accumulated during the stage of Early-Rise NR) Clastic Depositional Systems
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Channels cut into slopes (may form Levee-Channel Complexes)
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Low-Stand System Tract • LST forms during Early stage of BL rise when the Rate of Rise < Sedimentation Rate (NR).
• Depositional processes/stacking patterns
are dominated by low-rate aggradation & progradation across the entire sedimentary basin. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Low-Stand System Tract • As accommodation is made available by the rising BL, Low-Stand Wedge may include depositional systems, from fluvial to coastal, shallow-marine and deep marine.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Regional architecture of depositional Systems & Stratigraphic Surfaces during LST
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Splays • Crevasse splay is a sedimentary fluvial deposit which forms when a stream breaks its natural/artificial levees and deposits sediment on a floodplain. • A breach forms a crevasse splay deposits, similar in pattern to an alluvial fan deposit. Once the levee has been breached the water flows out of its channel. • As the water spreads onto the flood plain sediments will start to fall out of suspension as the water loses energy. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Low-Stand System Tract • Slope Channels which are erosive, can set up a variety of stratigraphic traps due to pinch-outs.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Slope-Fan Exxon Model
• Slope-Fan in terms of Exxon model, is a
fine grained unit with channels-levees, deposited after the Basin-Floor Fan. • Followed by LST Prograding Complexes which are usually slope & delta units which pinch out at the shelf edge.
* Exxon Model was developed for Gulf of
Mexico Basin & fits well there, in other basins, sometimes SF’s, are difficult to see. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Channels cut into slopes (may form Levee-Channel Complexes)
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Depositional processes/products of LST - As compare to FSST, sediments of Early-Rise NR are more evenly distributed between fluvial, coastal and deep-water systems. Sand is present in fluvial channel fills, beach, delta-front system & submarine fans. Low-stand prism expands landward via fluvial aggradation & onlap. - Aggradation on the continental shelf in fluvial to shallow-marine environments reduces the amount of sediment supply to the deep basin, thus turbidity currents of this stage are dominantly of low-density. Low-Stand System Tract LST deposits typically consist of the coarsest sediment fraction of both non- marine & shallow marine section.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Low-Stand System Tract • Trapping of the coarser sediment within aggrading fluvial-coastal-shallow-marine systems at the onset of BL rise, reduces
a) Net amount of sand supplied to the deep-
water environment b) Sand/mud ratio of the sediment load, transported by turbidity currents. • Resulting LST sediments of Basin-floor submarine fan complex, are fine-grained as compared to underlying Late FR deposits. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Low-Stand System Tract • Comparing high-density turbidity currents of Late stage of Forced Regression, the deep- water portion of the LST is dominated by low density turbidites . • Due to lower sediment/water ratio, low- density turbidity currents, are under-loaded on the continental slope (high-energy relative to sediment-load), resulting in channel entrenchment instead of aggradation. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Low-Stand System Tract • Beyond the toe of slope, (on the basin floor), LST turbidity currents may become overloaded with energy drop due to decreasing seafloor gradients.
• As a result, basin-floor setting can record
aggradation of leveed channels during LST NR. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Low-Stand System Tract • Increase in rate of BL rise with time, & energy drop contributes to the overall fining-upward fluvial profile.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Low-Stand System Tract • Typical examples of LST fluvial deposits include amalgamated channel fills (low accommodation systems) overlying subaerial unconformities which may accumulate within incised valleys. • LST fluvial sediments begins to accumulate within topographic lows, and assumed to fill incised valleys (at least partially).
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Low-Stand System Tract • Sometimes, LST fluvial deposits are missing from the stratigraphic architecture of incised valley-fills, due to either non- deposition/erosion during Transgression.
• In such cases, fluvially-cut surface at the
base of incised valley, is turned into a Transgressive Surface of Erosion and incised valley may be entirely filled by TST deposits. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays • Rising BL during the LST Normal Regression, provides accommodation across the entire basin.
• Sediment indicate a concentration of the
coarsest river-borne sediment within fluvial & coastal depositional systems, forming the Best Reservoirs, with the highest sand/mud ratio. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays • Net decrease in sediments available for deep-water gravity-flows & reduction in sand/mud ratio in submarine fans is caused by trapping of sand within aggrading fluvial-shallow-marine systems.
