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Chapter 2

Sinusoidal AC Circuits
• Periodic Waveform
• Measurements of Signals
• Complex Numbers and Phasors
• Phasor Method
• Impedance
• AC Circuits
• Power
• Power Factor
• Power Factor Correction
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Periodic Waveforms
Waveform
- a plot of values of quantities which vary with time t

Periodic Waveform

- is a signal that satisfies the following equation:

x(t )  x(t  nT ) n  1,2,3,...

where T is the period of x(t)

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform
Typical periodic waveforms:

Sawtooth wave Square wave

Triangular wave Sine wave


Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

Instantaneous Value – the magnitude of a waveform at any


instant of time

Peak Value – the maximum instantaneous value of a function


from the zero-volt level

Peak-to-peak Value – the sum of the magnitudes of the positive


and negative peaks

Period – the time interval between successive repetitions of a


periodic waveform

Cycle – the portion of a waveform contained in one period if


time
Frequency – the number of cycles that occur in one second

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

Sinusoidal waveforms constitutes the most important


class of time-dependent signals. The figure below shows an
example of sinusoidal waveform.

A
x(t)

T t
-A

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

The general form of a sinusoid is:


x(t) = A cos (t + )

where:
A = amplitude

1
f  natural frequency  (in cycles/sor Hz)
T
  radian frequency  2f (in radians/s)

ΔT ΔT
  2π (in radians)  360 (in degrees)
T T
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform
Example:

On the given periodic waveform below, determine:


a. Peak value (+ and -)
b. Peak-to-Peak value
c. Period
d. Frequency
e. Number of Cycle

V (V)
4
2
-2 3 9 15 18 21
-4 t (s)

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

AC Generation

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

Phase Relations
For two sinusoidal waveforms with the same
frequency, the terms lead and lag can be used to indicate
the phase relationship between the two.

A
v(t) i(t)

-90° t
-A

i lags v by 90° or v leads i by 90°


Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform

Some useful trigonometric identities:

sin (- )  - sin 


cos (- )  cos 
- sin (  )  sin (   180)
- cos (  )  cos (   180)
Relationship of sine and cosine:

sin (t  90)  sin (t  )  cos t
2

sin t  cos (t - 90)  cos (t - )
2
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Periodic Waveform
Example:
Plot the following functions on the same set of axis and
determine their phase relationship:
v(t) = 10 sin (t + 30°) V
i(t) = 5 cos (t - 20°) A

Solution:
10 i leads v by 40° or
v(t) v lags i by 40°
5
i(t)
-90° t
-30°
-70°
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Measurement of Signals
Average Value
The area under the curve over a period of time
1 T
X ave 
T  0
x (t ) dt

RMS (Root-Mean-Square) Value


The effective value that would produce the same
effect as an equivalent direct current.

1 T
X rms  
2
x (t )dt
T 0

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Measurement of Signals

For a sine wave:

Maximum value
RMS Value 
2
Example:

Find the effective voltage of the function:


v(t) = 240 sin (t + 30°) V

Solution:

240
Vrms  = 169.706 V
2
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Measurement of Signals
Example:
Compute the average value of the sawtooth waveform
shown:

v (t) V

10 t (ms)
Solution:

area under the curve 1 (10)(5)


Vave   2
= 2.5 V
base 10
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Measurement of Signals
Form Factor
Ratio of rms value to average value
Max
rms 2 
form factorsine     1.11
average 2Max 2 2

Peak Factor
Ratio of maximum value to rms value

maximum Max
peak factorsine    2  1.414
rms Max
2
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Complex Numbers
Recall:
Solution to x2 = -1

- we arbitrarily choose i as the square root of


negative 1

All algebraic equations belong to the following set of ordered


pairs: real numbers and i scaled real numbers (also called
imaginary numbers)

