Perspectives on African Feminism: Defining and Classifying African-Feminist Literatures

Author(s): Susan Arndt

Source: Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, No. 54 (2002), pp. 31-44
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Agenda Feminist Media
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4548071
Accessed: 26-02-2016 00:24 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Taylor & Francis, Ltd. and Agenda Feminist Media are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Perspectives on African feminism:

defining and classifying African-

feminist literatures

The concrete orientation and execution ojcriticism in Africanfeminist texts varies widely, writes SUSAN
ARNDT She distinguishes three main currents of African-feminist literature - reformist, transformative and
radica

? shall not protest if you call me a feminist', stresses the Ghanaian woman writer Ama Ata Aidoo,
and continues:

But I am not a feminist because I write about women. Are men writers male chauvinist
pigs just because they write about men? nationalist
Or is a writer
an African just by
writing about Africans? Or a revolutionary for writing about poor oppressed humanity?
Obviously not.. .no writer, female or male, is a feminist just by writing about women (Aidoo,
1982:41).

Aidoo's statement touches on a sore point. The label 'feminist' is often used, but the notions
associated with it tend to differ tremendously. Not infrequently this leads to difficulties in placing
oneself or a literary text in context. Flora Nwapa is a good example of this. In 1984 the Nigerian
woman writer expressed indignation at the fact that, just because she wrote about women, she
was constantly 'accused' of being a feminist. But the truth was she wanted nothing to do with
feminism because of its anti-men stance. At most, she said, she could identify with Alice Walker's
womanism (Flora Nwapa in Perry, 1984). Ten years later she took part in a conference in Nsukka,
at which the topic of feminism was debated. After hearing a speech by Aidoo, she explained:

Years back, when I go on my tours to America and Europe, I'm usually asked, Are you a
feminist?' I deny that I am a feminist.... But they say, all your works, everything is about
And I I am ' that said:
feminism. say, No, not a feminist. Buchi Emecheta is another one
? am a feminist with a small f (whatever Buchi means). Having heard Obioma on Monday,
having heard Ama [Ata Aidoo] today, I think that I will go out and say that I am a feminist
with a big f because Obioma
on Monday said
that feminism is about possibilities; there
are possibilities, there are choices. Let us not be afraid to say that we are feminists....
Globally, we need one another (Nwapa cited in Nnaemeka, 1995:82-83).

Nwapa's statements provide an example of how important it is to clearly establish the criteria
on the basis of which an author or a text can be classified as 'feminist'.

Gender debates influenced by post-structuralism have given rise to an understanding of the

dynamics, complexity and diversity of feminism, which make it necessary to speak of feminisms
rather than feminism. This plurality emerges from a wide range of coordinates, with regional
differences playing an important role.

Agenda 54 2002 31

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

Partly in protest against the White history of and the White domination within feminism, but
also due to the necessity of taking into account the material circumstances and cultural histories
of African societies, African feminism has formed. The African discourse on feminism is manifested
in part in the theorisation of alternative to feminism.
concepts The best-known is Chikwenye
Ogunyemi's concept of African womanism, which
she developed at the beginning of the '80's,
almost at the same time as and without knowledge of Alice Walker's womanism. Other concepts
are Mary Kolawole's womanism, Molara Ogundipe-Leslie's stiwanism (acronym of: Social
Transformations Including Women in Africa) and Nnaemeka's negofeminism - feminism of
negotiation. The Nigerian feminist scholar, activist and writer Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo, and many
others speak of African feminism in order to express the ambivalence of being located within the
network of a global feminism, and focuses and concepts emerging from the concrete social and
cultural constellations of African societies (Adimora-Ezeigbo, 1996).

Just as there are diverse terminological approaches to African challenges of gender issues, it is
impossible to assume homogeneity of feminism in Africa. The diversity of social realities on the
African continent has had a lasting effect on conceptions of feminism, making it necessary
to use the plural with respect to feminsim in Africa as well. Nonetheless, there is something
like a common denominator of African feminism.
It is

impossible | Generally speaking, African feminism gets to the bottom of African gender relations and
to assume the problems of African women - illuminating their causes and consequences - and

homo- criticises them. In so doing, African feminism aims at upsetting the existing matrix of
of domination and overcoming it, thus transfonriing gender relationships and conceptions
geneity
in African societies and improving the situation of African women.
feminism
in Africa
This criticismof existing concepts of gender is realised on the basis of certain paradigms,
which, however, only describe tendencies and do not necessarily represent obligatory
criteria for African feminism. These criteria include, first of all, the idea of a cooperation
or complementarity with men, the affirmation of motherhood and the family, and, secondly,
the concern to criticise patriarchal manifestations in African societies in a differentiated way.
This means above all that African feminism weighs precisely which traditional institutions are
agreeable and positive for women, or at least can or could be, and which disadvantage women
so severely that their abolition seems imperative. This careful consideration has much to do with
the position of many African feminists that the criticism of African societies inherent in the
criticism of African gender relationships weakens Africa's position with respect to the West, as
well as African resistance to western cultural imperialism. Thirdly, African feminism aims at
discussing gender roles in the context of other oppressive mechanisms such as racism,
neocolonialism, (cultural) imperialism, socio-economic exclusion and exploitation, gerontocracy,
religious fundamentalism as well as dictatorial and/or corrupt systems. With this approach, African
theories of feminism by far exceed even the race-class-gender approach of African American
feminism. Fourth, many African feminists do not leave it at a criticism of patriarchal structures,
but also attempt to identify both traditionally-established and entirely new scopes and alternatives
for women which would be tantamount to overcoming their oppression.

