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Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review

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 International Journal of Emerging
Electric Power Systems
Volume , Issue   Article 

Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A

Review
Dinesh Birla∗ Rudra Prakash Maheshwari†
Hari Om Gupta‡

∗
IIT Roorkee, dbrladee@iitr.ernet.in
†
IIT Roorkee, rudrafee@iitr.ernet.in
‡
IIT Roorkee, harifee@iitr.ernet.in

Copyright 2005
c by the authors. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, bepress, which has been given certain exclusive rights by the
author. International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems is produced by The
Berkeley Electronic Press (bepress). http://www.bepress.com/ijeeps
 Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A
Review
Dinesh Birla, Rudra Prakash Maheshwari, and Hari Om Gupta

Abstract

When two protective apparatus installed in series have characteristics, which provide a
specified operating sequence, they are said to be coordinated or selective. The coordination
of directional overcurrent relays poses serious problems in the modern complex power
system networks, which are interconnected. Researchers have looked upon the problem
of coordination from different considerations by making use of computer aids. Many
efforts have been made to the automation of the coordination process in the area of relay
coordination. This paper compiles the most of the significant developments in the area
of time-overcurrent relay coordination using different techniques and methodologies. It is
hoped that this work will be useful for future generation researchers to find the relevant
references to advance the research work in future.

KEYWORDS: Coordination, Overcurrent relays (OCRs), Directional overcurrent relays

(DOCRs), Breakpoints set (BP), Relative sequence matrix (RSM), Set of selection pairs
(SSP), Time dial settings (TDS), Pickup current settings (Ip), Evolutionary programming
(EP), Genetic algorithm (GA).
Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review 1

1. INTRODUCTION
Overcurrent relays (OCRs) and Directional overcurrent relays (DOCRs) are
widely used for the protection of radial and ring sub transmission systems, and
distribution systems. Directional overcurrent relaying is mainly used for the
primary protection of ring distribution systems as the same magnitude of fault
current can flow in either direction [1]. They are also used for secondary
protection in transmission systems. Relays in different locations will detect
greatly different currents during the same fault. The relay coordination problem
is to determine the sequence of relay operations for each possible fault location
so that the faulted section is isolated to provide sufficient coordination margins
without excessive time delay [2]. The ultimate objective being improved power
system reliability; this paper is an attempt to compile most of the significant
developments in the area of relay coordination using different techniques and
methodologies.
The interconnected power transmission systems are protected by directional
overcurrent relays, which are stand-alone devices and strategically placed
throughout the system [3]. Main problem arises in performing the relay
coordination with this type of protection in interconnected, multiloop power
systems, where it is very difficult to set and coordinate the relays. The main
difficulty arises in setting the last relay of a closed loop with proper and
satisfying coordination with the relay set initially in that loop. If it does not, one
will have to proceed again for coordination, around the loop. Further, a given
relay usually participates in more than one loop [4, 5]. Proper identification of
sequence of relays to be considered for coordination is also necessary. If an
arbitrary order is assumed, changing the parameters of one relay for obtaining
coordination for all the relevant primary/backup fault current pairs can disturb
the proper coordination of some of the relay pairs already checked [6].
Earlier, the coordination of directional relays was performed by time-
consuming and tireless manual calculations. The use of computers in the
coordination process has relieved engineers from these laborious calculations.
This could be possible only when mathematical modeling of overcurrent relays
for computer representation was presented [7, 8 and 9]. Now, sophisticated
algorithms are available, which allow active interaction between the user and the
computer [4, 5, 10 and 11]. Basically, two types of approaches are used for
finding proper coordination, conventional philosophy, and the parameter
optimization techniques. The basis of the conventional protection philosophy is
the concept of pre-determinism i.e. analysis of all faults, abnormal operating
conditions and system contingencies are predetermined [3, 12]. Drawback of
this method being inability to determine relay response for a condition not
previously included in the analysis, since it is practically impossible to handle

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2 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 2 [2005], No. 2, Article 1039

all the operating conditions of concern in advance. “Breakpoints” (BPs) are the
desired locations of the starting relays in the coordination procedure. The
breakpoints are used to decrease the number of iterations in a coordination
process. The sequence for setting the relays is displayed by a “relative sequence
matrix” (RSM). To set a relay, it must be known, to which relays this relay is
backup. This relay is then set accordingly for satisfactory backup protection on
all fault currents. The set of all primary/backup relay pairs sorted by backup
relays is the “set of selection pairs” (SSP). Elaborate and complex topological
analysis programs have been prepared to determine the breakpoints set, the
relative sequence matrix, the set of selection pairs etc, and the facility for data
management [4, 5, 13, and 14]. The optimization theory has simplified the
coordination philosophy and because of the inherent advantages, it is gaining
popularity. Most important advantage of optimization techniques is elimination
of need to determine breakpoint set and hence the elaborate and complex
topological analysis programs are not required. Other important advantage is
that settings obtained are optimal whereas in the conventional methods the
settings obtained are not optimal [6]. The evolution of the development of
computer methods for implementing coordination using adaptive, traditional and
optimization techniques is traced in this paper.

