shown promising results. These
compounds are suitable for low temperature application.
Piperazine derivatives, butyl citrate and ethyl oleate have
the most potential of compounds to be developed as
suitable DDA for high temperature application. These
additives are ecofriendly, non-toxic and free from sulfur,
phosphorous and metals. [39]
F) According To Blending With Petroleum Base Oils.
Mixing non edible vegetable oil with petroleum oil
lubricant gives some more advantages, non edible
vegetable oil and is often done with no modification for its
application. The blending procedure follows the prescribed
formula for each product. Oils are mixed according to the
precise weight prescription in order to achieve the required
properties. Lubricant oil blending takes place in mixing
agitators – blenders [40].
The non edible vegetable oils and diluents were blended to
observe changes in PP. It must be noted that some of the
fluids may actually still pour after quite significant
durations at slightly lower temperatures than their
determined PP. A good example is castor oil, which pours
after more than 24 h when stored at −25°C, although its PP
appeared as −24°C in triplicate runs. This produces
pronounced changes in the cooling rate and temperature
profile within the sample, which may have implications on
the solidification kinetics. Despite the complexities of
interpreting the data, it can be observed that increasing
molecular weight of fatty acids and full saturation
contributes to the increase in PP, whereas cis unsaturation
favors the decrease. [41]
Low temperature performance is one of the main
constraints concerning the use of non edible vegetable oils
as lubricants, more than petroleum or synthetic oil-based
lubricants. The low-temperature behaviour of a variety of
non edible vegetable oil basestocks for lubricating
applications, as well as their blends with some viscosity
improvers and pour point additives, was studied through
pour point determinations, thermal analysis (DSC) and
viscosity measurements at low temperature. The
concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) was
found a predominant parameter influencing the low-
temperature properties of non edible vegetable oil based
lubricants. The pour point depressant (PPD) additives used
had a positive influence by lowering the pour point and
increasing the low-temperature performance of the non
edible vegetable oils studied, which was found dependent
on non edible vegetable oil fatty acid composition. [42]
G) According to Biodegradability.
The biodegradability of non edible vegetable oils is the
strongest point in the case for their industrial use. In the
light of more concerns about the environmental impact of
the use of industrial lubricants, they offer in theory the
most plausible solution to the issue of obtaining renewable
and eco friendly lubricants. With established
biodegradabilities in the range of 70 – 100%, their eco
friendliness is not in doubt. [43] Evaluation of the
biodegradability of lubricating oils by standard screening
tests provides information that is useful to legislators but
primarily to the staff of research laboratories helping them
to acquire a better knowledge of how the chemical structure
influences the biodegradability of lubricants. The choice of
an appropriate standard test for the evaluation of ultimate
biodegradability is troublesome since the majority of
lubricating base oils do not dissolve in water. The ISO
14593 test is a useful tool of practical significance to the
staff of research laboratories where lubricants are
extensively tested for their ecological and service
properties. The procedure of the ISO 14593 test, combined
with the consideration of the conditions and criteria made
use of in the OECD 310 testing method, permits the ready
biodegradability of the oils to be evaluated. Using the same
apparatus and reagents, and taking into account the
conditions and criteria of the OECD 302D (draft) testing
method, it is possible to assess the inherent
biodegradability of the oils [44].
Referring to the CEC L-33-A-93 method, the inoculum is a
coarse-filtered secondary effluent from a sewage treatment
plant, and the analytical grade CCl4 is used as the
extractant to establish the method of evaluating the
biodegradability of the lubricants. The results of
biodegradability of reference materials in these tests are
close to the data from CEC method; therefore it is feasible
when the analytical grade CCl4 is regarded as the
extractant. The biodegradability of lubricants can be
evaluated effectively by the method. [45]
Migration and biodegradability of three biolubricants and a
petroleum lubricant were monitored in two forest soils and
in a liquid medium. These studies proved that biolubricants
were easily degradable products and showed ultimate
biodegradability rates significantly higher than those of the
fluid of petroleum origin, especially in a soil environment.