32 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

In literature the criticism of gender relations is often combined with a criticism of the patriarchal
character of language and literature. This approach often involves a break with 'male' literary
discourses in terms of style, language, and/or narrative technique. Ultimately, in terms of form
as well as content, the concrete orientation and execution of criticism in African feminist texts
varies widely. According to my definition of African feminism which I have presented above, The
Graduate by Grace Ogot is just as much an African-feminist text as is Calixthe Beyala's novel,
Tu t'appelleras Tanga. Yet there can be no doubt that, as will be shown later, these texts are
worlds apart - albeit feminist worlds. This makes it necessary to distinguish different versions
of African-feminist literature.

Proceeding mainly from the concrete orientation of the criticism as well as the four above-
mentioned paradigms within which the criticism of existing gender relations can be realised, I
distinguish three main currents of African-feminist literature - reformist, transformative and
radical African-feminist literature. However, the currents are very heterogeneous; the borders
between them are blurred. Quantitatively, the transformative Mrican-feminist texts are clearly
dominant and also much more heterogeneous than the other two currents.

In the texts of reformist African feminism, individual, patriarchally-molded attitudes,

norms and conventions, both century-old and modern, which discriminate against women It is
and hinder their self-realisation are censured. Consequently, the criticism is only partial,
assumed
and is usually brought forward in a differentiated way. Reformist African-feminist writers
that the
want to negotiate with the patriarchal society to gain new scope for women, but accept
society is
the fundamental patriarchal orientation of their society as a given fact. In these texts,
capable of
alternatives to what is criticised are always discussed. It is assumed that the society is
reform
capable of reform; in keeping with this logic, the texts usually have a conciliatory 'happy
end'. Moreover, a liberal treatment of men is very typical of this branch of African-feminist
literature: Men are criticised as individuals, not as representatives of men as such. This
criticism is always done in a very relativising manner: they themselves always have
agreeable sides. In addition, they tend to be capable of rethinking and overcoming their reprehensible
behaviour - though only partially and within the boundaries offered by patriarchal society. At
least they are contrasted with positive pendants, who, however, embody only partial reforms. In
these texts, we often find women characters who share the responsibility for the criticised aspects.
But this complicity of women tends to play a subordinate role. Only seldom is the criticism of
patriarchal discrimination combined with criticism of other mechanisms of oppression. In these
cases, it is usually indicated that men and women are allies when it comes to taking a stand
against these circumstances. Sindiwe Magona's 7b my Children's Children (1990), Grace Ogot's
The Graduate (1966) as well as Flora Nwapa's novels Efuru (1966) and Idu (1970) are typical
representatives of this wing of African-feminist literature.

Literary which can be classified

texts, under transformative and radical African feminism, in
contrast, put forth an essential and fundamental critique of patriarchal social structures.
Discriminatory behaviour by men is described as typical for men as a social group and criticised
most sharply. Also, generally speaking, the fact that women - as a consequence of their socialisation

Agenda 54 2002 33

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

- reproduce those very gender relationships which discriminate against women, is thematised.
Ultimately, however, there are decisive differences between transformative and radical African
feminist literatures.They manifest themselves in the concrete negotiation of men and women,with
regard to the question of whether the criticised gender structures are considered surmountable
and whether the criticism is articulated in a differentiated way.

In transformative Mrican-feminist literature, men are criticised much more sharply and more
complexly than in reformist literature. Though, as a rule, the demands which are directed at men
are more fundamental and extensive than those made in reformist literature, transformative texts
start off by assuming men's capability to transform. However, to a much lesser extent than in
reformist literature is this capability suggested by having a man change his way of thinking and
behaviour radically in the course of the plot. Much more often it is symbolised by the fact that
the man, who embodies the behaviour to be criticised and overcome, is contrasted with one or
more positive counterparts. However, many of the transformations of men characters, as well
as those of the 'good' characters, are so idealised that they seem to embody a utopia
rather than a notion of the future, that seems realistic in the present situation.

