1

Boundary Layer Theory

1 Introduction
Consider the steady flow of a viscous fluid. The governing equations based on length
scale L and velocity scale U is given by
1 2
∇ · v = 0, (∇v)v = −∇p + ∇v
Re
For small Re we have Stokes flow. We consider boundary layer theory when Re is
large.

2 D’Alembert’s Paradox
Consider a cylinder of length L kept in a inviscid irrotational flow. We consider a

cylinder of radius R with an imposed velocity U e1 far from the cylinder. Since fluid
can not penetrate the surface, we have

vr (r, θ) = 0
 2

Since the flow is irrotational, we have ∇ ∧ v = 0 and thus we can write v = −∇φ.
Using continuity equation we get

∇2 φ = 0

which in cylindrical coordinate gives

1 ∂2φ
 
1 ∂ ∂φ
r + 2 2 =0
r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ
The boundary condition is φ → −U x as r → ∞ or

φ → −U r cos θ as r → ∞

At the surface of the cylinder we have


∂φ 
=0
∂r r=R
Let us assume the solution as φ = f (r) cos θ which gives
 
1 d df 1
r − 2f = 0
r dr dr r
Taking f (r) = rn we obtain
 
B
f (r) = Ar + cos θ
r
Applying the boundary conditions at ∞ and on the surface we get A = −U B=
−U R2 and hence
R2
 
φ = −U r+ cos θ
r
The velocity components are given by
R2
 
∂φ
vr (r, θ) = − =U 1 − 2 cos θ
∂r r
R2
 
1 ∂φ
vθ (r, θ) = − = −U 1 + 2 sin θ
r ∂θ r
To find the pressure on the cylinder we square and the above two relations at r = R
to get
v 2 (R, θ) = 4U 2 sin2 θ

Now we use the Bernoulli’s equation. Since the flow is irrotational, the constant is
same everywhere in the fluid and we have
1 1
p + ρv 2 (R, θ) = p∞ + ρU 2
2 2
 3

and hence the pressure on the surface is

1
p = p∞ + ρU 2 (1 − 4 sin2 θ)
2
Due to symmetric nature of the pressure, the total drag on the cylinder is zero.

3 Boundary layer concept

Consider the following model problem for f (y):

f 00 + f 0 = a f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1

where a > 0 and  is small positive parameter. The exact solution satisfying the
boundary conditions are
1−a
f = ay + −1/
(1 − e−y/ )
1−e
Let f = O(1) i.e. y is not small then

f ∼ ay + 1 − a = fo (y)

This solution (outer solution) is valid away from zero. This could have been obtained
by setting  = 0 and using the boundary conditions at y = 1. However it does not
satisfy the boundary condition at y = 0.
For y near 0 we introduce y = Y so Y = O(1) when y is small. Introducing into
the governing equations we get

f 00 + f 0 = a

where f = f (Y ). Again ignoring the a term we get

f = A(1 − e−Y ) = A(1 − e−y/ ) = fi

This is called inner solution which satisfy the boundary conditions at y = 0.

Thus we have a solution which satisfy the boundary condition at y = 0 and
another solution which satisfy the boundary condition at y = 1. We use matching
condition to find the constant A. The matching condition is

lim fi = lim fo
Y →∞ y→0
 4

This gives A = (1 − a) and thus

fi = (1 − a)(1 − e−Y )

If we plot the fi , fo and the exact solution, then we find that fi performs well near
y = 0 and fo performes well away from zero. The key feature of the above problem
is the development of a thin region near y = 0 where there is a rapid change in the
feature of the solution. In this thin region it is not appropriate to drop the f 00 term.
This thin region near y = 0 is called boundary layer for the above model problem.
Very much similar characteristics developed for high speed Re  1. We may
neglect the ∇2 v/Re term in most part of the flow but must kept near the surface of
the body where there is a boundary layer and this term is no longer negligible.