This superiority was even greater when fluid behaviour was
observed after 1000 h of use. Ecotoxicity test enabled the
classification and comparison of biolubricants and showed
that toxicity levels of the biolubricants were never high
however, even after use, as compared to petroleum-based
fluid. [46]
Bioavailability limitations and the presence of structurally
complex high molecular weight hydrocarbons in lubricating
oil are responsible for the slow rate of degradation.
Significant loss of oil in un-inoculated controls indicated
the presence of indigenous microorganisms in oily mill
sludge. The association of biomass with sludge solids and
presence of a high level of residual oil may adversely affect
the recyclability of iron-fines associated with the sludge.
[47] Lauroyl glycine, when incorporated in appropriate
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
28
amount into unreadily biodegradable lubricating oil such as
HVI 350 petroleum oil, obviously enhanced
biodegradability of the lubricating oil. The effect of lauroyl
glycine on biodegradation of HVI 350 lubricating oil in soil
was remarkable compared with the effects of lubricating oil
content, microbial nutriment and oxygen supply. Lauroyl
glycine played a very positive and significant role in the
biodegradation of the lubricating oil. [48]
H) According to Industrial applications.
A large proportion of lubricants pollute the environment
either during or after use. Ecological factors are gaining
importance in our society. One of the possible lubricants
that can satisfy this need is bio lubricant, which can offer
significant environmental advantages with respect to
resource renewability, biodegradability, and adequate
performance in a variety of industrial applications.
The results from cold forming, drilling and turning reveal,
the use of environmentally sound lubricants is possible in
many manufacturing processes. The prerequisites for this,
however, are coating systems whose properties are
optimally adapted to the process specific tribological loads
at hand. Furthermore, the tests using newly developed
biodegradable lubricants showed that synthetically refined
native esters offer great potential for use in cold forming
and machining. The highly polar surface energy that is
characteristic of such esters combines with a high pressure
stability to form a stable lubricant film which, just like hard
coatings, can lead to wear reduction. [49]
Environmental concerns as well as economics and
performance issues will drive the market share for these
oils, and an increasing use will be seen in total loss
lubricants, military applications, and in outdoor activities
such as forestry, mining, railroads, dredging, fishing and
agriculture hydraulic systems. The low thermo-oxidative
stability and poor cold flow behavior of non edible
vegetable oils has been improved through the use of
chemical additives and high-oleic non edible vegetable oils.
The cold-flow, oxidation and wear properties of these
lubricants are better than the commercially available
biobased industrial oils, and comparable to some petroleum
oil based lubricants. [50] A novel environmentally friendly
lubricant was introduced and analyzed to determine its
potential use in sheet metal stamping processes. It indicates
that the novel lubricant may be used in manufacturing
processes where replenishment is not feasible and disposal
of non-environmentally friendly lubricants is expensive.
[51]
The non edible vegetable oils have large scope to utilize
them as metal working fluids. The study of stability and
tribological behaviour of Pongamia pinnata and Jatropha
curcass oils as metal cutting and forming fluids. [52] Based
on analysis of experimental investigation, The CI engine
can be run without any difficulty with neat pongamia oil,
neat pongamia oil ester, mixture of petroleum oil and
pongamia oil as lubricant. Use of neat pongamia oil as a
lubricant gives the minimum BSEC and highest BTE at
medium and high load conditions. The power loss due to
friction is found to be the least with a fuel-lubricant
combination of neat pongamia oil. The dilution of lubricant
is found to be the main cause for power loss due to friction.
Use of pongamia oil as a lubricant can improve the
efficiency, and can completely eliminate emission of metal
traces as it does not contain any metal constituents in it,
unlike a petroleum oil lubricant. [53]
I) According to Energy savings.
