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ABSTRACT

The main aim of this experiment was to determine pipe friction factors and resistance
coefficients and to show how the friction factor varies with Reynolds number by
manipulating the flow rate of the fluid in a pipe. The major principle used in the experiment
was the Bernoulli’s equation, taking major head losses into account and minor losses in
negligible. These major losses were normally due to the wall friction in the pipe and viscous
forces between layers in a fluid.

There were lot of sources of errors in this experiment such as systematic errors, human errors,
equipment limitations and some other factors that were not taken into consideration during
analysis of the data. The main errors involved human and equipment limitations, which
caused the data points obtained to vary from the theoretical values. Examples, the calculated
difference head loss (1) and head loss (2) theoretically should be the same with the reading of
differential pressure directly from the equipment.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this experiment, the pressure loss, or the head loss, for a flow subject to friction will be
determined experimentally. With turbulent pipe flow, where the flow is considered steady at
Reynolds’ numbers of Re > 2320, pressure loss is proportional to the length of the pipe,
coefficient of pipe friction, density, and square of the flow speed .

As the pipe diameter decreases, the pressure loss will increases and calculated as follows:

f l 2
PV  ρv
2 D

The associated head loss is calculated as follows

f  l v2
hv 
D 2 g

For turbulent pipe flow (Re > 2320), the pipe friction coefficient, f depends on two factors
which are pipe roughness,ɛ and Reynolds number Re. Pipe roughness,ɛ, defines a measure of
pipe wall irregularities of commercial pipes.

Table 1 shows the commercial values roughness of pipes and Figure 2 is a Moody’s chart
which sows the relationship between Re, and ɛ and the wall roughness, is related to the pipe
diameter,D .

Pipe Equivalent Roughness, ɛ


Feet Millimetre
Riveted steel 0.003-0.03 0.9-9.0
Concrete 0.001-0.01 0.3-3.0
Wood stave 0.0006-0.003 0.18-0.9
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.0005 0.15
Commercial steel or 0.00015 0.045
wrought iron
Drawn tubing 0.000005 0.0015
Plastic, glass 0.0(smooth) 0.0(smooth)
Table 1: Equivalent Roughness for New pipe

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Figure 1: Moody’s Chart

The Reynolds number,Re is calculated from the pipe diameter, D, flow speed, υ, and
kinematic viscosity, v

D
Re=
v

The flow speed, v is calculated from the volumetric flow V, and the diameter of cross-
sectional pipe.

4V
v=
D 2

For hydraulically smooth pipes (Re < 65 ɛ/D) and a Reynolds number in the range of
2320<Re<100,000 the pipe friction coefficient is calculated using the Blassius formula

0.3164
f= 4
Re

For pipes in the transition range to rough pipe (6.5 d/k <Re< 1300 d/k), the range below the
limit curve in the diagram, the pipe friction coefficient is calculated according to Colebrook

3

1 2.51
= -2log( D + )
1 f 3.7 Re f

or Moody’s formula

200k s 106 1 / 3
f = 0.001375[1+ + ]
d Re

It is an implicit formula that has to be iteratively resolved.First of all estimate f ,place it in the
formula and calculate an initial approximation.

Temperature in ˚C Kinematic viscosity in 10-6 m2/s


10 1.297
11 1.261
12 1.227
13 1.194
14 1.163
15 1.134
16 1.106
17 1.079
18 1.055
19 1.028
20 1.004
21 0.980
22 0.957
23 0.935
24 0.914
25 0.894
26 0.875
27 0.856
28 0.837
29 0.812
30 0.801
Table 2: Kinematic viscosity of water as a function of temperature

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2.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this experiment is to determine pipe friction factors and resistance
coefficient

3.0 THEORY

In this experiment, the theory used is the loss of energy and total head of fluid due to the
frictional resistance of real or viscous fluid. In fully developed straight pipe flow, energy loss
or head losses occurs due to wall friction. These losses are usually known as the major head
losses. To calculate this major head losses, formula used is
𝑓.𝑙 𝑣 2
ℎ= -----------(1)
𝐷 2.𝑔