4 The boundary layer equations

First consider the classical problem of fluid streaming at high speed over a plate.
The flow is steady and the external stream consists of fluid velocity U x̂. Let L be
y

x
L

the characteristic length scale and the Reynolds number Re = U L/ν is very large.
We thus anticipate that the term ∇2 v/Re will be important in a thin boundary layer
δ(x) above the plate. We aim to derive the equations valid in the boundary layer
based on the estimate of the order of the quantities. Since u varies from 0 at the flat
plate to U in the external stream we assume that u ∼ U . Changes in the boundary
layer is expected at a length scale L parallel to axis of x and δ(x) perpendicular to
the plate. Thus x ∼ L and y ∼ δ. Thus
∂ 1 ∂ 1
∼ , ∼
∂x L ∂y δ
 5

Let V be the typical size for v. Hence from the continuity equations we get
∂u ∂v U V δ
+ =0⇒ ∼ ⇒V ∼ U
∂x ∂y L δ L
Now consider the x-momentum equation.

uux + vuy = −px /ρ + ν(uxx + uyy )

Thus using the above arguments

 
U δ U U U
U + U ∼ −px + ν 2
+ 2
L L δ L δ
Now according to Prandtl’s hyposthesis
∂2u
uux ∼ ν
∂y 2
and thus 1/2
U2

νU δ νU
∼ 2 ⇒ ∼ ⇒ δ ∼ L(Re)−1/2
L δ L L
So the thickness of the boundary layer is O(Re−1/2 ) which is very small since Re  1.
Also it is clear that at the most

p/(ρL) ∼ U 2 /L ⇒ p ∼ ρU 2

So retaining the dominant term in the x−momentum equation we have

uux + vuy = −px /ρ + νuyy

Next we consider the y-momentum equations. We have uvx ∼ U V /L = U 2 δ/L2 and

vvy ∼ V 2 /δ = U 2 δ/L2 . Also py = ρU 2 /δ. Thus

uvx ∼ vvy ∼ U 2 δ/L2  ρU 2 /δ

Also
1 δ U2
νvxx ∼ νV /L2 = νδU/L3 =  ρU 2 /δ
Re L L
and
1
νvyy ∼ νV /δ 2 = 2
δU 2  ρU 2 /δ
Reδ
2
where due to Prandtl’s hypothesis Reδ = O(1). Hence the y-momentum equation
reduces to just
py
=0
ρ
 6

This states that the pressure does not vary across the boundary layer. Thus the
Prandtl’s boundary layer equations are

ux + v y = 0
px
uux + vuy = − + νuyy
ρ
py = 0

The boundary condition include no-slip at the plate and we must match the free
stream velocity. Thus

u = v = 0 at y = 0, u→U as y → ∞

The same derivation will hold even if the free strem is U (x)x̂ i.e. non-uniform. Now
can determine px term as follows. Taking y → ∞ in the x-momentum equation we
get
px = −ρU Ux

where the external stream U is determined from the invscid theory.

5 Blasius’ solution
In this case external stream U is constant and hence px = 0. The governing equations
become

ux + vy = 0
uux + vuy = νuyy

The boundary condition include no-slip at the plate and we must match the free
stream velocity. Thus

u = v = 0 at y = 0, u→U as y → ∞

The boundary conditions hold for x > 0 i.e. at the plate.

We seek a similarity solution for the above problem. To motivate this note
the the x-momentum equation in the boundary layer is parabolic i.e. there is no
upstream influence. First we show that the length scale L does not appears in the
solution of the problem. For the moment suppose that the length of the plate is
of finite length L. For a point with coordinate x, the solution does not affected by
 7

what is happening further downstream (due to parabolic nature of the flow). Thus
the oncoming flow is ignorant about the length L. We have shown that
L
δ∼√
Re
But since δ does not depend on L and [x] = [L], we replace L by x
 1/2
Ux
δ∼
ν
Now since inside the boundary layer y ∼ δ we get
1/2
√

Ux
y∼δ∼ i.e. y ∼ x
ν
Thus we look for solution in terms of a single variable η as
 1/2
U
η= y
2νx
Let us assume that
u = U f 0 (η)

Introducing stream function ψ we get

√
ψ(x, η) = 2νxU f (η)