The distinct advantages for biolubricants, particularly for
biodegradable synthetic ester lubricants derived from
renewable resources, are now being realised. Certain
synthetics give frictional benefits which offer positive and
real energy reduction, and distinct cost savings. Special
Biolubes esters give the greatest scope. A wide range of
suitable FUCHS Planto biolubes are now available for
almost all applications, achieving not only potential for cost
reduction by energy savings, but giving welcome
performance and environmental benefits. [54]
J) According To Their Environmental Compatibility.
Environment Compatibility is the characteristic which
ensures that the fluid media produces no harmful effect
when exposed to environment. About 1% of the total
petroleum oil consumption is used to formulate lubricants.
Everywhere the production, application, and disposal of
lubricants have to cover the requirements of the best
possible protection of our nature and the environment in
general and of the living beings in special. Often health
hazards do not follow the direct way to human beings,
more often they follow indirect routes through our
environment. For all cases of direct contact between
lubricants on one side and human beings and the nature on
the other side the compatability has to be checked. The
gaining necessity for environmental compatability tests has
to be understood by all those who are working in the fields
of production, application, and disposal of lubricants.
Simplified it can be stated that health hazards and water
hazards have to be minimized. [55]
The effects of three lubricating oils on microbial
communities in marine sediment were investigated in a
field experiment at Casey Station, Antarctica. Sediment
from a pristine site in Antarctica was treated with Special
Antarctic Blend (SAB) diesel, a synthetic lubricant (Mobil
0W-40), the same lubricant after use in a vehicle or an
equivalent unused biodegradable lubricant (Titan GT1).
There was no significant difference between the control and
biodegradable oil (Titan GT1) treatment. These results
indicate that SAB and synthetic lubricants have a
measurable effect on sediment microbial communities in
the short-term. The biodegradable oil did not produce such
an effect; the use of such oil could reduce the risks
associated with oil spills in the Antarctic environment. [56]
Environmental compatibility of vegetable oils grants them
an upper hand over the conventional mineral oils on
account of overall operating costs. Lubricants based on
vegetable oils still covers narrow market segment.
Although Slowly but steadily due to the concern towards
the nature safety and environmental regulations restrictions,
lubricants used in open applications like two stroke
engines, chainsaws, forestry etc. which can have direct
exposure to soil and water bodies have started to be
replaced by such eco-friendly lubricants. The time has
come to enforce laws and press policies globally to ensure
the safety of our environment when it comes to production,
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
29
application and disposal of lubricants. [57] Environmental
compatibility has to be checked for all cases where there is
interference of lubricants taking place in the midst of
human and nature. Vegetable oils and predominantly the
non edible forms have huge potential in formulation of
lubricants boosting the agricultural practices and
strengthening the rural economy.
V. Prospects of Promising Oil Producing Seed Species
The country has enormous potential of oilseeds of tree
origin like Jojoba (Simmondsia chinesis), Karanja
(Pongamia pinnata), Mahua (Madhuca indica), Neem
(Azadirachta indica), Simarouba (Simarouba glauca), Wild
apricot (Prunus armeniaca), Rubber Seed (Hevia
Brasiliensis, Kusum (Schleichera trijuga Wild), Sea mango
tree (Cerbera manghas), Linseed (Linum usitatissimum,
Linaceae), Rice Bran (Oryza sativa) etc. [58] Very less or
no work is done on these oil producing seed species. These
species are having great potential to be used as a resource
of biolubricant production.
Fifteen species of plants from the Western Ghats were
screened as alternative sources of energy, oil, polyphenol,
hydrocarbon, and phytochemicals. The highest oil content
was observed in Achras sapota with 13.8%. The highest
polyphenol and hydrocarbon content was observed in seeds
of Dalbergia sissoo with 7.1% and 1.9%, respectively. The
seeds of Prosopis spicigera yielded the highest protein
content with 20.9%. The fatty acid composition of
Calophyllum elatum seed oil contained oleic acid
(38.02%), palmitic acid (20.98%), and linoleic acid
(14.48%). [59]
Biolubricant development in India centers mainly on the
cultivation and processing of non-edible vegetable seeds
which are very rich in oil content. India, with diverse soil
and climate types comprising several agro-ecological
regions, provides ample opportunity to grow a variety of
crops. Cultivation of these crops is labour intensive and as
such they generate lot of employment opportunities for the
rural population. Non-edible vegetable seeds have the
potential to provide economic benefits at the local level as
well as at national level.