• Shelf-Edge deltas continue to prograde
the upper slope, with development of a topset in response to coastal aggradation. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays • Petroleum plays of the LST are diverse in terms of origin and syn-depositional processes, ranging from fluvial to coastal and shallow-deep-marine systems.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic surfaces during LST
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Petroleum Plays • LST is the most favorable among all systems tracts due to relatively even distribution of reservoirs across the basin. • LST fluvial deposits (amalgamated channel-fills), form the best reservoirs of the entire fluvial portion of sequence. • Equally good reservoirs may form in coastal, shallow-water and deep-water environments. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays Key for recognizing LST wedge on seismic lines • Presence of Topset (instead of offlap & truncation, typical of FR) associated with the shelf-edge deltas. • Landward from shelf-edge, fluvial reservoirs are typically represented by channel fills. * (Best fluvial reservoirs of entire BL cycle, with the highest sand/mud ratio) www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays • Shelf-edge deltas, prograding upper continental-slope, also trap significant amounts of sand, forming good reservoirs.
• These NR shelf-edge reservoirs are often
topped by high-amplitude reflectors on seismic, due to strong acoustic impedance contrast arising from TST & HST shales above underlying LST sand-rich reservoirs. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays • River-borne sediment continues to be delivered to deeper basin but in decreasing amounts & with decreasing sand/mud ratio in response to increasing rates of BL rise • As more & more sand is trapped in aggrading fluvial/coastal systems,the submarine fan receives less & less sand, which generates fining-up trend in Slope- Fans. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Exploration Risk • Main risks for the exploration of LST reservoirs relate to seals & source rocks, especially toward the basin margins e.g. Erosional Truncation
• However, even within a shelf setting,
fluvial, coastal & shallow water LST reservoirs may be sealed by overlying TST shales. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Exploration Risk Such risk decreases towards deeper part of the basin:
• LST turbidites,(which travel farther into
the basin relative to the Falling-Stage gravity flows), stand a good chance of being in direct contact with TST/HST source & seal facies both below & above. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Coal Resources No significant coal deposits are generally associated with LST.
• LST is defined by high sediment-supply in
an overall low accommodation-space • Such environmental conditions are generally unfavorable for peat accumulation. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Transgressive System Tract
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Clastic Depositional Systems
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • TST is bounded by the Maximum Regressive Surface (MRS) at the base & MFS at the top.
• TST develops during the stage of BL rise
when rates of rise > sedimentation rates at the shoreline .
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract- Log Model
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
TST & Source Rock Potential
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract TST recognizable from:
- Diagnostic retrogradational stacking patterns
- Overall fining-upward trends within both marine & non-marine successions.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
“Clastic Hierarchies” www.bui.edu.pk Christopher G. St. C. Kendall By: Raheela@cpgco2 Transgressive System Tract • Rates of creation of accommodation are the highest, thus TST is expected to include the entire range of depositional systems, from fluvial to coastal, shallow- marine and deep-marine.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • TST fluvial & coastal deposits may be thick, due to the high sedimentation rates & available accommodation
• Trapping of large amounts of terrigenous
sediment within aggrading fluvial-coastal systems results in a cut-off of sediment supply to the marine environment .
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract
Regional architecture of depositional systems & stratigraphic surfaces during TST
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract Triggered by the lack of sediment supply & regime of hydraulic instability during rapid BL rise, the shelf-edge region is subjected to non-deposition/sediment reworking.
• Thus, TST tends to be composed of two distinct wedges separated by
an area of non-deposition around the shelf edge:
- one on continental-shelf consisting of fluvial to
shallow-marine deposits
- one in deep-water setting consisting of gravity flow
deposits and pelagic sediments
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • Both wedges shift toward basin-margin during Transgression, following general retrogradational trend, by onlapping the landscape & the seascape, respectively.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • Gradual expansion of Transgressive depozone in a continental-shelf setting is associated with Fluvial Onlap (leading edge of TST wedge).
• Such predictable trends could be altered if
fluvial processes are influenced by climate/tectonics (other than BL changes). www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Transgressive System Tract • Within the deep-water portion of the basin, TST deposits are often seen onlapping the continental slope, forming a TST slope-apron (wedge) associated with Marine Onlap.
• Coastal Onlap is another important stratal
termination,(diagnostic for transgression) forming within the continental-shelf based TST wedge. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Transgressive System Tract
Regional architecture of depositional systems and stratigraphic surfaces
during TST
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • Due to rapid accommodation creation during transgression & water table rise in parallel with the BL, fluvial portion of the TST often contains well developed Coal seams.