Themen
characters
Another important aspect is that transformative African-feminist literature thematises
|
more or less explicitly the view that men are not only accomplices, but also products of
are
patriarchal patterns of thought. Analogous to the negotiation of men, the behaviour of
hopelessly | women who structures discriminatory to women is depicted as surmountable
reproduce
sexist and
in principle. The majority of these literary texts also describe a way of life- which represents
usually a positive counter-concept to what is criticised. Such alternatives are also realised
deeply independently of the 'man who turns over a new leaf. If this alternative way of life is not
immoral opened up to the protagonist herself, it is at least accessible to women on the whole.
Within this group, texts which thematise the gender question alone as well as texts which
additionally illuminate one or several other mechanisms of oppression, can be found.
Above all, the latter type of texts imply that men are (at least potential) allies in the fight against
these forms of discrimination. The novels of Mariama B? (1980;1981), Ama Ata Aidoo (1970),
Buchi Emecheta (1979) and Tsitsi Dangarembga (1988), as well as Wanjira Muthoni's (1994) and
Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo's (1992) fiction, belong to this school of African feminism.

In contrast, radical African-feminist texts argue that men (as a social group) inevitably and in
principle discriminate against and mistreat women. The men characters are, 'by nature' or because
of their socialisation, hopelessly sexist and usually deeply immoral. Men characters who depart
from this pattern are rarely found - and those who do are powerless. This powerlessness is
symbolised either by their premature death or by their inability to realise their positive ambitions.
A further fundamental characteristic of these texts is their use of tragedy and violence. The
women characters suffer physical and psychological violence at the hands of men. Even a partial
improvement in the situation of womenis unthinkable. The radical texts are distinguished by a
disturbing lack of perspectives. Thus, for example, death and murder carry the end of most of
these texts. This approach is often tied to the fact that their women characters are also oppressed
on the basis of, for example, their socio-economic status and/or racial identity. Thus, the gender

34 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

question is often combined with an examination of other mechanisms of oppression. Men, however,
are not even depicted as allies in the struggle against these forms of oppression. These texts
display a devastating pessimism, fundamentally denying any hope of a transformation of prevailing
gender relations. Not even the reproduction of patriarchal structures through women's behaviour
is described as surmountable. At the most, sisterhood or solidarity among women is shown as
a possible source of solace or a vague anchor of hope. It is characteristic of radical African-
feminist texts that they do not differentiate when criticising traditional and modern forms of
gender oppression. However this refusal to differentiate must not be misread as implying that
radical African-feminist writers reject their African cultures. Rather, it is a result of the uncompro-
mising rejection of all forms of oppression of African women. The short stories of Kenyan women
authors published in Kabira's, Karega's and Nzioki's anthology They've Destroyed the Temple
(1992), Calixthe Beyala's novels C'est le soleil qui m'a br?l?e and Tu t'appelleras Tanga (1988)
as well as Nawal El Saadawi's novel Woman at Point Zero (1975) typically representative of
this group.

The textual examples named in the classification show that all the currents of African-
feminist literature are quite heterogeneous as far as the regional, social and religious Authors of

origins of the authors is concerned. Only the generation to which the authors belong can, all genera-
if only very broadly, be brought to bear on their feminist orientation. Authors of all tions
generations contribute to transformative literature. In contrast, there is a general tendency contribute
for the reformist branch to recruit mainly among the pioneers of African-feminist literature, to tran-
while radical literature seems to be primarily the domicile of the youngest authors, who formative
were born after most African countries gained independence (that is after 1960) and literature
who started to write in the late '80s. Nawal El Saadawi's novels, which can be described
as radical, are an exception.

In the following section, the workability of the presented classification model is substantiated.
Here I concentrate on one text from each current, attempting to do at least some justice to the
diversity in the regional, religious and generational backgrounds of the writers.

Overcoming ignorance: The Graduate and Grace Ogot's conception of a

reformed society

Grace Ogot is a pioneer of African women's literature. Along with Flora Nwapa's Efuru, Ogot's
novel The Promised Land, published in 1966, is recorded in history as the first anglophone
novel by an African woman writer. Her novel, The Graduate (1980), is representative of reformist
African-feminist literature. It exercisesa partial criticism of patriarchal gender relations, primarily
gender inequality in politics, and also describes these circumstances as reformable. Accordingly,
The Graduate also assumes men's willingness to (partially) rethink.

The novel takes issue with the fact that though Kenyan women played a very active role in the
national liberation movement, after achieving independence, politics was declared men's business.
The protagonist, Juanina Karungaru, actively involved in the liberation movement herself, is

Agenda 54 2002 3S

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

angry about the fact that in the newly-elected parliament, only 10 of the 184 members are women,
and not a single ministry is entrusted to a woman. Juanina's anger echoes Ogot's own frustration.
When Kenya achieved its independence in 1963, she was one of the 10 members of the first
Kenyan Parliament. Here, and in her later function as minister, she experienced the disadvantage
of and discrimination against women in politics first-hand. But being a reformist Mrican-feminist
writer, Ogot does not leave it at this bitter resume, but rather counters this gloomy reality of
daily political life with a positive alternative which is depicted as a happy ending.

Several months after the appointment of the first cabinet, the Minister of Public Affairs dies in
an accident. Juanina is called to fill his post. Her daughter, Nyokabi, takes a critical view of this
nomination - her mother got the chance to become a minister
only because of a man's death.

/ think it would be good then if more ministers died. The President could appoint more
women ministers, Mummy!.... [T]hen the women won't sound so desperately forgotten as
they feel here (pg 8).