Hence   r
∂ψ ∂ψ ∂ψ ∂η νU
v=− =− + = (ηf 0 − f )
∂x ∂x ∂η ∂x 2x
Putting into the x-momentum equation we finally obtain

f 000 + f f 00 = 0

The boundary conditions are

f = f 0 = 0 at η = 0 f 0 → 1 as η → ∞

Thus we have a nonlinear third order differential equations with three boundary
conditions. Thus the solution is completely determined.
The above equation can be solved numerically for example using shooting method.
For this let us apply Runge-Kutta method. Instead of solving the boundary value
problem, an initial value problem with values f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0 and an estimated
value f 00 (0) = fe00 is solved. The estimated value fe00 is changed until the bondary
 8

condition f 0 (∞) = 1 is satisfied. In practice this condition is satisfied at position

with finite but large enough η value (η = 5 gives a deviation from 1 of less than
10−4 .
Suppose we want to calculate the friction drag D in the x-direction on a portion
of the plate of length L. To do this we first calculate
  1/2
∂u  U
σ12 |y=0 = µ =µ f 00 (0)
∂y y=0 2νx

Thus Z L

∂u  p
D= µ dx = U 2µρU Lf 00 (0)
0 ∂y y=0
If the width of the plate is b, then the above expression is multiplied by b.
Boundary layer thickness: There is no unique boundary layer thickness since the
effect of the viscosity in the boundary layer decreases asymptotically as we move
outwards from the wall. If we defined the boundary layer thickness to be the position
where u = 0.99U , the we find that η99 = 3.6. Therefore the boundary layer thickness
defined in this way is r
νx
δ99 ≈ 5.0
U
Displacement thickness:
By this we understand the thickness by which the inviscid outer flow is displaced
outwards by the drop in the velocity in the boundary layer. The reduction in volume
flux due to the action of viscosity is
Z ∞
(U − u)dy
0

and thus the defining equation for displacement thickness δ1 is

Z ∞ Z ∞
u
U δ1 = (U − u)dy or δ1 = (1 − )dy
0 0 U
Thus we have r ∞
Z r
2νx 0 νx
δ1 = [1 − f (η)] dη ≈ 1.72
U 0 U
(Note: We can define the displament thickness from other argument as well. Let
χ is at a great distance from the wall so that the velocity at y = χ is U . Let us
calculate volume flux Q between y = 0 and y = χ. Now Q is less than U χ since
near the wall u < U . Thus we defined δ1 such that
Z χ Z χ
U (χ − δ1 ) = Q = udy or δ1 = (1 − u/U )dy
0 0
 9

Taking limit of χ → ∞ we obatin the same result.)

Momentum thickness of boundary layer:
The momentum thickness δ2 is defined similarly. The momentum between y = 0
and y = χ is Z χ
M= ρu2 dy = ρU 2 (χ − δ ∗ )
0
Hence for a fluid of constant density
Z χ
∗
δ = (1 − u2 /U 2 )dy
0

The momentum thickness δ2 is defined by

Z χ
∗ u u
δ2 = δ − δ1 = (1 − )dy
0 U U
and we let χ → ∞.
(Note: We can define the momentum thickness from other argument as well. The
mass flux for a fluid in a small area perpendicular to x-direction is ρudy. The loss
of momentum fluix for this is ρu(U − u)dy. And thus the total loss of momentum is
Z ∞
ρu(U − u) dy
0

The momentum thickness is defined by

Z ∞ Z ∞
2 u u
ρU δ2 = ρu(U − u) dy or δ2 = (1 − )dy
0 0 U U
Thus we arrive at the same equation.)
The momentum thickness for the Blasius’ solution is
r
2νx ∞ 0
Z r
0 νx
δ2 = f (1 − f ) dη ≈ 0.664
U 0 U
Energy thickness of boundary layer:
Energy thickness δ3 is defined by
Z ∞
3
ρU δ3 = ρu(U 2 − u2 ) dy
0

or ∞
u2
Z
u
δ3 = (1 − 2 )dy
0 U U
For Blasius’ solution we have
r
2νx ∞ 0
Z r
02 νx
δ3 = f (1 − f ) dη ≈ 1.044
U 0 U
 10

