MEEG334 - MATERIALS SCIENCE - FALL 2015

LECTURE NOTES

WEEK 6 & 7

CHAPTER 8 – MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS

o Stress and Strain
o Elastic Deformation
o Plastic Deformation
o True Stress and Strain
o Property Variability and Design / Safety Factors

Dr. FAHRETTIN OZTURK & Dr. EBRU GUNISTER

 INTRODUCTION
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
• Stress and strain:
What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation?

• Elastic behavior:
When loads are small, how much deformation occurs?
What materials deform least?

• Plastic behavior:
At what point does permanent deformation occur?
What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation?

• Toughness and ductility:

What are they and how do we measure them?

Chapter 8 - 1
 ELASTIC - PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Elastic means reversible!
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
F Linear-
bonds elastic
stretch
return to Non-Linear-
initial elastic
d
d
F Anelasticity?

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload Plastic means permanent!

bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

delastic + plastic dplastic

F
Chapter 8 - 2
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
STRESS and STRAIN
Tensile Tests Compression Tests Shear Tests Torsional Tests

F
Engineering Stress:  
A0
For tension and compression
Engineering Strain:   li  l0  l
l0 l0

Chapter 8 - 3
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
STRESS
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, t:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Area, Ao Fs

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft t = F
N
= = Ao
Ao m2
 Stress has units: N/m2
original cross sectional area before loading
Chapter 8 - 4
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
COMMON STRESS STATES - 1
• Simple tension: cable

F F
A o = cross sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft
Ski lift (photo courtesy
M Fs Ao
P.M. Anderson)

Ac
Fs
t 
M Ao
2R
Note: t = M/AcR here.
Chapter 8 - 5
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
COMMON STRESS STATES - 2
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson) ( < 0 here).

Chapter 8 - 6
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
COMMON STRESS STATES - 3
• Bi-axial tension • Hydrostatic compression

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0  h< 0
Chapter 8 - 7
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of METALS
STRAIN
Tensile strain, : Lateral strain, L: Shear strain, :

Adapted from Fig. 8.1 (a)
and (c), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

d/2 d /2 x

Lo Lo y 90º - 
wo wo
90º
d /2 d /2
L L
x
d dL   tan 
 L   y
L0 W0 Strain is always dimensionless!

Chapter 8 - 8
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
STRESS - STRAIN BEHAVIOR – Tensile Test
Typical tensile test machine Typical tensile specimen
Adapted from Fig. 8.2,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

extensometer specimen

Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter 8 - 9
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
d
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
d
Chapter 8 - 10
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
STRESS - STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Modulus of Elasticity, E: (Young's modulus) Slope of stress strain plot (which is
Hooke's Law:   E proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal



Linear elastic

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi] Fig. 8.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Anelasticity: time-dependent elastic behaviour

Chapter 8 - 11
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
STRESS - STRAIN BEHAVIOR - Young Modulus
Graphite
Metals Ceramics Polymers Composites
Alloys Semicond /fibers
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni C FRE(|| fibers)*
200 Tantalum <111>
Platinum Si crystal Based on data in Table B.2,
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
E(GPa) 10800 Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Aluminum Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only
Composite data based on
60
Magnesium,
Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol% of
40
Concrete aligned carbon (CFRE),
20 GFRE* aramid (AFRE), or
CFRE * glass (GFRE)
109 Pa 10
G raphite G FRE( fibers)*
fibers.
8 C FRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
Polyester
4 PET
PS
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE Chapter 8 - 12

 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
STRESS - STRAIN BEHAVIOR

The modulus of elasticity diminishes with increasing temperature.

Chapter 8 - 13
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
STRESS - STRAIN BEHAVIOR
Elastic Shear modulus, G: Elastic Bulk modulus, K:
t M P P
G
 simple
torsion
V P P
test Vo
K
M
V
t  G P  K
Pressure test:
Initial volume =Vo.
V0 Volume change= V

Chapter 8 - 14
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Poisson's ratio, n: the ratio of the lateral and axial strain
L
L
n 

 –n > 0.50 density increases

–n < 0.50 density decreases (voids form)

-n metals: n ~ 0.33 Units:

ceramics: n ~ 0.25 E: [GPa] or [psi]
polymers: n ~ 0.40 ν: dimensionless

Special relations for isotropic materials:

x y
E  2G(1  n ) E  K 3(1  2n ) n  
z z
Chapter 8 - 15
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 16
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Elongation (Elastic) Computation
Problem 1: A piece of copper originally 200 mm long is pulled in tension with a stress of
276 MPa. If the deformation is entirely elastic, what will be the resultant
elongation?

Chapter 8 - 17
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Computation of Load to Produce Specified Diameter Change
Problem 2: A tensile stress is to be applied along the long axis of a cylindrical brass rod
that has a diameter of 12 mm. Determine the magnitude of the load
required to produce a 2.4 x 10-3 mm change in diameter if the deformation
is entirely elastic.

