3 - Topic 3 Cell Cycle

Chapter 3: Cell Cycle
The concept of Chapter 4:

Mitosis Meiosis
cell division Regulation of cell
cycle
 The ability of organisms to reproduce best
distinguishes living things from nonliving matter
 The continuity of life is based on the reproduction
of cells, or cell division
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Fig. 12-1
 In unicellular organisms, division of one cell
reproduces the entire organism
 Multicellular organisms depend on cell division
for:
 Development from a fertilized cell
 Growth
 Repair
 Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle,
the life of a cell from formation to its own
division
Fig. 12-2
100 µm 200 µm 20 µm
(a) Reproduction (b) Growth and (c) Tissue renewal

development
Fig. 12-2a
100 µm
(a) Reproduction
Fig. 12-2b
200 µm
(b) Growth and development

Fig. 12-2c
20 µm
(c) Tissue renewal

 Most cell division results in daughter cells
with identical genetic information, DNA
 A special type of division produces
nonidentical daughter cells (gametes, or
sperm and egg cells)

 All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s
genome
 A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule
(common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of
DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
 DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes

Fig. 12-3
20 µm
• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus
• Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have two
sets of chromosomes
• Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs)
have half as many chromosomes as somatic
cells
• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin,
a complex of DNA and protein that condenses
during cell division
 In preparation for cell division, DNA is
replicated and the chromosomes condense
 Each duplicated chromosome has two sister
chromatids, which separate during cell division
 The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached

Fig. 12-4
0.5 µm Chromosomes DNA molecules
Chromo-
Chromosome
some arm
duplication
(including DNA
synthesis)
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Separation of
sister chromatids
Centromere
Sister chromatids
 Eukaryotic cell division consists of:
 Mitosis, the division of the nucleus
 Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
 Gametes are produced by a variation of cell
division called meiosis
 Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that
have only one set of chromosomes, half as
many as the parent cell

• In 1882, the German anatomist Walther
Flemming developed dyes to observe
chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis

 The cell cycle consists of
 Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
 Interphase (cell growth and copying of
chromosomes in preparation for cell division)

 Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be
divided into subphases:
 G1 phase (“first gap”)
 S phase (“synthesis”)
 G2 phase (“second gap”)
 The cell grows during all three phases, but
chromosomes are duplicated only during the S
phase

Fig. 12-5
G1 S
(DNA synthesis)
G2
 Mitosis is conventionally divided into five
phases:
 Prophase
 Prometaphase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase

Fig. 12-6
G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

Centrosomes Chromatin Early mitotic Aster Centromere Fragments Nonkinetochore Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus
(with centriole (duplicated) spindle of nuclear microtubules plate furrow forming
pairs) envelope
Daughter Nuclear
Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore Kinetochore Spindle Centrosome at chromosomes
one spindle pole envelope
envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule forming
Fig. 12-6a
G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Fig. 12-6b
G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Centrosomes Chromatin Early mitotic Aster Centromere Fragments Nonkinetochore
(with centriole (duplicated) spindle of nuclear microtubules
pairs) envelope
Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore Kinetochore

envelope membrane of two sister chromatids microtubule
Fig. 12-6c
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

Fig. 12-6d
Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus

plate furrow forming
Daughter Nuclear
Spindle Centrosome at chromosomes
one spindle pole envelope
forming
 The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of
microtubules that controls chromosome
movement during mitosis
 During prophase, assembly of spindle
microtubules begins in the centrosome, the
microtubule organizing center
 The centrosome replicates, forming two
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of
the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from
them
 An aster (a radial array of short microtubules)
extends from each centrosome
• The spindle includes the centrosomes, the
spindle microtubules, and the asters

 During prometaphase, some spindle
microtubules attach to the kinetochores of
chromosomes and begin to move the
chromosomes
 At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined
up at the metaphase plate, the midway point
between the spindle’s two poles

Fig. 12-7
Aster
Centrosome
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules Chromosomes
Metaphase
plate
Kineto-
chores
Centrosome 1 µm
Overlapping
nonkinetochore Kinetochore
microtubules microtubules
0.5 µm
 In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and
move along the kinetochore microtubules
toward opposite ends of the cell
 The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at
their kinetochore ends