6 Falkner-Skan solutions
The Blasious solution is a special case of a broader class of solutions known as
Falkner-Skan solutions. For this consider the outer stream of the general form U (x).
We seek a solution of the form

ψ = U (x)g(x)f (η), n = y/g(x)

By an analogy with the Blasius solution, g(x) represents the thickness of the bound-
ary layer. The boundary layer equations to be solved are

ψy ψxy − ψx ψyy = U Ux + νψyyy

with boundary conditions

ψ = ψy = 0 at y = 0; ψy → U (x) as y → ∞

Now
u = ψx = U f 0 , −v = ψx = (U g)x f − ηU gx f 0

Similarly
1
ψyy = U f 00 /g, ψyyy = U f 000 /g 2 , ψxy = [(U g)x f 0 − U gx (ηf 00 + f 0 )]
g
Substituting into the boundary layer x−momentum equation we get

f 000 + αf f 00 + β(1 − f 02 ) = 0

where
να = g(U g)x , νβ = g 2 Ux

Thus f will satisfy an ordinary differential equations provided α and β are constant.
Otherwise the equations depend on x and η. Hence we assume that α and β. Now

(g 2 U )x = 2g(gU )x − g 2 Ux = ν(2α − β)

If 2α = β then g 2 U = constant = νC. Hence

g 2 Ux
= β/C ⇒ U = Beβx/C
g2U
where B is a constant. These type of flows are of no physical interest. Hence we
consider the cases in which 2α − β 6= 0. Then

(g 2 U )x = ν(2α − β) ⇒ g 2 U = ν(2α − β)x

 11

where we can choose the constant of intergration equal to zero by shifting the origin.
Now
g2U β λ  x λ
= = ⇒ U = U0
g 2 Ux (2α − β)x x L
where U (x = L) = U0 . Now
 1/2  
2 ν(2α − β)L x (1−λ)/2
g Ux = νβ ⇒ g =
U0 L

If α = 1 then
2λ
β=
λ+1
and the Falkner-Skan solutions are given by
 x λ  1/2  1/2
λ+1 U
U = U0 , η= y
L 2 νx
 1/2
2
ψ= (U νx)1/2 f (η)
λ+1
where f satisfies
f 000 + f f 00 + β(1 − f 02 ) = 0

with
f = f 0 = 0 at η = 0 f 0 → 1 as η → ∞

7 Inviscid flow in a sector

Using complex theory, consider the complex potential

F (z) = φ + iψ = U z n

Substituting z = reiθ we get get

φ = U rn cos(nθ), ψ = U rn sin(nθ)

From this it is evident that ψ = 0 when θ = 0, π/n. Now

u − iv = U nz n−1 = (nU rn−1 cos(nθ) + inU rn−1 sin(nθ))e−iθ

Decomposing u, v into ur and uθ componets we get

u = ur cos θ − uθ sin θ, v = ur sin θ + uθ cos θ

 12

Thus
u − iv = (ur − iuθ )e−iθ

Hence comparing we get

ur = nU rn−1 cos(nθ), uθ = −nU rn−1 sin(nθ)

From ψ and uθ expressions, it is clear that θ = 0, π/n constitutes the sector. Also
for 0 < θ < π/2n, ur is positive and for π/2n < θπ/n, ur is positive. uθ remains
negative throughout.

8 Falkner-Skan solutions contd.

Note that for
F (z) = cz γ+1

we have

ur = (γ + 1)U rγ cos((γ + 1)θ), uθ = −(γ + 1)U rγ sin((γ + 1)θ)

Since
u = ur cos θ − uθ sin θ, v = ur sin θ + uθ cos θ

we say that near y = 0, θ is near 0 and hence we have

u ∼ ur , v ∼ 0

i.e. uniform flow along the x−direction. For y = 0 we get

u = (γ + 1)U xγ , v = 0

[Note: The u-velocity is uniform and function of x and v = 0 near y = 0. Away

from x axis both u and v could be of comparable magnitude.]
To find the angle of the wedge 2φ corresponding to the flow
 x λ
U = U0
L
we note that
λπ
2φ + 2π/(λ + 1) = 2π ⇒ φ =
λ+1
In the special case of λ = 0 we recover the Blasius solution discussed before.
 13

y
x

















 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

























































































π/(λ+1)





















































































































































