The wish that men should die must be understood metaphorically. Nyokabi does not, as
Ogot does she explains herself, 'wish to mean anybody ill, but there have got to be more lights for
not aim at the women' (pg 8). What is desired is not the death of individual men, but of the gender
radically relationships which privilege men and discriminate against women. This revolutionary
revolu- attitude is far too radical in Juanina's eyes. She severely castigates her daughter for her

tionising position. Unlike her daughter, Juanina contents herself with what has now been offered
to women. In her view, Nyokabi 'was still too young to understand that in appointing a
gender
relations woman minister in his first cabinet, the President had shattered forever the myth of a
woman's place being in the kitchen' and that it 'had freed women from men's idle talk'(pg
in politics
8). This optimism reaches its climax with the assertion
that 'by the time Nyokabi would
become a woman only ability would count, and not sex' (pg 8). In analogy to Juanina,
the narrator holds that to 'see a Kenyan woman minister is surely a revolution...Kenya
had changed' (pg 16-17). The protagonist and narrator's attitude - and not the revolutionary
position of the youthful - can be seen as the essence of the novel. Ogot does not aim at fundamentally
overturning, revolutionising or transforming gender relations in politics. Even the most minor
changes are seen as 'revolutionary'. Even though Nyokabi's words remain said and thus, can or
even do provoke the reader's reflection in a subversive way, Ogot's criticism of Kenya's political
structures ultimately remains reformist.

The reformist character of the feminist criticism in this text is also manifested in the liberal
portrayal of men. The only action a
by Kenyan man that is criticised in the novel is the president's
initial failure to appoint a woman to his council of ministers. And even this mistake is amended
by him. This liberal portrayal goes along with the fact that gender relationships in family life are
not questioned at all. For example, pains are taken to emphasise that at no time does the
committed minister, Juanita neglect her duties as wife and mother. Her husband, the chief
accountant of the Nairobi Sugar Authority, does not need to curb himself in his career, nor does
he have to assume 'housewifely' or 'motherly' duties. In contrast, and Ogot views this quite

36 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

uncritically, a man with a career is not expected to show for his family. The only
consideration
prominent male character, for example, spent seven years as a privileged student in the United
States, while his wife had to raise her three children through the difficult war years by herself.
His attitude is not criticised. Rather, he is celebrated as a hero: 'Yes, Jakoyo had worked hard for
his wife and his children' (pg 43), comments the narrator, and in the same tenor, his wife says:

At last I can lead a decent life. You have brought honour to the family, dear, I am so proud
of you' She looked at him wickedly and winked. ? will reward you handsomely when we
get home, to compensate for the seven years lost' (pg 44).

Thus, the myth that men are the head of the family and that women must forego their own wishes
in the interests of their husbands is to a certain extent revitalised here. Ogot is not interested
in a redefinition
of existing conceptions of wo/manhood and an overcoming of traditional roles
of men and women. What is demanded in The Graduate, however, are new options and scope
for women within existing social frameworks. A good illustration of this approach is the
The
novel's first chapter, where reformist African-feminist demands are listed, making the
Graduate
first chapter read in places like a political pamphlet. Here measures are demanded that
will make it easier for women to take control of their lives, without, however, calling the demands

principle of existing gender relations into question. new

Thus, for example, 'good nursery
schools', 'health clinics' and 'little shops' where women 'can market their farm produce, options for
and handicraft' are urged (pg 7). women
within
Ultimately, Grace Ogot is concerned not with a fundamental transformation of gender existing
relations, but with a partial alleviation of women's burdens, a partial improvement of the social
situation of women. Women should observe their traditional responsibilities, but should frame-
also be given new rights and possibilities.
works

On believing in changes and complementarity: Manama B?'s Une

si Longue Lettre

In her novel, Une si Longue Lettre (1980), Mariama B? provides a sweeping criticism of gender
relationships in Senegalese society. The icon of African women's literature and active member
of several Senegalese and international
women's movements criticises the discrimination against
women in the public spheres of society, especially, in politics. The main subject of the novel,
however, is the gender relations within the family. In this regard she examines the role played
in women's life situations by traditional caste and rank systems, as well as that of Islamic institutions
such as the mirasse, which forces recently-widowed women into social isolation for several
months. The main focus is on polygyny, which is roundly condemned.

In her long letter, Ramatoulaye recalls the stories of two middle-class marriages which flounder
as a result of the men's decision to take second wives: her own marriage to Modou Fall and that
of her friend, Aissatou, to Mawdo B?. As can be seen from Ramatoulaye's remarks such as 'Mawdo,
and through him all men, remained an enigma to me' (pg 33), the doctor Mawdo and the lawyer

Agenda 54 2002 37

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

and union functionary Modou, are not only to be understood as individuals, but also as
representatives ofthat group of men who pose as liberal, enlightened and modern, while ultimately
enjoying the fruits of tradition and laying claim to privileges which discriminate against women,
even if in so doing they betray the principles which they represent. The author symbolically
disassociates herself from both men's behaviour by making Mawdo, who realises that he has done
wrong, suffer, and by letting Modou, who does not even regret his behaviour, die.