Chapter 8 - 18
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)
• Simple tension test:
Elastic + Plastic
engineering stress,  at larger stress

permanent (plastic)
Elastic after load is removed
initially
p engineering strain, 

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 8.10(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 19
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Yield Strength
Yielding: The onset of plastic deformation
Yield Strength: Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred

tensile stress, 
when p = 0.002
y y = yield strength
Note: for 20 cm sample
 = 0.002 = z/z
 z = 0.04 cm
or
 = 0.2 (%)= z/z *100
Adapted from Fig. 8.10(a),
engineering strain,  Callister & Rethwisch 9e.  z = 0.04 cm
 p = 0.002 strain offset method
Chapter 8 - 20
PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Callister & Rethwisch 9e

Chapter 8 - 21
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TENSILE PROPERTIES – Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength: Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve
(ultimate strength)
Adapted from Fig. 8.11,
TS Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

F = fracture
engineering stress

y
strength

Neck – acts
as stress
Typical response of a metal
concentrator

strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are aligned and about to break.
Chapter 8 - 22
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
300 Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a @ Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
AFRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 8 - 23
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TENSILE PROPERTIES - Ductility
Ductility: Plastic tensile strain at failure
smaller %EL Adapted from Fig. Ao
8.13, Callister &
Lo Af Lf
brittle
Engineering tensile stress, 

Rethwisch 9e.

larger %EL
ductile Percent elongation
L f  L0
% EL   100
L0
Percent reduction in area
Engineering tensile strain,  A0  Af
% RA   100
A0
Chapter 8 - 24
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TENSILE PROPERTIES - Resilience
Resilience: Ability of a material to store energy when it is elastically deformed

Modulus of resilience
y
Ur   d
0
Assuming linear elastic region :
1
U r @ y  y
2
Unit : J/m3 or Pa
Adapted from Fig. 8.15,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e. Chapter 8 - 25
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TENSILE PROPERTIES - Toughness
Toughness: Energy to break a unit volume of material. Approximate by
the area under the stress-strain curve.
small toughness (ceramics)
Brittle fracture: elastic energy
Engineering tensile stress, 

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy

large toughness (metals)

very small toughness

(unreinforced polymers)

Adapted from Fig. 8.13,

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Engineering tensile strain, 

Chapter 8 - 26
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TRUE STRESS and STRAIN
True stress
T  F Ai

True Strain
T  ln i  o 

T  1   
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
T  ln1   
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Sectional area changes when sample stretched

Chapter 8 - 27
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
ELASTIC STRAIN RECOVERY AFTER PLASTIC DEFORMATION

Elastic Recovery
Nonpermanent deformation
that is recovered or regained
upon the release of a
mechanical stress.

Load
Adapted from Fig. 8.17,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 8 - 28
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
TRUE STRESS and STRAIN
Hardening : An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y1
y0 small hardening


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:

T
 K  T

n n = 0.15 (some steels)
to n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 8 - 29
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Ductility and True-Stress-at-Fracture Computations
Problem 3: A cylindrical specimen of steel having an original diameter of 12.5 mm
is tensile tested to fracture and found to have an engineering fracture
strength f of 460 MPa. If its cross-sectional diameter at fracture is
10.2 mm, determine:
a) The ductility in terms of percent reduction in area
b) The true stress at fracture

Chapter 8 - 30
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Calculation of Strain – Hardening Exponent
Problem 4: Compute the strain-hardening exponent n in Equation  T K Tn for
an alloy in which a true stress of 415 MPa produces a true strain of
0.10; assume a value of 1035 MPa for K.

Chapter 8 - 31
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression.
--better wear properties.

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Chapter 8 - 32
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
HARDNESS – TESTING TECHNIQUES
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 8 - 33
 PLASTIC DEFORMATION
HARDNESS – TESTING TECHNIQUES
Table 8.5

Chapter 8 - 34
VARIABILITY OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xi
– Mean x i 1
n
1
 n  x  x 2  2

– Standard Deviation s  i 1
i 
 n 1 
 
where n is the number of data points

Chapter 8 - 35
 DESIGN and SAFETY FACTORS
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
w orking  1.2 and 4
N
Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in
the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.
d
y
w orking  1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa
Lo

220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa


 d2 / 4 
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm

Chapter 8 - 36
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
Average and Standard Deviation Computations
Problem 5: The following tensile strengths were measured for four specimens of the
same steel alloy:
a) Compute the average tensile strength. Sample Number Tensile strength
b) Determine the standard deviation. (MPa)
1 520
2 512
3 515
4 522

Chapter 8 - 37
 SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent measures of load
and displacement, respectively.

• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often shows a linear

relation between stress and strain. To minimize deformation,
select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G).

• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation behavior occurs

when the tensile (or compressive) uniaxial stress reaches y.

• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit volume of

material.

• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Chapter 8 - 38
CHAPTER 8 - HOMEWORK
Mechanical Properties of Metals
• REVIEW LECTURE NOTES (HANDOUTS)
• TEXT BOOK
• Read Chapter 8 (Page 208-245)
• Questions and Problems (Page 245 - 251)

• 1, 2 • 25, 26, 27, 28 • 46, 47, 48,

• 3, 4, 5, 6 • 29, 30 • 49, 50
• 7, 8, 9, 10 • 31, 32, 33, 34 • 51, 52, 53
• 11, 12, 13, 14 • 35, 36, 37, 38 • 54, 55,
• 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 • 39, 40, 41 • 56, 57
• 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 • 42, 43, 44, 45