For λ = 1 we have φ = π/2 which is the stagnation point flow. Now β = 1 and
the equations are
f 000 + f f 00 + 1 − f 02 = 0

subject to
f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (∞) = 1

In this case g(x) is constant and hence the boundary layer has constant thickness.
Boundary layer flow in a convergent channel:
If we take α = 0 and β = 1 then we have

(g 2 U )x = −ν, g 2 Ux = ν

Thus we get
1 C
Ux /U = − ⇒U =−
x x
For C > 0 we get
p
g= ν/Cx

The solution for U corresponds to potential flow in a convergent channel. It corre-

sponds to
F (z) = −C log z

Thus the solution obtained here corresponds to a boundary layer on the wall of a
convergent channel. For C < 0, solution for g is not possible. Thus boundary layer
in a divergent channel separate (more later) due to the adverse pressure gradient.
 14

Thus for α = 0, β = 1 and C > 0 we get

f 000 + 1 − f 02 = 0

subject to
f (0) = f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (∞) = 1

Introduce f 0 = F , then
F 00 = F 2 − 1

The boundary condition on F is that F (0) = 0 and F 0 (∞) = 1. Its solution is given
by n √ p 
f 0 = F = 3 tanh2 η/ 2 + tanh−1 2/3 − 2

9 Flow separation
We have seen that in the boundary layer ∂p/∂y = 0 thus variation of pressure with x
in the boundary layer must be that of outer stream i.e. p(x) = po (x). Thus pressure
is impressed on the boundary layer from outside.
Let us consider the boundary layer equation. Since u = v = 0 at y = 0 we have
 2 
1 dpo ∂ u
=
µ dx ∂y 2 y=0

Thus at the body surface ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 has the same sign as that of dpo /dx. On the other
hand, in the exterior edge of the boundary layer, we must have ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 < 0 since
∂ 2 u/∂y 2 → 0 from below as the profile matches smoothly with the exterior flow.
At an x−station with favourable pressure gradient (dpo /dx < 0) has ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 < 0
throghout the boundary layer. On the other hand, for x−station with adverse
pressure gradient (dpo /dx > 0) it has an inflexion point between the crossover of
∂ 2 u/∂y 2 < 0 and ∂ 2 u/∂y 2 > 0.
Note the pressure on a cylinder is in a uniform stream is given by
1
p = p∞ + ρU 2 (1 − 4 sin2 θ)
2
Thus pressure is maximum at θ = 0, π and minimum at θ = π/2, 3π/2. Thus betwen
θ = π and θ = π/2 we have favourable pressure gradient and between π/2 < θ < 0
unfavourable. Similar characteristic observed for a flow over a blunt body. As one
 15

dpo/dx > 0
dpo/dx < 0
y y

uo uo

u u

proceeds along the further along the boundary layer, the profile becomes so distorted
that we have  
∂u
=0
∂y y=0

at the surface at the point of separation (point S in the figure). Beyond the sepa-
ration point we have recirculation and the boundary layer becomes thicker. Thus
boundary layer approximation becomes invalid after the separation.

10 Approximate solution of boundary layer eq.

In the previos discussion about the solutions of boundary layer, the solutions ob-
tained are all exact in the sense that a similarity form reduce the problem to a nonlin-
ear ordinary differential equations that could be solved to a high degree of accuracy.
For the cases where exact solutions does not exist, we sought approximate solutions
of the problem. One of the classical method widely used is Kármán-Pohlhausen
method.
 16

The boundary layer equations are

ux + vy = 0
uux + vuy = U Ux + νuyy

Usually we find a functional form of solution which satisfy these equations at each
point in space. If such a solution can not be found, it might be possible to satisfy
these equations on the average rather than at each point of the space. Thus if
the momentum boundary layer equations is integrated with respect to y across
the boundary layer, then the resulting equation represnt balance between average
intertia and average viscous forces for each x−station. Then a velocity distribution
may be found which that satisfies this average balance of forces but that does not
satisfy the balance at each point across the boundary layer.