Minimizing the expenditure of India's foreign-currency
reserves for lubricant allowing India to increase its growing
foreign currency reserves (which can be better spent on
capital expenditures for industrial inputs and production).
Since no food producing farmland is required for producing
this biolubricant it is considered the most politically and
morally acceptable choice in India. It has no known
negative impact on the production of the massive amounts
grains and other vital agriculture goods India produces to
meet the food requirements of its massive population (1.1
Billion people as of 2008). And since Non edible vegetable
plants are carbon-neutral, large-scale production will
improve the country's carbon emissions profile.
VI. Future Prospects
Current quality trends in lubricants indicate significant shift
in viscosity grades and product specifications. In fact the
non edible vegetable oils exceed performance of
conventional lubricants in terms of volatility requirement,
oxidation stability, low carbon forming tendency, viscosity,
stability, and response to additives. The above changes

along with environmental conditions have led to significant
developments in lubricating oils based oil manufacturing
technology. Introduction of smaller, faster, more efficient
equipments operating at higher speeds, temperatures,
stresses and pressures favors higher quality lubricants.
Freedom from deposits, radiation resistance, greater
efficiency, reduced maintenance and larger fluid life are the
other possible benefits from using alternative lubricant base
stocks. One of the biggest challenges is development of a
universal biodegradable base stock that could replace
petroleum oil base stocks in the new generation of
lubricants with the current attention on the environment.
Industrial users in parts of the world have began to
appreciate that some biolubricants notably those based
upon non edible vegetable oils, provide cost effective
lubrication in all service conditions, when environmental
concerns are recognized as being prime importance.
Conclusion
Till date researchers have concentrated on very few
varieties of non edible vegetable oils for biolubricant
production and much more exploration is required for the
same. Various non edible vegetable oils can be utilized for
making biolubricant apart from regular applications like
medicine, soap etc., as edible oil is in heavy demand for
cooking purpose. The main advantage of biolubricant
production from non edible vegetable oils lies in the fact
that it has potential to replace the conventional forms of
lubricants. It is also a high source of oil which can
be converted into biolubricant and provide a major source
of renewable lubricants both locally and internationally.
Non edible vegetable oils are promising source of
biolubricants owing to the similar tribological properties
which are comparable to petroleum based lubricants. Much
more has to be done to improve the oxidative stability, cold
flow properties and irregular ignition characteristics of non
edible vegetable oils. There is a urgent need required for
full exploration of such environmental friendly varieties for
common cause affecting living beings.
References
[1] Jacques Denis, Jean Briant, Jean-Claude Hipeaux
(1997) ‗Lubricant Properties, Analysis and Testing‘ pp
107-287 ISBN 2-7108-0746-7.
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
30
[2] Lansdown, A. (2004). Lubrication and lubricant
selection: a practical guide, ASME Press.
[3] Wagner, H., Luther, R., Mang, T., 2001. Lubricant base
fluids based on renewable raw materials. Their catalytic
manufacture and modification. Appl. Catal. A: Gen.
221, 429–442.
[4] Willing A (2001) Lubricants based on renewable
resource- an environmentally compatible alternative to
mineral oil products. Chemosphere 43:89–98.
[5] Asadauskas, S., Perez, J. M., Duda, J.L., ―Oxidative
stability and antiwear properties of high oleic vegetable
oils‖, Lubrication Engineering, Vol. 52, 1996, pp877–
882.
[6] Erhan, S. Z., Asadauskas, S., ―Lubricant basestocks
from vegetable oils‖, Industrial Crops Production,
Vol.11, 2000, pp277–282.