And these ordered pairs are called complex numbers

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

A complex number represents a point in a two-


dimensional plane located with reference to two distinct
axes (the horizontal axis is the real component or will later
be called the resistance axis and the vertical axis is the
imaginary component or will later be called the reactance
axis)

There are two forms used to represent a complex number:


1. Rectangular Form
2. Polar Form

Note: for our discussion, we denote the imaginary


number as j
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

Rectangular Form

Rectangular form is written as:

C = A + jB

+j
C
B
- +

A
-j

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

Polar Form

Polar form is written as:

C = C 

+j
C

-  +

-j

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

Conversion from one form to another

Rectangular to Polar

C A2  B 2

B
  tan 1

A
Polar to Rectangular

A  C cos
B  C sin
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

Mathematical Operations with Complex Numbers


Addition/Subtraction: To add complex numbers, simply add
the real component and the imaginary component separately.
To subtract complex numbers, simply subtract the real and
imaginary numbers separately. Given:

C1   A1  jB1 and C2   A2  jB2

C1  C2  ( A1  ( A2 ))  j ( B1  ( B2 ))

C1  C2  ( A1  ( A2 ))  j ( B1  ( B2 ))
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers

Multiplication/Division: To multiply complex numbers, just


multiply the magnitudes and add the angles algebraically. To
divide complex numbers, simply divide the magnitudes and
subtract the angles between them (the dividend being the
minuend and the divisor being the subtrahend). Given:

C1  C11 and C2  C22

C1  C2  (C1  C2 )(1   2 )

C1 C1
 (1   2 )
C 2 C2

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers
Reciprocal: In getting the reciprocal of a complex number,
we simply multiply the numerator and denominator by the
complex conjugate of the denominator.

1 A  jB A  jB
  2
A  jB A  jB A  j B2 2

Recall: j2 = -1

1 A  jB
 2 Rectangular Form
A  jB A  B 2

1 1
 ( ) Polar Form
C θ C
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Complex Numbers
Example:

C1  3  j 6 C2  445 C3   j5

Find: a. C1 + C2
b. C3 – C1
c. C3*C2
d. C2/C1
e. 1/C1

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Phasor Method
Resistor
i
Unaffected by frequency of the
applied sinusoidal voltage or current
(up to a few hundred kHz). Applying
Ohm’s Law: v R

Given v and finding i:


v Vm sin t Vm
i   sin t  I m sin t
R R R
Given i and finding v:
v  iR  ( I m sin t ) R  I m R sin t  Vm sin t
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Plotting the value of v and i:

VR
vR
IR
iR

  t

For a purely resistive network, the voltage across the


resistor is in phase with the current passing through it.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Inductor
The voltage across the inductor is i

related to the rate of change of


current passing through the coil. So,
the higher the frequency, the greater
the rate of change of current and the v L
greater the magnitude of voltage.

We know that:
diL
vL  L
dt

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Given iL = Im sin t and applying differentiation:

diL d
 ( I m sin t )  I m cost
dt dt
So:
diL
vL  L  L(I m cost )  LI m cost
dt
vL  Vm cost  Vm sin(t  90)
Where:

Vm  LI m

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

The term L is called the inductive reactance due to the


inductor. The unit is in ohms.

X L  L
where :   2f
Inductive reactance is the opposition to current flow
resulted in the continual interchange of energy between the
source and the magnetic field of the inductor.

Inductive reactance does not dissipate electrical energy like


the resistance.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Plotting the value of v and i:

VL
vL
IL
iL

   t

For a purely inductive network, the voltage across the


inductor is leading the current passing through it by 90°.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Capacitor
The current passing through the i
capacitor is related to the rate of
change of voltage across the plates.
So, the higher the frequency, the
greater the rate of change of voltage v C
and the greater the magnitude of
current.