4.0 APPARATUS

Figure 2: Equipment layout

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1 Steel pipe 3 PVC pipe 5 Enlargement in cross-section

2 Copper pipe 4 Contraction in cross-section

Figure 3: Pipe fixed section

5.0 METHODOLOGY

Before commencing the experiment:

1. Experimental unit were placed on a flat surface and secure against rolling away
(brake).
2. Water tank was filled up and power supply connected.
5.1 Leak test
Before starting up the experiment, a leak test was performed on the experimental unit.

The procedure was as follows:

1. The tightness of self-closing measuring glands was checked and possible particles are
removed.
2. Pipe section was connected to the feeding and return hose.
3. Return valve was opened and pump is switched on.
4. Reducing valve was opened slowly and the pipe section is bleed.
5. The pressure was increased slowly by closing the return valve.
6. All lines, hoses and connections are checked carefully for leaks and procedures were
repeated for all pipe sections

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Figure 4: Two-tube manometer

5.2 Two tube manometer


The two-tube manometer allows both differential pressures and excess pressures to be
measured in mm column of water; excess pressures can be converted into absolute pressures
considering the atmospheric air pressure.

1. The measuring range is 0 - 680 mm column of water.


2. The manometer comprises two glass level tubes (1) with a metal mm scale behind
them.
3. The two-level tubes were connected at the top and have a common bleed valve (2).
4. The differential pressure was measured with the bleed valve closed and the excess
pressure with the bleed valve open.
5. The measuring points were connected to the bottom of the level tubes using quick
action hose couplings (3).
6. Each level tube has a drain valve (4) at the bottom.

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Figure 5: An illustration about differential pressure in a manometer

5.2.1 Differential pressure measurement


Here the bleed valve was closed. An air cushion forms over the two columns of water with
the pressure. This means that the pressures to be measured p1 and p2 are

p1=pL + h1ρg

p2=pL + h2ρg

The differential pressure is then

∆p = p1 + p2 = pL - h1ρg - h2ρg

The pressure pL cancels out and the following is found.

Using the pressure,pL the zero point for the differential pressure measurement can be
adjusted.

h1  h2
For a maximum measuring range it is best to position the zero point or mean value in
2
hmax
the middle of the measuring scale .
2

h1  h2 hmax p1  p2  hmax
= =
2 2 2 g

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The pressure of the air cushion is therefore given as

p1  p2  hmax
pL 
2

Figure 6: An illustration about absolute pressure in manometer

5.2.2 Absolute pressure calculation


The bleed valve was opened and the excess pressure was measured to calculate the absolute
pressure. The pressure pL corresponds to the atmospheric air pressure,po. The height hm
between the measuring point and the zero point on the manometer also considered.

pabs  po  (h1  hmax ) g

5.3 Manometer connection and operation


1. Pipe section to feeding and return hose were connected.
2. Return valve were opened.
3. Manometer was connected to the pipe section to be measured using connecting hoses
then pump is switched on.
4. Pump was switched off, before changing the feeding and return hose to another
section pipe (for example section 1 to 2).
5. Step 1,2,3 and 4 were repeated for each section of pipe.

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Figure 7: Bleeding

5.3.1 Bleeding

1. Top of bleed valve was closed and both bottom drain valves were opened.
2. The reducing valve in the inlet of the pipe section is slowly opened to be measured.
Pipe section and connecting hoses were bled by the powerful flow of water.

When no more air bubbles were visible in the connecting hoses:

1. Return valve was closed.


2. Both bottom drain valves were slowly closed simultaneously. Both columns of water
need to be ensure rise evenly and there was no overflow between the level tubes.

Figure 8: An illustration about adjusting the reading point in manometer

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5.3.2 Adjusting the zero point
The zero point for the manometer should be in the middle of the scale to ensure the largest
possible measuring of range.