[7] Jayadas, N. H., K. P. Nair, Ajith kumar, G.,
―Tribological evaluation of coconut oil as an
environment friendly lubricant‖, Tribology
International, Vol.40, 2007, pp. 350-354.
[8] Sevim, Z. Erhan, Brajendra, K. Sharma, Joseph, M.
Perez, ―Oxidation and low temperature stability of
vegetable oil-based lubricants‖, Industrial Crops and
Products, Vol.24, 2006, pp. 292-299.
[9] Ioan, S., ―On the future of biodegradable vegetable
lubricants used for industrial tribo systems‖, Gal I
Fascicie VIII, 2002, Issue No. 1221-4590.
[10] National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oils Development
Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
www.novodboard.com
[11] Canola Oil vs. Vegetable Oil, Anannya Saikia.
10/24/2012, http://www.buzzle.com/articles/canola-oil-
vs-vegetable-oil.html
[12] Temperature Dependence on the Synthesis of Jatropha
Biolubricant, Muhammad Faiz M. Gunam Resul, Tinia
Idaty Mohd. Ghazi, and Azni Idris, 2011 IOP Conf.
Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
[13] Synthesis and Characterization of Ester
Trimethylolpropane Based Jatropha Curcas Oil as
Biolubricant Base Stocks, Noor Hafizah Arbain and
Jumat Salimon, Journal of Science and Technology
2009.
[14] Study on Jatropha oil as a promising renewable lube
base oil for bio-lubricant, Juan Fan, Muying Cai, Jie
Chang, 2011 IEEE.
[15] Wear Preventive Characteristics of Esterified Jatropha
Oil, A.M.H.S. Lubis, M.B. Sudin, B. Ariwahjoedi, 978-
1-4577-1884-7/11/$26.00 ©2011 IEEE.
[16] Oil expression from Jatropha seeds using a screw press
Expeller, Rama Chandra Pradhan, Sabyasachi Mishra,
Satya Narayan Naik, Naresh Bhatnagar, Virendra
Kumar Vijay, 31 March 2011,Bio systems engineering,
Elsevier ScienceDirect.
[17] Aldrich Handbook of Fine Chemicals and Laboratory
Equipment, Sigma-Aldrich, 2003.
[18] Daniel J. Barnes, Brian S. Baldwin, Dwaine A. Braasch.
Degradation of ricin in castor seed meal by temperature
and chemical treatment industrial crops and products 29
( 2009 ) 509–515 Elsevier.
[19] A. K. Singh Castor oil-based lubricant reduces smoke
 emission in two-stroke engines Industrial Crops and
Products 33 (2011) 287–295 Elsevier.
[20] Physical properties of tung seed: An industrial oil
yielding crop, V. Sharmaa, L. Dasa, R.C. Pradhan, S.N.
Naik, N. Bhatnagar, R.S. Kureel, Industrial Crops and
Products 33 (2011) 440–444.
[21] Lubricant properties of Moringa oil using thermal and
tribological techniques, Brajendra K. Sharma,Umer
Rashid Farooq Anwar, Sevim Z. ErhanJ Therm Anal
Calorim (2009) 96:999–1008.
[22] Lubricant basestocks from vegetable oils, Sevim Z.
Erhan, Svajus Asadauskas, Industrial Crops and
Products II (2000) 277-282 Elsevier.
[23] Tribological studies of thermally and chemically
modified vegetable oils for use as environmentally
friendly lubricants, A. Adhvaryu, S.Z. Erhan, J.M. Perez
Wear 257 (2004) 359–367 ELSIVER.
[24] Cahoon and Kinney (2005) The production of vegetable
oils with novel properties: Using genomic tools to probe
and manipulate plant fatty acid metabolism. Eur. J.
Lipid Sci. Technol. 107: 239-243.
[25] Brajendra K. Sharma, Atanu Adhvaryu, Zengshe Liu,
and Sevim Z. Erhana, Chemical Modification of
Vegetable Oils for Lubricant Applications JAOCS, Vol.
83, no. 2 (2006).