10.1 General momentum integral

Performaing manipulation of the uux term the boundary layer equations can be
written as

ux + v y = 0
(u2 )x + (uv)y = U Ux + νuyy

Integrating the momentum equation across the boundary layer and using the BCs
∂u ∂u
u(x, 0) = 0, u(x, δ) = U, µ (x, 0) = τ0 , (x, δ) = 0
∂y ∂y

(where τ0 is the surface shear stress) gives

Z δ Z δ
2 τ0
(u )x dy + U v(x, δ) = Ux U dy −
0 0 ρ
Note that since U is a function of x, it can be taken outside the integral. Integrating
the continuity equation we get
Z δ
∂u
v(x, δ) = − dy
0 ∂x
and hence we get
Z δ Z δ Z δ
2 τ0
(u )x dy − U ux dy = Ux U dy −
0 0 0 ρ
 17

Using Leibnitz’s rule, we get

Z δ Z δ Z δ
d 2 2 dδ d 2 dδ τ0
(u ) dy − U −U u dy + +U = Ux U dy −
dx 0 dx dx 0 dx 0 ρ
or Z δ Z δ Z δ
d 2 d τ0
(u ) dy − U u dy = Ux U dy −
dx 0 dx 0 0 ρ
Rewriting the second integral the momentum integral equation becomes
Z δ Z δ
dU δ dU δ
Z Z
d 2 d τ0
(u ) dy − U u dy + u dy = U dy −
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0 dx 0 ρ
or combining terms we get
Z δ
dU δ
Z
d τ0
u(U − u) dy + (U − u) dy =
dx 0 dx 0 ρ

or replacing δ by ∞ (since the integrand is zero for y > δ)

 Z ∞  Z ∞
d 2 u u dU u τ0
U (1 − ) dy + U (1 − ) dy =
dx 0 U U dx 0 U ρ

Introducing displacement and momentum thickness we get

d dU τ0
(U 2 δ2 ) + U δ1 =
dx dx ρ
For any assumed form of the velocity profile across the boundary we can calculate
δ1 , δ2 and τ0 from their definitions. Then the above equation will provide ODE for
the boundary layer thickness.

10.2 Kármán-Pohlhausen approximation

The velocity profile is represented by a fourth order polynomial. Let η = y/δ(x)
and
u/U = a + bη + cη 2 + dη 3 + eη 4

The coefficient are in general function of x. The boundary conditions are

∂u
u(x, 0) = 0, u(x, δ) = U (x), (x, δ) = 0
∂y
∂2u U (x) dU ∂ 2 u
= − , (x, δ) = 0
∂y 2 ν dx ∂y 2
 18

In terms of u/U and η these BCs become

∂ 2 (u/U ) δ 2 dU
u/U = 0, = − = −Λ(x), on η = 0
∂η 2 ν dx
∂(u/U ) ∂ 2 (u/U )
u/U = 1, = = 0 on η = 1
∂η ∂η 2
Imposing the boundary conditions we get

0 = a
−Λ = 2c
1 = a+b+c+d+e
0 = b + 2c + 3d + 4e
0 = 2c + 6d + 12d

The solution is given by

a = 0, b = 2 + Λ/6, c = −Λ/2, d = −2 + Λ/2, e = 1 − Λ/6

Thus we can write the velocity profile in the form

Λ
u/U = (2η − 2η 3 + η 4 ) + (η − 3η 2 + 3η 3 − η 4 )
6
or
Λ
u/U = 1 − (1 + η)(1 − η)3 + η(1 − η)3 = F (η) + ΛG(η)
6
The function F and G are shown in the figure. F is a monotonic increasing function
and ranges from zero at η = 0 to one at η = 1. On the other hand, G increases from
zero at η = 0 to a maximum of 0.017 approximately at η = 0.25 and then decreases
to zero at η = 1.
For Λ = 0, the plot of u/U provides the velocity profile representation by a
fourth order polynomial over a flat surfrace. For values of Λ > 12 we observe that
u/U > 1 which is not physically possible. Thus Λ < 12. Also for Λ < −12 we
observe u/U < 0 i.e. reverse flow. Although reverse flow occurs in reality, the
assumption of boundary layer theory is not valid. Hence we require that