Not only men, but women too, are held responsible for the gender relationships discriminating
against women. The author shows that women make life hard for fellow women, and how they
do this. Thus, for example, older women use the power offered to them by social hierarchies
to satisfy their interests unconditionally, not caring that they are destroying the lives of their
daughters, daughters-in-law, and other young women in the process. Ultimately, the mothers-
in-law of Aissatou and Ramatoulaye are the actual abetters of the polygynous marriages, destroy-
ing not only Aissatou's and Ramatoulaye's happiness, but also the future of the two
young wives.

Alongside this woman-on-woman discrimination, women's part in their own oppression

is addressed by contrasting Ramatoulaye and her alter-ego Aissatou. The fates of the two
The
friends show that there are different forms of coping with (their) oppression. While
author
Aissatou leaves her husband, for Ramatoulaye a life outside of marriage is inconceivable.
shows that |
Ironically, her husband ultimately forces her to become a single mother. He supports her
women
and their children neither emotionally nor financially. Ramatoulaye is left to fend for
make life
herself, just like her friend, Aissatou. But she copes with it badly. Whereas Aissatou leaves
hard for the country, lives with complete autonomy, enjoys relative material comfort, and finds
fellow fulfillment in both her existence as a mother and her work as an interpreter at the
women Senegalese Embassy in the United States, Ramatoulaye's sphere of activity remains
restricted to her house,
and her identity is defined solely through motherhood and being
a neglected wife and then widow. Although Ramatoulaye, like Aissatou, had studied and
worked as a teacher when she was young, no part of the novel depicts her as having a
professional life. Most probably she stopped working as a teacher long ago. This difference is
emphasised by an interesting allegory: B? makes Aissatou buy Ramatoulaye a car, which symbolises
mobility and hence represents Aissatou's wish to see Ramatoulaye become more ambitious and
outgoing. In the novel, however, it is stressed that Ramatoulaye only uses the car to take her
children to school - thus still operating within her role as mother.

Even at the time

Ramatoulaye writes her letter, this difference continues to exist. Whereas
Ramatoulaye is imprisoned by mirasse, the last relic of her marriage, Aissatou visits home from
the United States in an airplane. Yet shortly before Aissatou's arrival, Ramatoulaye finishes her
letter, which she concludes by saying:

/ warn you already, I have not given up wanting to refashion my life.... The word 'happiness'
does indeed have meaning, doesn't it? I shall go out in search of it. Too bad for me if once
again I have to write you so long a letter... (pg 89).

38 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

Here, it is clearly implied that in the process of writing her letter and reflecting upon her life,
Ramatoulaye starts to rethink and to change. She has already become dynamic in her thinking
and behaviour. Thus, for instance, she rebels against the traditional custom of levirate, which
allows a man to marry his deceased brother's wife, and also declines the offer of Daouda, as he
already has a wife, and she does not want to be responsible for this woman's unhappiness by
agreeing to a polygynous marriage. Also, the novel's ending suggests that in future, the process
of changing and rethinking will involve more and more aspects of her life and behaviour. This
dramatises the possibility that women's reproduction of traditional gender relations - their
participation in their own 'victimisation' as well as the 'woman-on-woman' discrimination - can
be overcome. But it is incumbent upon women to take the initiative.

However, the alternative/utopia offered in the novel lies not in Aissatou's and Ramatoulaye's
life without men, but in a partnership that is based on love. Ramatoulaye says somewhat
programmatically:

/ remain persuaded ofthe inevitable and necessary complementarity of man and woman.
Love... remains the natural link between these two beings.... The success of the
family is born of a couple's harmony (pg 88-89).
Women's
By taking up the idea of complementarity, closely interrelating it to love, B? does not
partici-
only have the family context in mind, but hints at the wider implications of the way in
in
pation
which a married couple organises their life.
their own
'victim-
The nation is made up of all the families.... The success of a nation therefore depends
isation'
inevitably on the family (pg 89).
can be
overcome
Just as love promises complementarity, and this in turn is a guarantee for harmony in
partnerships, happy families are the recipe for a harmonious society.

The relationships between Ramatoulaye's daughters and their fiancees exemplify B?'s utopia.
The young couples love and respect each other, share the housework and grant themselves equal
rights and duties. Here it comes to light that B?, unlike Ogot, holds that all gender-specific roles
should be jettisoned. Even the classical division of labour within the family is challenged.

Une si Longue Lettre criticises existing gender relations, without, however, considering single
aspects of the patriarchally informed gender relationships positive or worth being kept. It calls
for new women and new men who will make possible the transformation of the prevalent misogynie
gender relations. B? also considers such a transformation realisable. But according to her,
transformation -
requires a rigorous break with the 'old man' a change of generations. The fiancees
of Daba and her sister Aissatou are the first of the 'men of good will', to whom this book is
dedicated (as well as to all women). Aissatou and Ramatoulaye take the lead in transforming
prevailing gender relationships. However, they - the 'courageous pioneer[s] of a new life' (pg 34),

Agenda 54 2002 39

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

will not come to enjoy the transformed gender relationships themselves. The new dawn only
becomes a reality for their daughters and sons-in-law.