[26] Synthesis Of Bio-Diesel And Bio-Lubricant By
Transesterification Of Vegetable Oil With Lower And
Higher Alcohols Over Heteropolyacids Supported By
Clay (K-10), V. V. Bokade and G. D. Yadav. Process
Safety and Environmental Protection Trans IChemE,
Part B, September 2007 Vol 85 (B5) 372–377.
[27] Green approach for the preparation of biodegradable
lubricant base stock from epoxidized vegetable oil,
Piyush S. Lathi, Bo Mattiasson, Applied Catalysis B:
Environmental 69 (2007) 207–212 Science Direct.
[28] Viscosity modification of different vegetable oils with
EVA copolymer for lubricant applications, L.A.
Quinchia, M.A. Delgado, C. Valencia, J.M. Franco, C.
Gallegos. Industrial Crops and Products 32 (2010) 607–
612 Elsevier.
[29] Friction Behaviour of Some Seed Oils:  Biobased
Lubricant Applications, Atanu Adhvaryu, Girma
Biresaw, Brajendra K. Sharma, Sevim Z. Erhan, April
5, 2006, American Chemical Society.
[30] Oxidation and low temperature stability of vegetable
oil-based lubricants, Sevim Z. Erhan, Brajendra K.
Sharma, Joseph M. Perez Industrial Crops and Products
24 (2006) 292–299.
[31] Emulsification of Chemically Modified Vegetable Oils
for Lubricant Use, Kenneth M. Doll • Brajendra K.
Sharma, J Surfact Deterg (2011) 14:131–138.
[32] Jose´ Roberto dos Santos Politi, Paulo Roberto
Rodrigues de Matos, Maria Jose´ Arau´ jo Sales,
Comparative study of the oxidative and thermal stability
of vegetable oils to be used as lubricant bases 31 May
2012 J Therm Anal Calorim.
[33] Environmentally Friendly Bio-Iubricant Lubricity
Testing, H. H. Masjuki, M. A. Kalam, M. F. Nurul, M.
H. Jayed, A. M. Liaquat, M. Varman. 2011 IEEE First
Conference on Clean Energy and Technology CET.
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
31
[34] The use of antioxidants in vegetable oils – A review,
Emmanuel O. Aluyor and Mudiakeoghene Ori-Jesu,
African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 7 (25), pp. 4836-
4842, 29 December, 2008.
[35] Oxidative Stability Of Lubricants Measured By Pdsc
Cec L-85-T-99 Test Procedure, Jolanta Z.
Adamczewska and C. LoveJournal of Thermal Analysis
and Calorimetry, Vol. 80 (2005) 753–759.
[36] Evaluation of environmentally friendly lubricants for
cold forging, Yoshihiro Sagisakaa, Itaru Ishibashib ,
Tamotsu Nakamurac , Masahiro Sekizawab , Yuh
Sumiokad , Masahiro Kawano. Journal of Materials
Processing Technology 212 (2012) 1869– 1874
Elsevier.
[37] A. Neville, A. Morina, T. Haque, M. Voong.
Compatibility between tribological surfaces and
lubricant additives—how friction and wear reduction
can be controlled by surface/lube synergies Tribology
International 40 (2007) 1680–1695 Elsevier.
[38] New lubricants from vegetable oil: cyclic acetals of
methyl 9,10-dihydroxystearate, Jonathan Filley.
Bioresource Technology 96 (2005) 551–555 Elsevier.
[39] Arun K. Singh, Raj K. Singh A Search for Ecofriendly
Detergent/Dispersant Additives for Vegetable-Oil
Based Lubricants J Surfact Deterg (2012) 15:399–409.
[40] Lee CS, Park SW, Kwon SI. An experimental study on
the atomization and combustion characteristics of
biodiesel-blended fuels. Energy & Fuels 2005;
19:2201–8.
[41] Svajus Asadauskas and Sevim Z. Erhan, Depression of
Pour Points of Vegetable Oils by Blending with
Diluents Used for Biodegradable Lubricants JAOCS,
Vol. 76, no. 3 (1999).
