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∞
f (t ) = F (ω )e jωt dv (inverse Fourier transform) (1)
−∞
∞
F (ω ) = f (t )e − jωt dt (Fourier transform) (2)
−∞
Selected function and their Fourier transforms, between t and ν, and between x and θ.
f (t ) = 1 F (ω ) = δ (ω ) (3)
f (t ) = δ (t ) F (ω ) = 1 (4)
t2
−
−τ 2ω 2
f (t ) = e τ2 F (ω ) = e (7)
τ τ
f (t ) = 1 − + nT < t < + nT τ NT
2 2 sin(ω ) sin(ω )
n = 0,1, .....N − 1 F (ω ) = 2 2 (8)
τ T
0 elsewhere ω sin(ω )
2 2
Huygens’ principle-
Huygens’ Principle
E(R)
E(r)
E (r )e jk ⋅( R −r )
E ( R) = dr (10
R−r
a πa
sin(k sin θ ) sin( θ )
E (θ ) =
∞
e ikx sin θ dx = a 2 ≈a λ λ
∆θ =
−∞ a πa a
k sin θ θ
2 λ
Single slit diffraction
X=a/2
θ
X=0
∆= x sinθ
-Fresnel lens
First we need to work out some basic procedures concerning propagation in free space.
where the ν’s are the spatial frequencies in the x and y directions. The spatial frequencies are
the inverse of the periods.
When this pattern is emitting at wavelength λ, a plane wave of the following form is
generated:
− j 2πν x x − j 2πν y y − jk z z
U ( x, y , z ) = Ae (12)
where
1
k z = 2π ( − ν x2 − ν y2 )1 / 2 (13)
λ2
Thus by decomposing a spatial distribution of electric field into spatial harmonics, each
component can be treated separately.
Define a transfer function in free space for the spatial harmonics of spatial frequency νx and
νy to travel from z=0 to z=d as
1
− j 2π ( −ν x2 −ν y2 )1 / 2 d
H (ν x ,ν y ) = e λ2
(14)
This is the multiplication factor to a sinusoidal spatial pattern of spatial frequency νx and νy.
The redirecting of an incident plane wave into another direction by a periodic structure can be
illustrated in the following figure. If the spatial periodic structure is stationary, the outgoing
wave number is the same as the incident wave number.
When a plane wave of wave vector k1 is incident on a spatial harmonics, such as a grating
with spacing d extending in the x-direction, the wave vector, k2 of the outgoing wave can be
related to k1 by the following relation.
(k 2 ± k1 ) • xˆ = 2πν x N (14.1)
Where N is an integer.
1/νx
k
k=2π /λ θx 2π/νx
kz
1/νx
k2 2πνx± k1x
k1
k2z
The H factor can be simplified in the limit of small spatial period compared to the
wavelength. (1/ν <<λ). ( What is the meaning ?)
− jπλd (ν x2 +ν y2 )
H (ν x ,ν y ) = e − jkd
e (15)
Thus the phase change as a function of propagation distance d in free space result in a phase
change that is quadratic function of spatial frequency ν’s.
The effect of lenses
A converging lens transforms a plane wave into a spherical wave which converges toward a
point at one focal length away.
Converging lens
f(x,y) g(x,y)
d f
Focal
Z=0 A B plane
First the function f(x,y) at z=0 can be expanded using the spatial harmonics:
− j 2π (ν x x +ν y y )
f ( x, y ) = F (ν x ,ν y )e dν x dν y (17)
The integrand is then propagate in free space to plane A, using (15). Then after the lens to
plane B using (16)
x2 + y 2
jπ
− jπλd (ν x2 +ν y2 ) − j 2π (ν x x+ν y y )
U B ( x, y, z B ) = e − jkd e λf
e F (ν x ,ν y )e
( x − x0 ) 2 +( y − y0 ) 2
jπ
= A(ν x ,ν y )e λf
jπλ ( d − f )(ν x2 +ν y2 )
where A(ν x ,ν y ) = e F (ν x ,ν y ) , x0 = λν x f , and y 0 = λν y f .
− jkd
e
Results:
x y
g ( x, y ) = h f F ( , ) (18)
λf λf
j − j 2 kf
where hl = ( )e
λf
A lens has the effect of bring the far-field angular distribution into the focal plane.
f(x,y) g(x,y)
f f
Focal
Z=0 plane
Holography
Figure 1
k1 k2
λ
d=
θ
2 sin( )
2
Figure 2
λ
d=
θ
2 sin( )
Bragg condition 2
∆ = AB + BC − CD = 2d cos θ (20)
A C
d θ
Volume holography
Recording
Reading
Consider am arbitrary object waves at (x,y,z) to be E ( x, z )e − j ( k x x + k z z ) making an local angle θ
at (x,y,z). Assuming that the reference wave is a plane wave E r e ikz in the z-direction.
The superposition of the two result in interference fringes pattern. At z=0, the intensity is
2
Er + E ( x, y )e − jk x x = Er2 + Er E ( x, y )e − jk x x + Er E ( x, y )e jk x x + E 2 ( x, y )
If the fringe pattern is recorded on a transparency and illuminated by plane waves propagating
in the z-direction, the diffractive waves are
The first the last terms are the transmitted reference waves, and the filtered intensity. The
second term is the reconstructed the object waves and the third term is the conjugation of the
object waves. Often the reconstructed and the conjugate waves form the image and virtual
image.
.
Problems:
1. Prove Eqs. (5)-(8). You don’t need to turn in the answer, but must prove it once.
2. Prove (19).
3. The beam divergence at infinity of a plane wave passing through a single slit of width
λ
is known to be θ = where the angle is measured from the maximum intensity at
D
the center to the first intensity minimum on either side, and D is the slit width for D>>
λ.
Use the transfer function approach to obtain the same relation.
(a) First, express F(x), the x-dependency of the wave, after the slit using Fourier
transform.
(b) Apply the transfer function (15).
x
(c) Express the resultant function as a function of θ = for z approaching
z
infinity,
F(x) H(νx)F(x)
z=0 z→∞
4. Find all possible directions of the diffracted beams when the planar grating, shown in
Figure 2, is illuminated at an angle θ/2 from the normal. The grating is created by the
interference of two waves shown in Figure 1.
5. Prove the Bragg condition Eq(20).
6. Design a holographic converging lens of focal length f for wavelength λ. Specify the
fringe spacing as a function of position in the plane of the hologram.