The fate of Binetou shows, however, that the road to a transformed

and Nabou society is by no
means a straight one, but may involve setbacks. But, since Ramatoulaye considers the 'currents
of women's liberation' (pg 88) irreversible, it can be assumed that ultimately the novel argues
that they are only temporary reverses. In summary, these features classify B?'s novel as a
transformative African-feminist text.

Resignation and aggression: Calixthe Beyala's Tu t'appelleras Tanga

Tu Rappelleras Tanga (1988) by the Cameroonian writer Calixthe Beyala, who refers to her
critical examination of gender relations as feminitude, an allusion to N?gritude, is set in a slum
of Inningu?, an imaginary African city, and marked by shattering hopelessness and grimness. Yet
many details indicate that it represents Douala - the city where Beyala was born and grew up.
Beyala's characters live in abject poverty and are plagued by paralysing depression. This
The novel comes to light most prominently in the tragic life of the protagonist Tanga, which shows
gives the that the novel considers even a partial improvement in the situation of women unthinkable.

impres-
sion that As a child, she is sexually abused and even impregnated by her father. Moreover, her
parents force her into prostitution. Tanga tries to escape the grimness and brutality of
all men
her childhood by seeking refuge in a dream world. She believes (wrongly) that she will
are
be able to find shelter in a loving man and a nuclear family.
(potential)
wife- at the end
/ will have my house, the garden, the dog, the magpie of the meadow,
beaters children (pg 46).

This desire, which is mentioned 12 times in the novel, is its leitmotiv, as it were. However, none
of the men whom Tanga meets has even the slightest ambition or ability to love in a way that
comes close to these dreams. Instead of finding love, throughout her life Tanga is beaten, enslaved
and raped by men. In fact, there is not a single intact family nor a single man capable of love in
the entire novel. Whenever a man appears in Tu t'appelleras Tanga, his urges drive him either
to use a woman (with violence) in an extremely brutal and unromantic fashion for his sexual
gratification, or 'only' to beat her. The novel gives the impression that all men are (potential)
rapists and wife-beaters. Moreover, there is no trace of hope for men's ability to change, or of
possible social transformations. Everything is smothered by hopelessness. Men are pilloried not
as individuals, but as a group. The only male character who stands out from the cabal of the other
male characters, is the disabled Mala - the 14-year-old adopted son of the 16-year-old Tanga.
Giving Tanga long dreamed-of tender gestures, Mala nourishes Tanga's hopes of finding happiness
with a man. But Beyala does not leave room for this kind of utopia and Mala dies. Here, however,
she indicates the complexity of women's suffering. No doctor of the orthodox hospital is willing
to treat Mala's illness. The swindler Monsieur Deutschman promises to heal Mala via 'teletherapy'.
Just as Tanga puts all her money - for her a considerable sum - into his basket, Mala dies. Tanga
believes that Mala could have survived if she had more money. Bereft of all hope, she joins a

40 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

group of petty criminals, who survive by counterfeiting - metaphorically seen, through the illusion
of 'being able to belong'. Not long afterwards, Tanga is caught. In prison she is tortured by the
state police and at last dies of her injuries.

The point is clear: Mala and Tanga fall victim to their poverty. This is contrasted with the wealth
of the European Deutschman, which was acquired through fraud - in fact, through cheating the
most destitute people on earth who, because of him, lose everything they have: their little money,
their dreams and even their lives. The name 'Monsieur Deutsch-Man', fusing the three leading
colonial powers in Cameroon (France, Germany and Britain), which also played a crucial role
throughout the entire continent, is a metaphorical indication of the symbolic character of this
figure. It signifies the White western world, which has grown rich at the cost of the world of
Tanga and Mala, the poor South, simultaneously destroying this world and its people's lives. This
implies that the neo-colonial poverty is largely responsible for the dehumanisation of Tanga's
world and, in turn, for men's aggressive actions against women, using them as safety valves.
Thus, Beyala suggests that women carry the double yoke of gendered poverty. ,

Instead of forming an alliance against these odds, Beyala's woman characters make life Beyala
even moredifficult for one another. She symbolises this shattered women-to-women suggests
relationship through the depiction of a deeply troubled mother-daughter relationship, that
which Beyala traces back to the fact that men have destroyed motherhood. women
carry the
In reaction to having been gang-raped, Tanga's grandmother Kadjaba refuses to be a double
mother to her daughter Taba. In reaction to the fact that she never experienced maternal
yoke of
love, Tanga's mother Taba shoves nuts into her vagina - an act which symbolises her own
gendered
refusal to become a mother. She is neitherwilling nor able to develop a loving relationship
with her daughters. She looks on as her husband sexually abuses Tanga. Moreover, both poverty

she and her husband force their daughters into prostitution. Taba's role in Tanga's fate
is shown symbolically in the scene in which Tanga is circumcised. Taba is not only the one who
arranges for the genital circumcision. Afterwards, she even cries out joyfully - and this is surely
an echo of de Beauvoir: 'She has become a woman, she has become a woman' (pg 12). Hence,
the genital circumcision symbolises that women are deprived of elementary rights, subjugated
and discriminated against. Taba not only robs Tanga (through the circumcision as well as by
prostituting her) of her right to sexual pleasure, she also denies her the right to live a self-
determined and happy life. In Tu t'appelleras Tanga, this woman-to-woman discrimination is
juxtaposed with a vision of solidarity among women.