Fig. 12-8
EXPERIMENT
Kinetochore
Spindle
pole
Mark
RESULTS
CONCLUSION
Chromosome
movement
Kinetochore
Motor Tubulin
Microtubule protein subunits
Chromosome
Fig. 12-8a
EXPERIMENT
Kinetochore
Spindle
pole
Mark
RESULTS
Fig. 12-8b
CONCLUSION
Chromosome
movement
Kinetochore
Tubulin
Motor Subunits
Microtubule
protein
Chromosome
 Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite
poles overlap and push against each other,
elongating the cell
 In telophase, genetically identical daughter
nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell

 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process
known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow
 In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis

Fig. 12-9
Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
100 µm forming parent cell
Cleavage furrow cell plate Cell plate New cell wall
Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments Daughter cells
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Fig. 12-9a
100 µm
Cleavage furrow
Contractile ring of Daughter cells

microfilaments
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM)
Fig. 12-9b
Vesicles Wall of 1 µm
forming parent cell
cell plate Cell plate New cell wall
Daughter cells
(b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Fig. 12-10
Nucleus Chromatin 10 µm
Nucleolus condensing Chromosomes Cell plate
1 Prophase 2 Prometaphase 3 Metaphase 4 Anaphase 5 Telophase

Fig. 12-10a
Nucleus Chromatin
Nucleolus condensing
1 Prophase
Fig. 12-10b
Chromosomes
2 Prometaphase
Fig. 12-10c
3 Metaphase
Fig. 12-10d
4 Anaphase
Fig. 12-10e
10 µm
Cell plate
5 Telophase
 Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce
by a type of cell division called binary fission
 In binary fission, the chromosome replicates
(beginning at the origin of replication), and
the two daughter chromosomes actively move
apart

Fig. 12-11-1
Cell wall
Origin of
replication Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
Two copies chromosome
of origin
Fig. 12-11-2
Cell wall
Origin of
replication Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
of origin
Origin Origin
Fig. 12-11-3
Cell wall
Origin of
replication Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
of origin
Origin Origin
Fig. 12-11-4
Cell wall
Origin of
replication Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
of origin
Origin Origin
TOPIC 3:
WHAT ARE STEM CELLS?
 All stem cells, no matter their source, are
unspecialized cells that give rise to more
specialized cells. Stem cells can become one
of more than 200 specialized cells in the
body. They serve as the body’s repair system
by renewing themselves and replenishing
more specialized cells in the body
 At the end of this topic, YOU should be able
to
 Define what is meant by stem cells
 Distinguish between adults and embryonic stem
cells
 State examples of different types of stem cells
eurostemcell.org
 Embryonic stem cells
 from a five to six-day-old embryo. They have the ability to form
virtually any type of cell found in the human body.
 Embryonic germ cells
 derived from the part of a human embryo or fetus that will
ultimately produce gametes (eggs or sperm).
 Adult stem cells
 undifferentiated cells found among specialized (differentiated)
cells in a tissue or organ after birth. Based on current research,
adult stem cells appear to have a more restricted ability to
produce different cell types and to self-renew than embryonic
stem cells.
 Umbilical cord blood stem cells/ Post-natal stem cells
 used to treat a range of blood disorders and immune system
conditions.
Stem cells growing in culture
 pluripotent
 Having potential to develop into any of the cell types found in an
adult organism
 eg Embryonic stem cells
 multipotent
 Stems cells that only have the potential to make a few cell types in the
body
 eg Adult stem cells
 totipotent
 Cells that are capable of forming a completely new embryo that can
develop into a new organism
 eg fertilized egg is totipotent. None of the stem cells used in research
appear to have this capacity.
More basic research is required to find out how stem cells
can be:
 located and extracted
 kept alive in the laboratory
 multiplied for extended periods of time
 directed to form specific types of specialized cells.
 Prof Harry Moore – use of stem cells to regain sight
(University of Sheffield, UK)
 Moore, H., Udayashankar, R. & Aflatoonian, B. (2008).
Stem cells for reproductive medicine. Molecular and
Cellular Endocrinology, 288(1-2):104-110.
HOW TO OBTAIN
A CLEAVING
ZYGOTE?
Learning Outcomes:
 Define meiosis
 Compare meiosis and mitosis
 Identify the importance of meiosis
 Explain the chromosomal behaviour and
structural organisation of cell during mitosis
 Why do you share some but not all
characters of each parent?
 What are the rules of this sharing game?
 At one level, the answers lie in meiosis.
What is meiosis?
 form of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms

by which two consecutive nuclear divisions (meiosis I
and meiosis II)
 Product of meiosis is four haploid gametes (sex cells)
 each containing one of every pair of homologous

chromosomes (maternal and paternal
chromosomes being distributed randomly between
the cells).
 Meiosis takes a cell with two copies of every
chromosome (diploid) and makes cells with a
single copy of every chromosome (haploid).
 aka Reduction division
n
2n n n
n
diploid cell produces four haploid cells.