2. METHODOLOGIES USED TO ACHIEVE COORDINATION

As has already been stated, in the era prior to advent of digital computers, one of
the problems associated with coordination of directional overcurrent relays was
the tedious and time-consuming task of manual settings of protective relays. The
problem was more complex in multi-loop, multi-source networks. The
availability of digital computers led to rapid advancements in relay coordination
process. In the early phase, only off-line computer relay coordination was
reported [7, 15 and 16]. First significant attempt for the relay coordination using
digital computers was reported in 1964 [15]. In this work a relay coordination
program using a “batch” off-line approach was introduced. A case study
applying this program to a utility’s transmission system was reported in [18]. A
subsequent study followed a similar batch approach detailing various
coordination criterions to be adopted [16]. In all these batch approaches, the
protection engineer does not interact with the computer during the coordination
process. Hence, effective use of engineer’s expertise and knowledge about the
system is not utilized. These off-line approaches paved the way for the
interactive methods [4, 5, 10 and 11] to develop. The absence of a systematic
procedure and efficient ordering of relays for coordination in all these methods
resulted in repeated iterations through all the system relays [17]. To tackle this
problem heuristic scheme was proposed wherein relays were arranged in a

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review 3

sequence before they were considered for coordination [21]. One more approach
proceeded along this line of thought to obtain optimum starting points and an
optimum relay sequence using graph theory concepts [14]. These two
approaches provided the basic groundwork for systematically analyzing the
topology of the system, but did not include any of the relay coordination
procedures. In the initial phase, the breakpoints set and relative sequence
matrixes were found to carry out the relay coordination procedure [4, 5, 13, 14,
19, 20 and 21]. The development of a method for determining the minimum set
of breakpoints was reported [13]. This method has been subsequently improved
in further work [19]. A relatively better method has also been reported in which
only the fundamental circuits of the system graph are used [20]. Extending the
concepts introduced by [14], systematic algorithms for determining RSM and a
corresponding SSP have been proposed [4, 5 and 10]. These have also proposed
actual coordination algorithms using the RSM and SSP for the given
transmission network. Research work on coordination of relays for specific area
like radial distribution of lines was reported [22]. Algorithms and methodologies
for system-wide coordination were described [4, 5, 10 and 11]. Need for
subsystem coordination may arise when it is felt to modify the settings of a part
of the large system for proper coordination, due to some changes in the system.
One such algorithm for subsystem coordination was presented in 1990 [23]. In
this paper the problem and methods to modify a small subset of relays, in
response to changes in the system structure are described. Algorithms using
different methodologies have been reported for coordination of directional
overcurrent relays in interconnected and industrial networks [2, 22, 24 and 25].
However, these algorithms did not yield the optimal results [26].

2.1 ADAPTIVE COORDINATION PHILOSOPHY

Adaptive protection was defined in general terms and specific applications were
highlighted which could be implemented using this philosophy [28]. In this
referred paper, the adaptive relay setting is described as a possible application
for implementing the coordination philosophy in the general framework of
adaptive protection. At the same time another paper presented ideas about
adaptive relaying [30]. Their treatment of the subject is also conceptual and
general. One of the main differences between the two papers is that the later
paper recognizes the timely human intervention as part of the overall adaptive
protection philosophy. Traditionally, the directional overcurrent relays consisted
of analog type electromechanical or solid-state relays, until their digital
equivalent, microprocessor based relays came. It made possible to implement
several types of characteristics in the same hardware or with a minimum change
of hardware. Development of VLSI technology and the advent of power
microprocessors have made the implementation of digital protection cost

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4 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 2 [2005], No. 2, Article 1039

effective [1]. It also made implementation of the adaptive protection feasible,

facilitating change of relay settings on-line according to changed system
requirements in line with relay coordination demands [3, 27, 28, 29, and 30]. An
adaptive algorithm has been developed which would set and coordinate the
relays in response to changes in system topology and load levels in an on-line
mode by decomposing the network using the concept of parallel processing [3].
A method for adaptive coordination of overcurrent relays was proposed by
dynamically varying the pick-up current as the load current varies [31]. In this,
the relays are made to respond to the changing conditions, operational or
structural, of a power system in a self-adaptive manner. A new adaptive
protection scheme has used linear programming technique for optimal
coordination of overcurrent relays [12]. Recently in 2003, an on-line adaptive
scheme of relay-settings is proposed using an expert system, which detects and
proposes the corrections of erroneous settings following changes in state of
network [52].