[42] Low-temperature flow behaviour of vegetable oil-based
lubricants L.A. Quinchiac, M.A. Delgado, J.M. Franco,
H.A. Spikes, C. Gallegos Industrial Crops and Products
37 (2012) 383– 388 Elsevier.
[43] Biodegradation of vegetable oils: A review, Emmanuel
O. Aluyor, Kessington O. Obahiagbon and
Mudiakeoghene Ori-jesu, Scientific Research and Essay
Vol.4 (6), pp. 543-548, June, 2009.
[44] Experience with evaluating biodegradability of
lubricating base oils, Elz˙ bieta Beran. Tribology
International41 (2008) 1212– 1218 Elsevier.
[45] Test on Evaluation Method for Biodegradability of
Lubricants, YANG Lihe et al. Transactions of Tianjin
University Vol.14 No.1 2008 Springer.
[46] Christine Cecutti , Dominique Agius Ecotoxicity and
biodegradability in soil and aqueous media of lubricants
used in forestry applications Bioresource Technology
99 (2008) 8492–8496 Elsevier.
Biodegradation of oil in oily sludges from steel mills,
Basanta Kumar Biswal, Satyendra Nath Tiwari, Suparna
Mukherji, Short Communication Bioresource
Technology, 4 November 2008 Elsevier.
[47] Orthogonal Study of Biodegradation of Lubricating Oil
Accelerated by Lauroyl Glycine, Boshui Chen & Jiu
Wang. Modern Applied Science Vol. 4, No. 12;
December 2010.
[48] F. Klocke, T. Maßmann, K. Gerschwiler, Combination
 of PVD tool coatings and biodegradable lubricants in
metal forming and machining Wear 259 (2005) 1197–
1206 Elsevier.
[49] Vegetable oil based biodegradable lubricants for
industrial applications Erhan, S.Z., Sharma, and B.K.
2006. BIO 2006 International Convention, Innovative
Corridor Poster Session.
[50] Increasing formability in sheet metal stamping
operations using environmentally friendly lubricants, M.
Lovell, C.F. Higgs, P. Deshmukh, A. Mobley, Journal
of Materials Processing Technology 177 (2006) 87–90.
[51] Vegetable oils as a potential cutting fluid—an
evolution, Y.M. Shashidhara, S.R.Jayaram Tribology
International43 (2010) 1073–1081 Elsevier.
[52] Bio-lubricant as an Alternative to Mineral Oil for a CI
Engine—An Experimental Investigation with Pongamia
Oil as a Lubricant, S. BEKAL and N. R. BHAT, Energy
Sources, Part A, 34:1016–1026, 2012 Taylor & Francis.
[53] Energy savings through use of advanced biodegradable
lubricants, Cliff Lea, Industrial Lubrication and
Tribology 59/3 (2007) 132–136.
Source of support: Nil; Conflict of interest: None declared
Advanced Engineering and Applied Sciences: An International Journal 2012; 1(1): 23-32
32
[54] Lubricants and the environment, Wilfried J. Bartz,
Tribology International Volume 31 Numbers 1–3 1998
Elsevier.
[55] A comparison of the short term effects of diesel fuel and
lubricant oils on Antarctic benthic microbial
communities, Shane M. Powella,T, Ian Snape, John P.
Bowman, Belinda A.W. Thompson, Jonathan S. Starkb,
Sharee A. McCammon, Martin J. Riddle, Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 322 (2005)
53–65.
[56] Amit Suhane, A.Rehman, H.K.Khaira Potential of Non
Edible Vegetable Oils as an Alternative Lubricants in
Automotive Applications International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN:
2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 5, September-
October 2012, pp.1330-1335.
[57] National Oilseeds and Vegetable Oils Development
Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.
www.novodboard.com
[58] Promising oil producing seed species of Western Ghats
(Tamil Nadu, India) G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler,
Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93–100.