−12 < Λ(x) < 12

Next we calculate the boundary layer thicknesses and the shear stress on the surface.
Thus Z 1  
3 Λ
δ1 = δ (1 − u/U ) dy = δ −
0 10 20
 19

1
57G(t)
F(t)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

and 1
Λ2
Z  
u 37 Λ
δ2 = δ (1 − u/U ) dy = δ − −
0 U 315 945 9072
The surface shear stress is given by
  
µU ∂(u/U )  µU Λ
τ0 = = 2+
δ ∂η η=0 δ 6

In the above expression boundary layer thickness δ(x) is still unknown. Now the
momentum integral is written as
U δ2 dδ2 δ2 dU τ0 δ2
+ (2δ2 + δ1 ) =
ν dx ν dx µU
or
δ22 δ22 dU
   
1 d δ1 τ0 δ2
U + 2+ =
2 dx ν δ2 ν dx µU
 20

Note that the nondimensional pressure parameter is

δ 2 dU δ22 dU δ22
Λ(x) = ⇒ = 2Λ
ν dx ν dx δ
Using the previous result we get
2
δ22 dU Λ2

37 Λ
= − − Λ = K(x)
ν dx 315 945 9072

From the expression of δ1 and δ2 we get

3 Λ


δ1 10
− 20
= 37 Λ Λ2

= f (K)
δ2 315
− 945
− 9072

Note that δ1 /δ2 is a function of Λ and hence function of x. Also K in the previous
expression is function of x. Hence we can treat δ1 /δ2 as function of K.
From the expression of τ0 and δ2 we get

Λ2
  
τ0 δ2 Λ 37 Λ
= 2+ − − = g(K)
µU 6 315 945 9072

Substituting these results into the momentum integral equations we get

1 d δ22
 
U + [2 + f (K)] K = g(K)
2 dx ν

Introduce Z = δ 2 /ν as new dependent variavle and noting that

dU
δ 2 /ν =K
dx
we get K = ZdU/dX. Thus we have

dZ
U = 2[g(K) − (2 + f (K))K] = H(K)
dx
where H(K) and K are both functions of Λ. For a given value of Λ we can cal-
culate K and H(K). Thus we can plot H(K) against K. The function H(K) is
approximately linear over the range of interest and we approximate H(K) by

H(K) = 0.47 − 6K

Hence we get
dZ dU d
U = 0.47 − 6K = 0.47 − 6Z ⇒ (ZU 6 ) = 0.47U 5
dx dx dx
 21

Thus momentum integral reduces to

Z x
0.47
Z(x) = 6 U (ζ)5 dζ
U 0

This gives Z x
0.47ν
δ22 = U (ζ)5 dζ
U6 0
The above method is applied to the boundary layer flow as follows. First we solved
the potential flow problem to yield the outer velocity U (x). This U is used in the
equation just derived to find δ2 . Next the pressure parameter Λ is obtained from
2
δ22 dU Λ2

37 Λ
= − − Λ
ν dx 315 945 9072

Having obtained Λ, we use

Λ2
 
37 Λ
δ2 = δ − −
315 945 9072

to find δ and  
3 Λ
δ1 = δ −
10 20
to find δ1 . Next we compute u/U and surface shear stress. In practice it is difficult
to find Λ for a given U (x) unless Λ is a constant. It is therefore much simpler to
choose specific function Λ(x) and use the above equation to find U (x). The shape
of the boundary will be fixed by U (x).
As an application consider the flow over a flat surface in which U is a constant.
The integral for δ2 gives
νx
δ22 = 0.47
U
Since U is constant Λ = 0. We also have
37
δ2 = δ
315
Thus combining the last two equations we get δ. We also obatined δ1 and τ0 . These
values compare favourably with the exact solutions.