2.2 OTHER COORDINATION PHILOSOPHIES

The various methods and techniques, which have been used, in the development
of relay coordination can be categorized as under:
(i) Curve fitting techniques.
(ii) Graph theoretical techniques
(iii) Optimization techniques.
(a) Conventional optimization techniques like simplex, two-phase simplex,
dual simplex, and Rosenbrock-Hillclimb methods.
(b) Optimization using artificial intelligence techniques like fuzzy logic,
neural networks, expert systems, genetic algorithm etc.
(c) Optimization using “interior point primal-dual algorithm”.
Work done by various researchers in the preceding categories of relay
coordination techniques is presented in the following.

(i) Curve fitting techniques

The relay characteristics need to be modeled and stored in computer memory for
performing relay coordination. Researchers have made many attempts in the
past to model relay characteristics. Specifying many points of relay
characteristic curve and storing in computer memory has disadvantage of
occupying the large computer memory. The curve fitting techniques are used for
determining the best function to represent data. The relay characteristics are
modeled mathematically by polynomial form using curve-fitting techniques [15,
32, and 33].

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review 5

(ii) Graph theoretical techniques

Graph theoretical techniques in the area of relay coordination are also reported
[4, 5, 10, 13, 14, 21, 22, 24, 25 and 35]. They utilize the network structure for
analyzing the information about minimum set of breakpoints, the sequence for
setting relays and all primary/backup relays and line directionality for
directional relays. An approach to identify and analyze all simple loops of the
network in both directions was presented [14]. This provided the basis for relay
setting algorithm developed thereafter. The database use and algorithms
developed later have been explained for the purpose of development of relay
coordination process [4, 5 and 10]. The concepts of functional dependency
arising in data base system have also been utilized for topological analysis of the
power systems. These overcome the drawback of high time taken for
coordination in a system having large number of relays. Constraints on relay
settings were expressed through a set of functional dependencies [35].

(iii) Optimization techniques

(a) Conventional optimization: The determination of the time dial
settings (TDS) of directional overcurrent relays must ensure a properly
coordinated operation of relays. The time dial setting determination in
interconnected power systems has been described as an optimization
problem [37]. In general, directional overcurrent relays allow for
continuous time dial settings (TDS) but discrete pickup current
settings. (Ip). In the referred study, however, both TDS and Ip were
assumed to be continuous variables, in order to avoid the use of mixed
nonlinear-integer programming techniques. Researchers have described
various optimization methods to find the directional overcurrent relay
settings [36, 37, 39, 42 and 45]. The linear programming techniques
like simplex, two-phase simplex and dual simplex methods have been
tried in performing the coordination of overcurrent relays [36, 37, 39,
41 and 43]. Rosenbrock-Hillclimb method of non-linear programming
has been used for determining the optimal settings of the pick-up
current [43]. Pick-up current has been selected based on natural
wisdom of experiences also [36]. The operating time of the relays is
minimized by constituting the objective function, subject to the
coordination criteria in different ways [36, 38, 39, 40 and 41]. The
coordination criteria implement the coordination rules in the form of
constraints. Based on optimization methodology, an algorithm, using
linear programming technique has been described recently [12]. In this
referred paper, it is assumed that there is no effect of weight factors
and far-end faults on the optimal solution of the problem. In the paper,

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6 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 2 [2005], No. 2, Article 1039

the objective function is taken as the sum of the time dial settings of all
primary relays irrespective of time and location of the fault and
constraints are considered depending on only maximum near-end
faults. Evolutionary programming is a multipoint searching
optimization algorithm. Optimization technique based on evolutionary
programming also has been reported recently [44]. Topology changes
in the power networks affect the coordination, giving rise to an
embarrassing situation to alter the original relay settings. Multiple
objective optimizations was tried to reset the original relay settings for
reduced number of relays due to a topology change in the system [36].
The selectivity of operation of a protective system is adversely affected
by dynamic changes in the network topology of a system. This aspect
has been considered in performing relay coordination using linear
programming lately [45].

(b) AI based optimization: Artificial intelligence techniques have also

attracted the interest of the researchers. A method for calculation of
time dial settings and operating time of overcurrent relays (t) based on
neural networks and fuzzy logic has been reported [34]. In this referred
paper the full counter propagation neural network to determine time
dial settings from operating time of relays and plug setting multiplier is
proposed. To find relay operating time from time dial settings and plug
setting multiplier fuzzy logic is used. Genetic algorithm based grading
coordination of OC relays has been presented [46, 47]. An evolutionary
algorithm is applied as constrained satisfaction optimization tool to
search for the optimal relay coordination [38]. As mentioned earlier,
optimization technique has been presented based on evolutionary
concepts also [44]. Expert systems for protective device coordination
using expert system technology have been presented in [48, 49, 50 and
51]. It was reported in [51] that methodologies presented in earlier
work [49, 50] were mainly suitable for the design or planning phase
and not suitable for dispatch centers, where original relay settings may
miscoordinate as a result of change in topology. An expert system for
relay setting value checking during the change of power system
topology due to normal switching operations was presented [51]. Using
expert system, an on-line adaptive scheme of relay settings based on
fast determination of set of “break-points” relays has been reported
recently [52].