When Tanga dies in prison, she wishes that she, like Jesus, could die for the sins of humanity,
putting an end to human suffering. This hope allies with her White cellmate's wish that Tanga
relate her story so that her sufferings would not have been in vain. Tanga agrees, but makes it
a condition that 'first, the white woman in you must die' (pg 7). This passage may be read as
request to Anna-Claude (the cellmate) to become aware of the privileges she possesses, to
relinquish racism, colonialism and neocolonialism, embodied by Monsieur von Deutschman, as
well as to listen to and approach Tanga's perspective through questions, rather than preconceived
opinions based on personal experiences and paternalistic pity.

Agenda 54 2002 41

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

Anna-Claude meets these requirements. In fact, she even undergoes a metamorphosis. With each
word Tanga tells of her life, Anna-Claude takes on another piece of her identity - she becomes
Tanga. When, in an interrogation, she is asked to state her name, age and profession, Anna-
Claude ultimately answers: 'Girlchild woman, black, seventeen, whore some of the time' (pg 125).
When, after Tanga's death, her mother comes to visit her daughter, Anna-Claude says "? am your
daughter'" and then accuses her by saying: '"You have killed us, Madame'" (pg 1904). Here Anna-
Claude addresses not only the tacit acceptance of the sexual abuse of Tanga and her sister and
the fact that Taba forcedher daughter into prostitution, but her accusation is of a much more
fundamental - -
nature. Why, she asks and with her Beyala as well do women ally themselves with
men and with patriarchal structures, even though in so doing they cause harm and suffering to
other women? Why don't they show solidarity with other women in order to fight back against
the structures and the men who reproduce them for egotistical reasons?

The (exclusive) extolling of solidarity among woman as a way of improving their condition is no
novelty in African-feminist literature. However, what is new and rather unconventional is the fact
that in Tu t'appelleras Tanga, African women are incapable of forming an alliance and
only a White woman is able to offer solidarity and support to Tanga. The plot suggests
that the parallels in the situations and interests of women across the globe make an inter-
Why don't cultural solidarisation who want to attack
among women the patriarchal status quo and
women claim more social spaces and freedom for women not only possible, but almost inevitable.
show With this, Beyala demonstrates a liberal attitude toward (White western) feminism that
solidarity clearly sets her apart from many other African feminists. But taking into account the fact
with other that Tanga exhorts Anna-Claude to let the White woman in her die and that Anna-Claude
women? becomes Africanised, the symbiosis must be interpreted as meaning that an international
solidarity of women is only the feasible when White western feminisms are able to free
themselves from their
West- and gender-centrism as well as from their paternalistic
tendencies. Moreover, because this sisterhood is achieved in a place in which Anna-
Claude inevitably loses her privileges and immediately has experiences similar to Tanga's - in the
prison of a dictatorial government - and as Beyala gives Anna-Claude a Jewish background,
ultimately it remains unclear whether Beyala actually considers all White womeiVfeminists mature
enough for such an alliance, or whether Anna-Claude is no more and no less than a utopia.

The disillusionment in the described utopia can be seen in another aspect as well. Though the
new Tanga proves capable of being a nationless and cultureless advocate for the women of the
world, taking in the difference between Black and White, while emphasising commonalities and
overcoming existing hierarchies, ultimately her chances of fulfilling this legacy are considered
rather low in the novel. In fact, at the end of the book, Anna-Claude is still in prison. Here she
may be beaten and raped, thus broken and destroyed like Kadjaba and other women before her,
or even killed like Tanga. Thus, it is by no means up to her whether she may fulfill Tanga's legacy
or not. And there is little hope that the world that surrounds her will offer her the scope to fulfill
her mission. Neither men nor women are very likely to cooperate. Thus, ultimately, as far as the
belief in women's solidarity is concerned, Tu t'appelleras Tanga views this option with much

42 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Artide

scepticism. Ultimately, Tu t'appelleras Tanga is a novel of deepest despair and hopelessness

and a typical representative of radical Mrican-feminist literature.