We know that:

dvC
iC  C
dt

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Given vC = Vm sin t and applying differentiation:

dvC d
 (Vm sin t )  Vm cost
dt dt
So:
dvC
iC  C  C (Vm cost )  CVm cost
dt
iC  I m cost  I m sin(t  90)
Where:

I m  CVm

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

The term 1/C is called the capacitive reactance due to


the capacitor. The unit is in ohms.

1
XC 
C
where :   2f
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to current flow
resulted in the continual interchange of energy between the
source and the electric field of the capacitor.

Capacitive reactance does not dissipate electrical energy


like the resistance.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method

Plotting the value of v and i:

VC
vC
IC iC

   t

For a purely capacitive network, the voltage across the


capacitor is lagging the current passing through it by 90°.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Phasor Method
Example:
For the following pairs of voltages and currents, indicate
whether the element involved is a resistor, inductor, or
capacitor, and the value of R, L, or C if sufficient data are
given:

a. v = 2000 sin 377t


i = 11 sin 377t
b. v = 80 sin (157t + 150°)
i = 2 sin (157t + 60°)
c. v = 35 sin (754t - 20°)
i = 7 cos (754t - 110°)

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Impedance
- total opposition to current flow. Can be analogous to
complex resistance
Impedance Diagram
-XC +XL

-R +R

+XC -XL

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
General rectangular form of an impedance:

Z  R  jX 
Where:Z = Impedance (in ohms)
R = Resistance (in ohms)
X = Total Reactance (in ohms)
= (XL – XC)

If a current leads a voltage, the circuit is said to be a


capacitive circuit, and if the voltage leads the current, the
circuit is an inductive circuit.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance

We can take the inverse of impedance, which is known as the


Admittance

Y  G  jB mho

Where:Y = Admittance (in mho), inverse of impedance


G = Conductance (in mho), inverse of resistance
B = Susceptance (in mho), inverse of reactance

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find the total impedance, total current and the current i.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find i.

100 H 200 

+ -
110 sin (4t + 20°) V 10 sin (4t) mA 110 cos (4t - 120°) V
- +
400 
250  300  800 mF

100  500 mF 75 H

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find i.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find i.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find i.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Impedance
Example:
Find i.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Power
Power Diagram

+Q

-P +P

-Q

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
Average Power

p  iv
Consider:
v  Vm sin(t   ) i  I m sin(t   )
So:
p  vi  Vm sin(t   ) I m sin(t   )

p  Vm I m sin(t   ) sin(t   )

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
Recall trigonometric identity:
cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)
sin A sin B 
2

sin(t   ) sin(t   ) 
cost     t     cost     t   

2
cos     cos2t     

2

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
Thus:
Vm I m  Vm I m 
p cos      cos2t     
 2   2 

Fixed value Time-varying function

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
The second factor is a cosine wave with frequency twice the
value of current or voltage and has an amplitude of VmIm/2
has an average of zero, thus producing no net transfer of
energy in any one direction.

Define  as ( -  ) :
Vm I m
P cos
2
 Vm  I m 
P   cos
 2  2 

P  Veff I eff cos

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
Real Power, P
- Also called the effective power or actual power, due to
the resistance in the circuit
- Unit is in watts

Reactive Power, Q
- Also called the quadrature power, due to the reactances
in the circuit
- Unit is in vars

Apparent Power, S
- Total complex power of the circuit
- Unit is in VA
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power
General rectangular form of power:

S  P  jQ
Where:S = Apparent Power (in VA)
P = Real Power (in watts) = Re{S}
Q = Reactive Power (in vars) = Im{S}
= (QL – QC)

If total Q is positive, the circuit is said to be an


inductive circuit, if negative, the circuit is a capacitive
circuit and if zero, then the circuit is resistive circuit.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power

ST  S1  S 2  S3
ST  PT  jQT
Where: PT  P1  P2  P3
QT  Q1  Q2  Q3
Note: For Q, take + for inductive and – for capacitive
S is complex number
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Power Factor
- Ratio of the magnitudes of actual power to the apparent power

P
pf 
S
- Cosine of the angle between voltage and current
pf  cos
where :    v   i
- Can be leading or lagging, depending on the type of
circuit:
Lagging – inductive circuit
Leading – capacitive circuit
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor
Example:
Determine the total power (real, reactive and apparent)
on the figure shown. Also, determine the power factor
of the system.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor
Practice Problem:
Determine the total power (real, reactive and apparent)
on the figure shown. Also, determine the power factor
of the system.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor
Practice Problem:
An electrical load operates at 240 V. The load absorbs an
average power of 8 kW at lagging power factor of 0.8.
Calculate the apparent power and the impedance of the load.

Answer:

S = 8000 + j6000 VA
Z = 4.608 + j3.456 

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Power Calculation
Recall:

P  Vrms I rms cos v  i 

Q  jVrms I rms sin v   i 


S  P  jQ
So:

S  Vrms I rms cos v  i   jVrms I rms sin v  i 

S  Vrms I rms cos v  i   j sin v  i 


Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Calculation
Recall Euler’s Identity:
e  j  cos  j sin
Substitute:

S  Vrms I rms e j ( v  i )
jv  ji
S  Vrms I rms e e
jv  ji
S  Vrms e I rms e
S  Vrms  v I rms   i 
S  VI * Current conjugate method

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Calculation
Example:
A single phase induction motor rated 2HP with
efficiency of 90% and power factor of 0.85 is supplied
by a 230 V AC source. Determine the current taken by
the motor. Also, calculate the total power (real,
reactive, apparent) delivered by the source and the
power factor of the system.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Calculation
Practice Problem:
A 230 V AC source delivers power to a load with
impedance of 40 + j30  via a distribution line with a
resistance of 2 /wire. Determine the current passing
through the circuit. What will be the voltage drop
across the load?; Also, calculate the total power (real,
reactive, apparent) delivered by the source, the total
power (real, reactive, apparent) taken by the load and
the power factor of the system.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits

Power Factor Correction


- the process of introducing reactive elements to bring the
power factor closer to unity

Capacitor Banks

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Synchronous Condensers

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Example:
A 7.5 HP, 220 V, 60 Hz, single phase induction motor
operates at an efficiency and power factor of 0.9 and 0.85
respectively. What capacitance should be connected across
the motor so that the system operates at 0.96 pf? At unity pf?

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Practice Problem:
A single phase lagging power factor load consumes 650 W
and takes 4 A when connected to a 60 Hz, single phase, 220
V source. What level of capacitance would raise the power
factor to 0.9 lagging?; to unity?

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Example:
An inductive load when connected to a 220 V AC supply
draws 4 A of current and consumes 600 W. If another coil is
connect across the same supply, 3 A of current and 400 W is
being drawn by the second load. Determine the total current
drawn by the two loads if they are connected in series; in
parallel. Also, determine the total real power taken by the
two loads and the power factor of the system. For parallel
loads, what level of capacitance would raise the power
factor to unity?

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Practice Problem:
A 5 hp motor with a 0.6 lagging power factor and an
efficiency of 92% is connected to a 208V, 60 Hz supply.
What level of capacitance in parallel with the motor will
raise the power factor of the combined system to unity.

Prof. Roderick L. Catriz


Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II
Chapter 2: Sinusoidal AC Circuits
Power Factor Correction
Practice Problem:
Two loads in the circuit can
be describes as follows:
Load 1: absorbs an average
power of 8kW at 0.8
leading pf
Load 2: absorbs 20 kVA at a lagging power factor of 0.6
a. Determine the following:
i. Power factor of the two loads in parallel
ii.Vs, Is and the apparent power required to supply the loads
b. If the system is at 60 Hz, compute the value of capacitor that
should be placed parallel with the loads to increase the power
factor to 0.95.
Prof. Roderick L. Catriz
Department of Electrical Engineering
College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology (CEAT)
EE 12
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB) Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering II

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