1. Pipe section drain was closed and the flow rate is equal to zero.
2. Level in the two measuring tubes was carefully adjusted at the same level using the
bleed valve.

Figure 9: An illustration about reading differential pressure

5.3.3 Performance of the measurement


The required flow rate was set using inlet valve. The return valve was fully opened during
this process.

The readings of differential pressure were taken as height difference between the two
columns of water.

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6.0 RESULTS

GALVANIZED STEEL
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
1.5 63.8 11.3 52.5 62.7
1.2 49 15 34 46.4
0.9 38.4 16.8 21.6 29.8
0.6 29 17.7 11.3 18.6
0.3 22.5 13.9 8.6 10.6

COPPER
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2 65 14 51 60
1.5 47 15 32 39.2
1.1 33 14 19 25.5
0.6 20 12 8 14.5
0.3 14 11 3 9.5

PVC 20 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2 63.5 16.5 47 51.1
1.5 44.5 16 28.5 34.5
1.1 31.5 14.5 17 22.7
0.6 18.5 11.5 7 12.5
0.3 13 10 3 8.8

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PVC 16 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
0.8 53..5 2.5 51 54.3
0.7 48 5.5 42.5 46.2
0.6 42 8.5 33.5 39.8
0.5 38.2 10.3 27.9 32.6
0.3 29 14.8 14.2 19.5

PVC 32 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2.5 55.5 50 5.5 11.5
2 47.5 43.8 3.7 9.6
1.5 38.5 36.5 2 7.7
1 30 29 1 6.4
0.6 24 23.5 0.5 5.6

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7.0 DISCUSSION

After the data was tabulated from the experiment, Reynolds’ number of each pipe was
determined. The equation is as follow:

Reynolds’ number:

Where kinematic viscosity is 0.894x10-6 m2/s when temperature is at 25°C.

Whereas friction factor for each pipe was calculated using three different method which is by
Moody’s Chart, Blassius formula and Colebrook equations.

1. Galvanised steel, ½”

Diameter = 0.0127m
Relative roughness = 0.00015

V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook


number (m) chart, f Formula, Formula, Formula, f
f
1.5 46737 1.790 0.0413 0.0040 0.0215 0.0413
1.2 37361 1.150 0.0415 0.0043 0.0228 0.0415
0.9 27985 0.650 0.0420 0.0047 0.0245 0.0420
0.6 18751 0.300 0.0428 0.0053 0.0270 0.0428
0.3 9375 0.080 0.0452 0.0066 0.0322 0.0452

2. Copper, 18×1
Diameter = 0.018m
Relative roughness = 0.00008
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
Number, Re (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2.0 55131 0.592 0.0244 0.0037 0.0206 0.0244
1.5 41348 0.345 0.0253 0.0040 0.0222 0.0253
1.1 30362 0.195 0.0265 0.0045 0.0240 0.0265
0.6 16579 0.065 0.0295 0.0054 0.0279 0.0294
0.3 8189 0.018 0.0343 0.0068 0.0333 0.0343

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3. PVC, 20×1.5

Diameter = 0.02m
Relative roughness = 0.000075
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2 51997 0.265 0.0221 0.0038 0.0210 0.0221
1.5 39051 0.157 0.0233 0.0041 0.0225 0.0233
1.1 28651 0.090 0.0247 0.0045 0.0243 0.0248
0.6 15493 0.031 0.0283 0.0055 0.0284 0.0283
0.3 7852 0.009 0.0335 0.0070 0.0336 0.0335

4. PVC, 16×1.5

Diameter = 0.016m
Relative roughness = 0.00009
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
0.8 28484 0.351 0.0252 0.0045 0.0244 0.0251
0.7 24923 0.268 0.0259 0.0048 0.0252 0.0259
0.6 21363 0.197 0.0267 0.0050 0.0262 0.0267
0.5 17803 0.137 0.0278 0.0053 0.0274 0.0278
0.3 4644 0.049 0.0388 0.0083 0.0383 0.0388