African feminisms: a challenge to White western feminisms

African-feminist literatures have proved flexible enough to take into account and provide a forum
for differing perceptions and visions of a (new) coexistence of men and women. It is this
chameleon-like gift which has enabled African feminism to gain a foothold in all African societies
- albeit with differing degrees of influence and
impact. At the same time, the position of African
feminism is still complicated by the fact that feminism's bad reputation precedes it. Again and
again, in inadmissibly broad stereotypes, it is accused
of men, the promotion of lesbian
of hatred
love and the rejection of motherhood. Crucial, however, is that even among men and
women who are open to the idea of feminism, resentments against the label of feminism exist.
These resentments stem largely from Africans' impression that many White feminists in Europe
and North America speak of women in general, while meaning only White women (Ogunyemi,
1996). This attitude on the part of White feminists can be explained either by an ignorance of
other cultures or by a 'we women' self-understanding which negates all cultural differences and
the associated hierarchies. But Africans also find it problematic when Africa is lumped together
with the 'third world' and reprimanded from a paternalistic, West-centrist point of view (Ogundipe-
Leslie, 1994; Kolawole, 1997). Above all, though, in recent years there has been much criticism
of the fact that White feminists have difficulties facing the racist tradition of their societies and
their own feminist movements.

Africans' difficulties with the label feminism have led to the conceptualisation of African alternatives
to western concepts. These alternatives have encroached upon the monopoly of White feminisms
and shaken up rigid paradigms. Ultimately, African feminisms
are a challenge not only for African
societies but for White western feminisms as well. I argue that it is high time that White western
women recognise the voices from Africa as an enrichment, examining the White history and
identity of feminism as well as their own Whiteness, their privileges and their involvement in the
racist discourse of their societies. Only this can put an end to African women's distancing from
feminism. The ability to conceive feminism globally and the coexistence of different versions of
feminism will be decisive in determining whether the socially critical movement of feminism will
continue to lose its explosiveness or, alternately, be able to gain increasing world-wide relevance.

References
Adimora-Ezeigbo ? (1996) Gender Issues in Nigeria. A Feminine Perspective, Lagos: Vista Books.
Adimora-Ezeigbo ? (1992) 'Ubaaku' in ? Adimora-Ezeigbo Rhythms of Life: Stories of Modern Nigeria,
London: Karnak.
Aidoo AA (1982) 'Unwelcome pals and decorative slaves' in AFA, Journal of Creative Writing, 1.
Aidoo AA (1970) Anowa, London: Longman.
Arndt S (2002) The Dynamics of African Feminism, Trenton & Asmara: Africa World Press.
B? M (1980) Une si Longue Lettre, Dakar: Nouvelles Editions Africaines.
B? M (1981) Le Chant ?carlate, Dakar: Nouvelles Editions Africaines.
Beyala C (1988) Tu t'appelleras Tanga, Paris: Editions Stock.

Agenda 54 2002 43

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Artide

Emecheta ? (1979) The Joys of Motherhood, London: Allison & Busby, New York: George Braziller.
Dangarembga ? (1988) Nervous Conditions, London: Women's Press.
Kolawole ME (1997) Womanism and African Consciousness, Trenton, New Jersey & Asmara: Africa
World Press.
Magona S (1991) 7b My Children's Children, London: The Women's Press (first published 1990).
Muthoni W (1994) 'Why God created woman' in Writer's Forum, 2.
Nnaemeka O (1995) 'Feminism, rebellious women and cultural boundaries: rereading Flora Nwapa and her
compatriots' in Research in African Literatures, 26, 2.
Kabira WM, Karega M & Nzioki EA (1992) They've Destroyed the Temple, Nairobi: Longman.
Nwapa F (1966) Efuru, London: Heinemann.
Nwapa F (1970) Idu, London: Heinemann.
Ogot G (1980) The Graduate, Nairobi: Uzima Press (first published 1966).
Ogundipe-Leslie M (1994) Re-Creating Ourselves. African Women and Critical Transformations,
Trenton & Asmara: Africa World Press.
Ogunyemi CO (1996) Africa Wo/Man Palava. The Nigerian Novel by Women, Chicago & London: The
University of Chicago Press.
Perry A (1984) 'Meeting Flora Nwapa' in West Africa, 3487.
El Saadawi ? (1983) Woman At Point Zero, London & New Jersey: Zed Books (first published in Arabic, 1975).

Notes
1. Obioma Nnaemeka, a well-known Nigerian scholar of African women's literature, who refers to herself
as a negofeminist, organised this conference. In her opening speech she spoke about the possibilities
of feminism and feminist scholarship. She expressed her conviction that true feminists do not merely
believe in possibilities, but also try to make them into reality (Nnaemeka, 1995).
2. The terms 'White' and 'Black' are used in capital letters here to indicate that they refer to social and
political identities rather than 'biological realities'.
3. For a more detailed elaboration on the nature and currents of African feminism and African-feminist
literatures, including interpretations of a wider variety of texts, see Arndt (2002).
4. My translation from Beyala ( 1988).

Susan Arndt teaches at the Department of African Studies at Humboldt University in Berlin. She is
author of African Women's Literature, Orality and Intertextuality (1998) and The Dynamics of
AfHcan Feminism (2002). She has edited a book on German images of Africa (2001) and has published
numerous articles on African women's and Nigerian literatures

44 Agenda 54 2002

This content downloaded from 143.106.201.41 on Fri, 26 Feb 2016 00:24:51 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions