Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
The main aim of this experiment was to determine pipe friction factors and resistance
coefficients and to show how the friction factor varies with Reynolds number by
manipulating the flow rate of the fluid in a pipe. The major principle used in the experiment
was the Bernoulli’s equation, taking major head losses into account and minor losses in
negligible. These major losses were normally due to the wall friction in the pipe and viscous
forces between layers in a fluid.
There were lot of sources of errors in this experiment such as systematic errors, human errors,
equipment limitations and some other factors that were not taken into consideration during
analysis of the data. The main errors involved human and equipment limitations, which
caused the data points obtained to vary from the theoretical values. Examples, the calculated
difference head loss (1) and head loss (2) theoretically should be the same with the reading of
differential pressure directly from the equipment.
1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this experiment, the pressure loss, or the head loss, for a flow subject to friction will be
determined experimentally. With turbulent pipe flow, where the flow is considered steady at
Reynolds’ numbers of Re > 2320, pressure loss is proportional to the length of the pipe,
coefficient of pipe friction, density, and square of the flow speed .
As the pipe diameter decreases, the pressure loss will increases and calculated as follows:
f l 2
PV ρv
2 D
f l v2
hv
D 2 g
For turbulent pipe flow (Re > 2320), the pipe friction coefficient, f depends on two factors
which are pipe roughness,ɛ and Reynolds number Re. Pipe roughness,ɛ, defines a measure of
pipe wall irregularities of commercial pipes.
Table 1 shows the commercial values roughness of pipes and Figure 2 is a Moody’s chart
which sows the relationship between Re, and ɛ and the wall roughness, is related to the pipe
diameter,D .
2
Figure 1: Moody’s Chart
The Reynolds number,Re is calculated from the pipe diameter, D, flow speed, υ, and
kinematic viscosity, v
D
Re=
v
The flow speed, v is calculated from the volumetric flow V, and the diameter of cross-
sectional pipe.
4V
v=
D 2
For hydraulically smooth pipes (Re < 65 ɛ/D) and a Reynolds number in the range of
2320<Re<100,000 the pipe friction coefficient is calculated using the Blassius formula
0.3164
f= 4
Re
For pipes in the transition range to rough pipe (6.5 d/k <Re< 1300 d/k), the range below the
limit curve in the diagram, the pipe friction coefficient is calculated according to Colebrook
3
1 2.51
= -2log( D + )
1 f 3.7 Re f
or Moody’s formula
200k s 106 1 / 3
f = 0.001375[1+ + ]
d Re
It is an implicit formula that has to be iteratively resolved.First of all estimate f ,place it in the
formula and calculate an initial approximation.
4
2.0 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to determine pipe friction factors and resistance
coefficient
3.0 THEORY
In this experiment, the theory used is the loss of energy and total head of fluid due to the
frictional resistance of real or viscous fluid. In fully developed straight pipe flow, energy loss
or head losses occurs due to wall friction. These losses are usually known as the major head
losses. To calculate this major head losses, formula used is
𝑓.𝑙 𝑣 2
ℎ= -----------(1)
𝐷 2.𝑔
4.0 APPARATUS
5
1 Steel pipe 3 PVC pipe 5 Enlargement in cross-section
5.0 METHODOLOGY
1. Experimental unit were placed on a flat surface and secure against rolling away
(brake).
2. Water tank was filled up and power supply connected.
5.1 Leak test
Before starting up the experiment, a leak test was performed on the experimental unit.
1. The tightness of self-closing measuring glands was checked and possible particles are
removed.
2. Pipe section was connected to the feeding and return hose.
3. Return valve was opened and pump is switched on.
4. Reducing valve was opened slowly and the pipe section is bleed.
5. The pressure was increased slowly by closing the return valve.
6. All lines, hoses and connections are checked carefully for leaks and procedures were
repeated for all pipe sections
6
Figure 4: Two-tube manometer
7
Figure 5: An illustration about differential pressure in a manometer
p1=pL + h1ρg
p2=pL + h2ρg
∆p = p1 + p2 = pL - h1ρg - h2ρg
Using the pressure,pL the zero point for the differential pressure measurement can be
adjusted.
h1 h2
For a maximum measuring range it is best to position the zero point or mean value in
2
hmax
the middle of the measuring scale .
2
h1 h2 hmax p1 p2 hmax
= =
2 2 2 g
8
The pressure of the air cushion is therefore given as
p1 p2 hmax
pL
2
9
Figure 7: Bleeding
5.3.1 Bleeding
1. Top of bleed valve was closed and both bottom drain valves were opened.
2. The reducing valve in the inlet of the pipe section is slowly opened to be measured.
Pipe section and connecting hoses were bled by the powerful flow of water.
10
5.3.2 Adjusting the zero point
The zero point for the manometer should be in the middle of the scale to ensure the largest
possible measuring of range.
1. Pipe section drain was closed and the flow rate is equal to zero.
2. Level in the two measuring tubes was carefully adjusted at the same level using the
bleed valve.
The readings of differential pressure were taken as height difference between the two
columns of water.
11
6.0 RESULTS
GALVANIZED STEEL
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
1.5 63.8 11.3 52.5 62.7
1.2 49 15 34 46.4
0.9 38.4 16.8 21.6 29.8
0.6 29 17.7 11.3 18.6
0.3 22.5 13.9 8.6 10.6
COPPER
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2 65 14 51 60
1.5 47 15 32 39.2
1.1 33 14 19 25.5
0.6 20 12 8 14.5
0.3 14 11 3 9.5
PVC 20 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2 63.5 16.5 47 51.1
1.5 44.5 16 28.5 34.5
1.1 31.5 14.5 17 22.7
0.6 18.5 11.5 7 12.5
0.3 13 10 3 8.8
12
PVC 16 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
0.8 53..5 2.5 51 54.3
0.7 48 5.5 42.5 46.2
0.6 42 8.5 33.5 39.8
0.5 38.2 10.3 27.9 32.6
0.3 29 14.8 14.2 19.5
PVC 32 X 1.5
DIFFERENTIAL
VOLUMETRIC
P1(mm) P2(mm) ∆h(mm) PRESSURE
FLOW (m3/h)
(mbar)
2.5 55.5 50 5.5 11.5
2 47.5 43.8 3.7 9.6
1.5 38.5 36.5 2 7.7
1 30 29 1 6.4
0.6 24 23.5 0.5 5.6
13
7.0 DISCUSSION
After the data was tabulated from the experiment, Reynolds’ number of each pipe was
determined. The equation is as follow:
Reynolds’ number:
Whereas friction factor for each pipe was calculated using three different method which is by
Moody’s Chart, Blassius formula and Colebrook equations.
1. Galvanised steel, ½”
Diameter = 0.0127m
Relative roughness = 0.00015
2. Copper, 18×1
Diameter = 0.018m
Relative roughness = 0.00008
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
Number, Re (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2.0 55131 0.592 0.0244 0.0037 0.0206 0.0244
1.5 41348 0.345 0.0253 0.0040 0.0222 0.0253
1.1 30362 0.195 0.0265 0.0045 0.0240 0.0265
0.6 16579 0.065 0.0295 0.0054 0.0279 0.0294
0.3 8189 0.018 0.0343 0.0068 0.0333 0.0343
14
3. PVC, 20×1.5
Diameter = 0.02m
Relative roughness = 0.000075
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2 51997 0.265 0.0221 0.0038 0.0210 0.0221
1.5 39051 0.157 0.0233 0.0041 0.0225 0.0233
1.1 28651 0.090 0.0247 0.0045 0.0243 0.0248
0.6 15493 0.031 0.0283 0.0055 0.0284 0.0283
0.3 7852 0.009 0.0335 0.0070 0.0336 0.0335
4. PVC, 16×1.5
Diameter = 0.016m
Relative roughness = 0.00009
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
0.8 28484 0.351 0.0252 0.0045 0.0244 0.0251
0.7 24923 0.268 0.0259 0.0048 0.0252 0.0259
0.6 21363 0.197 0.0267 0.0050 0.0262 0.0267
0.5 17803 0.137 0.0278 0.0053 0.0274 0.0278
0.3 4644 0.049 0.0388 0.0083 0.0383 0.0388
5. PVC, 32×1.5
Diameter = 0.032m
Relative roughness = 0.00005
V (m3/h) Reynold’s Head loss Moody’s Moody’s Blassius Colebrook
number (m) chart, f formula Formula, Formula, f
f
2.5 39078 0.051 0.0229 0.0041 0.0225 0.0229
2.0 31333 0.033 0.0239 0.0044 0.0237 0.0239
1.5 23588 0.019 0.0255 0.0048 0.0255 0.0255
1.0 15490 0.008 0.0281 0.0055 0.0284 0.0281
0.6 9505 0.003 0.0317 0.0065 0.0320 0.0317
15
From the results of the experiment, we can conclude that pressure and head losses is
influenced by frictional effect in the pipe. The friction loss n a uniform, straight sections of
pipe, known as "major loss", is caused by the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid
molecules against each other or against the (possibly rough) wall of the pipe. This frictional
effect would contributes to power loss or energy loss.
The friction loss In a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as "major loss", is caused by
the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules against each other or against the
(possibly rough) wall of the pipe. Here, it is greatly affected by whether the flow is laminar
(Re < 2000) or turbulent (Re > 3000)
In laminar flow, losses are proportional to fluid velocity, V; that velocity varies smoothly
between the bulk of the fluid and the pipe surface, where it is zero. The roughness of the pipe
surface influences neither the fluid flow nor the friction loss.
In turbulent flow, losses are proportional to the square of the fluid velocity, V2; here, a layer
of chaotic eddies and vortices near the pipe surface, called the viscous sub-layer, forms the
transition to the bulk flow. In this domain, the effects of the roughness of the pipe surface
must be considered. It is useful to characterize that roughness as the ratio of the roughness
height ε to the pipe diameter D, the "relative roughness". Three sub-domains pertain to
turbulent flow:
1) In the smooth pipe domain, friction loss is relatively insensitive to roughness.
2) In the rough pipe domain, friction loss is dominated by relative roughness and insensitive
to Reynolds’ number
3) In the transition domain, friction loss is sensitive to both.
For Reynolds’ numbers 2000 < Re < 3000, the flow is unstable, varying with time as vortices
within the flow form and vanish randomly. This domain of flow is not well modeled, nor are
the details well understood.
By comparing the results obtained using different methods which were Blassius formula,
Colebrook-White equation and Moody’s formula, there were a slight deviation in the data. In
order to calculate the friction coefficient, some aspects need to be taken into consideration.
The calculations depends on the types of flow, such as laminar flow, transition between
laminar and turbulent flow and fully turbulent flow. Normally Blassius formula is vastly
practiced in calculating friction factors due to the fact that the formula itself is simple and
handy. This is because Blassius correlation has no term for pipe roughness and it is valid not
to only smooth pipes but also rough pipes.
However, there is a slight difference between the results obtained using Colebrook
equations and Moody’s formula. This is because Moody’s formula accuracy is about for
smooth pipes and for rough pipes.
All of the experiment have 5 readings. This is because of great difference in pressure given
by two tube manometer when the reading was taken. So optimum number of reading was
taken before pressure in either on tube approaches zero.
16
Based on the experiment it is concluded that PVC pipe with the dimension of 32×1.5 give
the least head loss compared to other pipes. This is due to the fact that it has relatively lower
friction factor and bigger diameter. Head loss is proportional to friction factor whereas
inversely proportional to diameter
Throughout this experiment several errors and mistakes have been made that slightly effect
the experiments results. The errors are as follow:
1. Presence of air bubbles in the tube as well as in pipe.
2. Parallax error due to incorrect position of eyes to the scale.
3. Water level in two tube manometer cannot be calibrated, it fluctuates heavily
The recommendations for these errors are as below:
1.Make sure no air bubble trapped in the tube or pipes.
2.Make sure position of the eye is perpendicular to the reading scale
3.Adjust the volumetric flow until it do not fluctuates or take the average reading.
8.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the experiment has met the objectives. Which is to study the pressure losses
due to viscous (frictional) effects in fluid flowing through different pipes. Also, parameter
that influencing head loss in pipes was identified successfully. The head loss is proportional
to the friction factor while inversely proportional to the diameter of the pipe.
17
REFERENCES
1) Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala (2010). Internal Flow. Fluid Mechanics: Fundamental
and Applications Second Edition in SI Units. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.340-370.
3) Madan Mohan Das (2008). Flow through Pipes. Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachine. New
Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. pp. 116 – 122
4)http://www.ajdesigner.com/php_colebrook/colebrook_equation.php#ajscroll
18
APPENDICES
For galvanized steel pipe 𝟏/𝟐"
4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2
1.2𝑚3
4( )
ℎ
𝑣=
𝜋(0.0127𝑚2 )2
v = 9472.92 m/h
= 2.63 m/s
m
vD [(2.63 )(0.0127 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.894x 10−6 )
s
= 37361
𝜖 (0.15 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0127 m)
= 0.0118
𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD
m 2
(0.0415)(1m)(2.63 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.0127 m)
s
= 1.15 m
19
For copper, 18x1
4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2
2𝑚3
4( )
ℎ
𝑣=
𝜋(0.016𝑚2 )2
v = 2.76 m/s
m
vD [(2.76 )(0.016 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s
= 55131
𝜖 (0.02 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.016 m)
= 1.25x10-3
𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD
m 2
(0.0244)(1m)(2.76 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.016 m)
s
= 0.592m
20
For PVC 20x1.5
4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2
2𝑚3
4( )
ℎ
𝑣=
𝜋(0.017𝑚2 )2
v = 2.45m/s
m
vD [(2.45 )(0.017 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s
= 51997
𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.017 m)
= 0.00041
𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD
m 2
(0.025)(1m)(1.06 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(0.02 m)
s
= 0.265m
21
For PVC 16 x 1.5
4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2
0.8𝑚3
4( )
ℎ
𝑣=
𝜋(0.0124𝑚)2
v = 1.84m/s
m
vD [(1.657 )(0.0124 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s
= 28484
𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0124 m)
= 0.00056
𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD
m 2
(0.02415)(1m)(1.657 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(16x10−3 m)
s
= 0.351m
22
For PVC 20-32
4𝑄
𝑣=
𝜋𝐷2
2.5𝑚3
4( )
ℎ
𝑣=
𝜋(0.0282 𝑚)2
v =1.11m/s
m
vD [(1.11 )(0.0282 m)]
s
Reynolds Number, Re = = m2
𝑣 (0.801 x 10−6 )
s
= 39078
𝜖 (0.007 x10−3 m)
Relative roughness, 𝐷= (0.0282 m)
= 0.00025
𝑓Lv2
Head loss,ℎ𝑣 = 2gD
m 2
(0.0275)(1m)(0.4145 )
s
= m
2(9.81 2 )(32x10−3 m)
s
= 0.051m
23