5. PVC, 32×1.5

Diameter = 0.032m
Relative roughness = 0.00005
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2.5 39078 0.051 0.0229 0.0041 0.0225 0.0229
2.0 31333 0.033 0.0239 0.0044 0.0237 0.0239
1.5 23588 0.019 0.0255 0.0048 0.0255 0.0255
1.0 15490 0.008 0.0281 0.0055 0.0284 0.0281
0.6 9505 0.003 0.0317 0.0065 0.0320 0.0317

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From the results of the experiment, we can conclude that pressure and head losses is
influenced by frictional effect in the pipe. The friction loss n a uniform, straight sections of
pipe, known as "major loss", is caused by the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid
molecules against each other or against the (possibly rough) wall of the pipe. This frictional
effect would contributes to power loss or energy loss.
The friction loss In a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as "major loss", is caused by
the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules against each other or against the
(possibly rough) wall of the pipe. Here, it is greatly affected by whether the flow is laminar
(Re < 2000) or turbulent (Re > 3000)
In laminar flow, losses are proportional to fluid velocity, V; that velocity varies smoothly
between the bulk of the fluid and the pipe surface, where it is zero. The roughness of the pipe
surface influences neither the fluid flow nor the friction loss.
In turbulent flow, losses are proportional to the square of the fluid velocity, V2; here, a layer
of chaotic eddies and vortices near the pipe surface, called the viscous sub-layer, forms the
transition to the bulk flow. In this domain, the effects of the roughness of the pipe surface
must be considered. It is useful to characterize that roughness as the ratio of the roughness
height ε to the pipe diameter D, the "relative roughness". Three sub-domains pertain to
turbulent flow:
1) In the smooth pipe domain, friction loss is relatively insensitive to roughness.
2) In the rough pipe domain, friction loss is dominated by relative roughness and insensitive
to Reynolds’ number
3) In the transition domain, friction loss is sensitive to both.
For Reynolds’ numbers 2000 < Re < 3000, the flow is unstable, varying with time as vortices
within the flow form and vanish randomly. This domain of flow is not well modeled, nor are
the details well understood.
By comparing the results obtained using different methods which were Blassius formula,
Colebrook-White equation and Moody’s formula, there were a slight deviation in the data. In
order to calculate the friction coefficient, some aspects need to be taken into consideration.
The calculations depends on the types of flow, such as laminar flow, transition between
laminar and turbulent flow and fully turbulent flow. Normally Blassius formula is vastly
practiced in calculating friction factors due to the fact that the formula itself is simple and
handy. This is because Blassius correlation has no term for pipe roughness and it is valid not
to only smooth pipes but also rough pipes.
However, there is a slight difference between the results obtained using Colebrook
equations and Moody’s formula. This is because Moody’s formula accuracy is about for
smooth pipes and for rough pipes.
All of the experiment have 5 readings. This is because of great difference in pressure given
by two tube manometer when the reading was taken. So optimum number of reading was
taken before pressure in either on tube approaches zero.

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Based on the experiment it is concluded that PVC pipe with the dimension of 32×1.5 give
the least head loss compared to other pipes. This is due to the fact that it has relatively lower
friction factor and bigger diameter. Head loss is proportional to friction factor whereas
inversely proportional to diameter

Errors and Recommendations:

Throughout this experiment several errors and mistakes have been made that slightly effect
the experiments results. The errors are as follow:
1. Presence of air bubbles in the tube as well as in pipe.
2. Parallax error due to incorrect position of eyes to the scale.
3. Water level in two tube manometer cannot be calibrated, it fluctuates heavily
The recommendations for these errors are as below:
1.Make sure no air bubble trapped in the tube or pipes.
2.Make sure position of the eye is perpendicular to the reading scale
3.Adjust the volumetric flow until it do not fluctuates or take the average reading.