 Meiosis scrambles the specific forms of each
gene that each sex cell (egg or sperm)
receives.
Responsible for genetic DIVERSITY

 Through independent assortment and crossing-
over
 Important for evolution of population and species
also for continuation of species
Parent cell –
chromosome pair
Chromosomes
copied
1st division
pairs split
2nd division – produces

4 gamete cells with ½
the original no. of
chromosomes
Parent cell 1st division
2nd division 4 gametes

Dr Nooraain Hashim
 Meiosis is necessary to halve the number of
chromosomes going into the sex cells
Why halve the chromosomes in gametes?
 At fertilization the male and female sex

cells will provide ½ of the chromosomes
each – so the offspring has genes from both
parents
Before we discuss meiosis in detail, let us review the 5 typical stages of
cell cycle:
Meiosis I- has all

I- Interphase
5 stages
P- Prophase
M- Metaphase
A- Anaphase Meiosis II-
T- Telophase LACKS
Interphase
Interphase
 Each of the chromosomes replicate
 The result is two genetically identical sister

chromatids which remain attached at their
centromeres
 This is a crucial phase for mitosis.
 each pair of chromatids match up with their

homologous pair and fasten together
(synapsis) in a group of four called a tetrad.
 Extremely IMPORTANT!!! It is during this

phase that crossing over can occur.
 Crossing Over is the exchange of segments during
synapsis.
 The chromosomes line up at the equator
attached by their centromeres to spindle
fibers from centrioles.
 Still in homologous pairs

 The spindle guides the movement of the
chromosomes toward the poles
 Sister chromatids remain attached
 Move as a unit towards the same pole
 The homologous chromosome moves toward the

opposite pole
 Contrasts mitosis – chromosomes appear as individuals
instead of pairs (meiosis)
 This is the end of the first meiotic cell
division.
 The cytoplasm divides, forming two new
daughter cells.
 Each of the newly formed cells has half the
number of the parent cell’s
chromosomes, but each
chromosome is already
replicated ready for the
second meiotic cell division
 Occurs simultaneously with telophase I
 Forms 2 daughter cells
 Via formation of
 cell plate- Plant cells
 cleavage furrows -Animal cells
 NO FURTHER REPLICATION OF GENETIC

MATERIAL PRIOR TO THE SECOND
DIVISION OF MEIOSIS
 Progress similar to
mitosis
 NO interphase
 Each of the daughter cells
forms a spindle, and
the double stranded
chromosomes move
toward the equator
The chromosomes are
positioned on the
metaphase
plate in a mitosis-like
fashion
 The centromeres of sister chromatids
finally separate
 The sister chromatids of
each pair move toward
opposite poles
 Now individual chromosomes
 Nuclei form at opposite poles of
the cell and cytokinesis occurs
 After completion of cytokinesis
there are four daughter cells
 All are haploid (n)
• Mutations (changes in an organism’s DNA) are the
original source of genetic diversity
• Mutations create different versions of genes called
alleles
• Reshuffling of alleles during sexual reproduction
produces genetic variation
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and
fertilization is responsible for most of the variation
that arises in each generation
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:
 Independent assortment of chromosomes
 Crossing over
 Random fertilization

• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient
randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
• In independent assortment, each pair of
chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
homologues into daughter cells independently of
the other pairs

• The number of combinations possible when
chromosomes assort independently into
gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number
• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8
million (223) possible combinations of
chromosomes

Fig. 13-11-1
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Fig. 13-11-2

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Fig. 13-11-3

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
Metaphase II
Daughter
cells
Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4
• Crossing over produces recombinant
chromosomes, which combine genes inherited
from each parent
• Crossing over begins very early in prophase I, as
homologous chromosomes pair up gene by gene

• In crossing over, homologous portions of two
nonsister chromatids trade places
• Crossing over contributes to genetic variation by
combining DNA from two parents into a single
chromosome