(c) Interior point primal-dual algorithm for optimization: The problem

of coordination has been analyzed, based on the constraints imposed by

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Birla et al.: Time-Overcurrent Relay Coordination: A Review 7

definite time relaying also, i.e. instantaneous units, distance relays and
breaker failure relays [53]. Solutions for the same have been presented
by use of traditional simplex method of linear programming [54]. A
different approach based on the “interior point primal-dual algorithm”
developed by Gondzio [55] has been presented recently to resolve the
problem for same constraints of distance relays and breaker failure
relays [56].

3. PROBLEMS WITH EXISTING METHODS AND FUTURE

SCOPE
Most of the techniques used by researchers for carrying out relay coordination
work are presented in this paper. All the off-line approaches and interactive
methods mentioned above started the coordination process from arbitrary relays
and proceeded with other relays one by one until all the relays were properly
coordinated. But the inherent loop structures found in typical transmission
network necessitate a large number of interactive calculations to be performed by
proceeding around the loop. In spite of performing large number of iterations,
final converged solution for the system was not guaranteed. In the traditional
methods, the curve fitting techniques were used for finding the time dial settings
and operating time of relays. In curve fitting techniques, the mathematical
equation contains different coefficients for different curve characteristic. Different
operating times also contain different accuracy. In these methods, if the variation
of the time dial settings, (TDS) versus operating time of relays (t) is assumed
linear it introduces the error. The problems such as logarithmic and
antilogarithmic also exist. Curve-fitting techniques are inaccurate for currents less
than 1.3 times pick-up, but elsewhere the error can be reduced to 3 cycles or 1
percent for most electromechanical or static relays. Therefore, these methods
include some errors. Fuzzy logic and neural networks have been used to reduce
these errors [34]. However, microprocessor relays are designed with the curve
equations given, so the error for these relays should be negligible. Application of
interactive graphics in the setting and coordination process was recommended
[11]. However, operating time being polynomial function of the number of relays,
the graph theoretical techniques suffer from drawback of large time to actually
determine the settings and coordinate the relays. Moreover, not only a lot of
intermediate data is generated but they fail to provide the optimum solution also.
Optimum solution is the best solution considering all aspects. Functional
dependency approaches reduce the disadvantage of large operation time of graph
theoretical schemes but these also provide only the best solution of the alternative
settings considered, not the optimal [36].

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8 International Journal of Emerging Electric Power Systems Vol. 2 [2005], No. 2, Article 1039

Finding the breakpoints i.e. the starting points of desired locations for setting
the relays is the all-important point to initiate the coordination process.
Optimization techniques eliminate the need to find the set of breakpoints. Non-
linear optimal programming techniques are complex. In all linear programming
techniques like simplex, two-phase simplex and dual-simplex methods, the
auxiliary variables are introduced. These should be equal to the number of
constraints. Hence, the use of these methods has limitations in terms of low
number of constraints [26]. Further, the traditional optimization techniques are
based on an initial guess and may be trapped in the local minimum. Since the
problem of coordination has multi-optimum points, ordinary mathematical based
optimization technique will fail. New optimization techniques other than
conventional such as evolutionary programming (EP) and genetic algorithm (GA)
have come up which can be used to adjust the settings of relays. By the
evolutionary programming technique, the relay settings may be optimized.
Evolutionary programming is a stochastic multi-point searching optimization
algorithm and is capable of escape from local optimum problems. Genetic
algorithm is an optimization method to overcome the problems of classical
optimization methods. Genetic algorithm may prove to be a dependable tool to
find the optimum relay settings. In optimization methods, the objective value is
sensitive to one parameter whilst large changes are needed in other parameters to
effect appreciable changes, genetic algorithm is no exception. However, larger
number of generations and population size produce better results while using
genetic algorithm.
The recent advancement in coordination area is to tackle the possible
infeasibility problem which may be faced by rounding off the optimal IP values to
the nearest discrete IP setting in performing simultaneous optimization of TDS
and IP. A new problem formulation is proposed recently to find the solution of
this problem [57]. There is ample potential to advance the research work in
coordination area tackling this problem. The proper solution to this problem may
be a milestone. It could provide practical and optimal settings utilizing the real
use of more refined IP received from simultaneously optimizing the settings by
nonlinear programming methods as compared to the judiciously preassumed IP
values in linear programming methods.

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