8.0 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the experiment has met the objectives. Which is to study the pressure losses
due to viscous (frictional) effects in fluid flowing through different pipes. Also, parameter
that influencing head loss in pipes was identified successfully. The head loss is proportional
to the friction factor while inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe.

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REFERENCES

1) Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala (2010). Internal Flow. Fluid Mechanics: Fundamental
and Applications Second Edition in SI Units. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.340-370.

2) C. M. Megaridis and W. J. Minkowycz (August 2003). Experiment 5: Friction Loss in


Flow through Pipes. Fluid Mechanics Lab Manual. Chicago: Mechanical and Industrial
Engineering University of Illinois. Pp 1-8.

3) Madan Mohan Das (2008). Flow through Pipes. Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachine. New
Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. pp. 116 – 122
4)http://www.ajdesigner.com/php_colebrook/colebrook_equation.php#ajscroll

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APPENDICES
For galvanized steel pipe 𝟏/𝟐"

4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2

1.2𝑚3
4( )

𝑣=
𝜋(0.0127𝑚2 )2

v = 9472.92 m/h

= 2.63 m/s
m
vD [(2.63 )(0.0127 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.894x 10−6 )
s

= 37361

𝜖 (0.15 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0127 m)

= 0.0118

From Moody Chart, we obtain 𝑓 = 0.0415

𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD

m 2
(0.0415)(1m)(2.63 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.0127 m)
s

= 1.15 m

By applying Blassius formula,𝑓 = 0.0228

By applying Colebrook formula, 𝑓 = 0.0415

By applying Moody’s formula, 𝑓 = 0.0043

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For copper, 18x1

4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2

2𝑚3
4( )

𝑣=
𝜋(0.016𝑚2 )2

v = 2.76 m/s
m
vD [(2.76 )(0.016 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s

= 55131

𝜖 (0.02 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.016 m)

= 1.25x10-3

From Moody Chart, we obtain 𝑓 = 0.0244

𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD

m 2
(0.0244)(1m)(2.76 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.016 m)
s

= 0.592m

By applying Blassius formula,𝑓 = 0.0206

By applying Colebrook formula, 𝑓 = 0.0244

By applying Moody’s formula, 𝑓 = 0.0037

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For PVC 20x1.5

4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2

2𝑚3
4( )

𝑣=
𝜋(0.017𝑚2 )2

v = 2.45m/s
m
vD [(2.45 )(0.017 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s

= 51997

𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.017 m)

= 0.00041

From Moody Chart, we obtain 𝑓 = 0.0221

𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD

m 2
(0.025)(1m)(1.06 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.02 m)
s

= 0.265m

By applying Blassius formula,𝑓 = 0.0210

By applying Colebrook formula, 𝑓 = 0.0221

By applying Moody’s formula, 𝑓 = 0.0038

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For PVC 16 x 1.5

4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2

0.8𝑚3
4( )

𝑣=
𝜋(0.0124𝑚)2

v = 1.84m/s
m
vD [(1.657 )(0.0124 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s

= 28484

𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0124 m)

= 0.00056

From Moody Chart, we obtain 𝑓 = 0.0252

𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD

m 2
(0.02415)(1m)(1.657 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(16x10−3 m)
s

= 0.351m

By applying Blassius formula,𝑓 = 0.0244

By applying Colebrook formula, 𝑓 = 0.0251

By applying Moody’s formula, 𝑓 =0.0045

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For PVC 20-32

4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2

2.5𝑚3
4( )

𝑣=
𝜋(0.0282 𝑚)2

v =1.11m/s
m
vD [(1.11 )(0.0282 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s

= 39078

𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0282 m)

= 0.00025

From Moody Chart, we obtain 𝑓 = 0.0229

𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD

m 2
(0.0275)(1m)(0.4145 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(32x10−3 m)
s

= 0.051m

By applying Blassius formula,𝑓 = 0.0225

By applying Colebrook formula, 𝑓 = 0.0229

By applying Moody’s formula, 𝑓 =0.0041

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