Fig. 13-12-1
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids
Pair of held together
homologs during synapsis
Fig. 13-12-2
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Fig. 13-12-3
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Anaphase I
Fig. 13-12-4
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Anaphase I
Anaphase II
Fig. 13-12-5
Chiasma
Centromere
TEM
Anaphase I
Anaphase II
Daughter
cells
Recombinant chromosomes
• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
(unfertilized egg)
• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4 million
possible chromosome combinations from
independent assortment) produces a zygote with
any of about 70 trillion diploid combinations

• Natural selection results in the accumulation of
genetic variations favored by the environment
• Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic
variation in a population, which originates from
mutations
• Crossing over adds even more variation
• Each zygote has a unique genetic identity

Fig. 13-UN1
Prophase I: Each homologous pair undergoes

synapsis and crossing over between nonsister
chromatids.
Metaphase I: Chromosomes line up as homolo-

gous pairs on the metaphase plate.
Anaphase I: Homologs separate from each other;

sister chromatids remain joined at the centromere.
Fig. 13-UN2
H
Fig. 13-UN3
Fig. 13-UN4
Crossing-over multiplies the already huge number of
different gamete types produced by independent
assortment.
 Difference in terms of
 Definition
 Product at end of process
 Number of chromosome
 Type of cells involved
 Genotypes produced at end of process
NOT limited to this list. There are other

differences!!
Mitosis Meiosis
Mitosis takes place within somatic cells (cells that

1. Meiosis takes place within gamete cells (sex cells).
make up the body).
One single division of the mother cell results in two Two divisions of the mother cell result in four meiotic
2.
daughter cells. products or haploid gametes.
A mitotic mother cell can either be haploid or

3. A meiotic mother cell is always diploid.
diploid.
The meiotic products contain a haploid (n) number of

The number of chromosomes per nucleus remains
4. chromosomes in contrast to the (2n) number of
the same after division.
chromosomes in mother cell.
It is preceded by a S-phase in which the amount of

5. In meiosis, only meiosis I is preceded by a S-phase.
DNA is duplicated.
In mitosis, there is no pairing of homologous During prophase I, complete pairing of all homologous
6.
chromosomes. chromosomes takes place.
There is no exchange of DNA (crossing-over) There is at least one crossing-over or DNA exchange per
7.
between chromosomes. homologous pair of chromosomes.
The centromeres do separate during anaphase II, but

8. The centromeres split during anaphase.
not during anaphase I.
The genotype of the daughter cells is identical to Meiotic products differ in their genotype from the mother
9.
that of the mother cells. cell.
After mitosis, each daughter cell has exactly same After meiosis, each daughter cell has only half of the
10.
DNA strands. DNA strands
MITOSIS MIEOSIS
The first (and
distinguishing)
division
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
Y chromosome
X chromosome
Boy or Girl? The Y Chromosome “Decides”
Chromosome pair
Should the gamete with the
chromosome pair be fertilized
then the offspring will not be
‘normal’.
In humans this often occurs

with the 21st pair – producing
a child with Downs Syndrome
Can you see the
extra 21st
chromosome?
Is this person male

or female?

3 - Topic 3 Cell Cycle

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Chapter 3: Cell Cycle

The concept of Chapter 4:

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(a) Reproduction (b) Growth and (c) Tissue renewal

(b) Growth and development

(c) Tissue renewal

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

G2 of Interphase Prophase Prometaphase

Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma Chromosome, consisting Kinetochore Kinetochore

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

Metaphase Anaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis

Metaphase Cleavage Nucleolus

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

Contractile ring of Daughter cells

1 Prophase 2 Prometaphase 3 Metaphase 4 Anaphase 5 Telophase

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

 form of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms

 Product of meiosis is four haploid gametes (sex cells)

 each containing one of every pair of homologous

diploid cell produces four haploid cells.

Responsible for genetic DIVERSITY

2nd division – produces

2nd division 4 gametes

Why halve the chromosomes in gametes?

 At fertilization the male and female sex

Meiosis I- has all

 Each of the chromosomes replicate

 The result is two genetically identical sister

 each pair of chromatids match up with their

 Extremely IMPORTANT!!! It is during this

 Still in homologous pairs

 The homologous chromosome moves toward the

 NO FURTHER REPLICATION OF GENETIC

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Two equally probable

Two equally probable

Two equally probable

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Prophase I: Each homologous pair undergoes

Metaphase I: Chromosomes line up as homolo-

Anaphase I: Homologs separate from each other;

NOT limited to this list. There are other

Mitosis takes place within somatic cells (cells that