• TST fluvial deposits may form a significant portion
of Incised-Valley Fills. • Where Incised Valleys from previous stages of BL fall are not entirely filled by LST deposits, their downstream portions are turned to estuaries at the onset of Transgression. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Contrast between LST fluvial & overlying Transgressive estuarine facies may be seen in well logs, at the contact.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Satellite image showing a River-dominated, prograding delta, in an overall Transgressive-setting,(case B) Mississippi delta. High sediment supply from river causes the delta to prograde inspite of Transgression.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • Sediment supply to the shallow-marine environment is limited during Transgression, as most of the sediments are trapped within rapidly aggrading fluvial & coastal systems.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract • Additional sediment for the shallow-marine environment is provided by processes of wave erosion in the upper shoreface, during transgression • Some of the sediments are transported landward to form back-stepping beaches/estuary-mouth complexes • While some are dispersed seaward on the shelf by storm surges/tidal currents to form sheet/ridge/wedge-shaped deposits.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Coastal to Shallow-Marine Deposits of TST. -Back-stepping beaches(open-shoreline settings)/estuary-mouth complexes (retrograding river- mouth settings) -Transgressive-lag deposits overlying wave- ravinement surface that forms in upper shoreface - Sand sheets/ridges within inner shelf environments due to storm/tidal currents - Healing-phase wedges(distal) fill low areas of the Outcrop, associated with seafloor. As the fallout rate decreases with distance in wave-ravinement surfaces, a seaward direction, geometry of bedding surfaces showing Transgressive-Lag, changes from concave-up (shape, inherited from the BTS (plant debris in this case). youngest regressive clinoform) to flat & eventually convex-up. Transgressive System Tract • Sedimentation in marine environment tends to heal the seascape profile, leading to formation of healing-phase wedges in low areas of the seafloor.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Transgressive System Tract TST shallow-marine deposits may also include transgressive lags & shelf-sand deposits with a sheet/ridge-like geometry. • Both may form excellent regional reservoirs encased in shelf fine-grained seal facies. • Overall thickness of the shallow-water portion of the TST decreases toward the shelf-edge, where TST deposits are commonly missing.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Depositional processes/products of Early TST - Rapid rates of BL rise, trigger retrogradational facies shift on continental-shelf, where most of the sediment is trapped in fluvial, coastal and shallow-marine systems. - Wave-ravinement processes erode the underlying NR shelf-edge deltas/open shoreline, continuing to supply sand for deep-water turbidites of low-density type, are under-loaded on the steep continental slope (flow energy > sediment load) causes entrenchment, but become overloaded on the low-gradient basin floor (sediment load > flow energy).Low-density turbidity flows travel farther into the basin. - Healing-phase wedges & estuaries are typically/diagnostic for Transgression. Depositional processes/products of Late TST - Most of the terrigenous sediment is trapped in the fluvial, estuarine, deltaic, open shoreline & lower shoreface deposits. -Additional sand is incorporated within shelf macroforms (sheets/ridge) generated by storm surges/tidal currents. - As BL rises rapidly during transgression, hydraulic instability at the shelf edge generates mudflows in the deep-water environment. - Top of all TST deposits is marked by MFS. Petroleum Plays Petroleum Plays of Early Transgression
• Related to continental shelf-based
transgressive wedge & deep-water wedge.
• On the shelf-edge, the best reservoirs are
concentrated along the coastline, being represented by back-stepping beaches estuary-mouth complexes/retrograding deltas.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
TST may consist of two distinct wedges, one on the continental shelf & other in the deep-water environment, separated by an area of sediment bypass/erosion around the shelf edge.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Petroleum Plays
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Petroleum Plays • Landward from the shoreline, petroleum exploration potential of TST is moderate to poor due to extensive development of fine- grained facies due to rapid rates of BL rise. • Fluvial reservoirs are represented by isolated channel fills, levees, and crevasse splay deposits.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Petroleum Plays • Rapid increases in water depth lead to shelf edge instability, resulting in mud-rich gravity flows (fine-grained outer-shelf sediments).
• Sand/mud ratio of the gravity-flow deposits
accumulated in the deep-water environment during rising BL (LST NR to Transgression) records an overall decrease, from turbidites to mudflows, resulting in fining-upward trend. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays Petroleum plays of Late transgression
• Concentrated in fluvial to shallow-marine
depositional systems (TST wedge, developed on the continental shelf).
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Petroleum Plays Late Transgressive fluvial/coastal & lower shoreface reservoirs are similar to those of Early Transgression, except the shelf-sand deposits referred as Transgressive shelf macroforms.
• According to Posamentier (2002), these
macroforms are thought to have formed by erosion & subsequent reworking of sand-prone deltaic/coastal plain deposits by shelf tidal currents... • Macroforms have significant exploration potential being commonly sand prone and tend to be encased in shelf- mudstone seal facies. www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2 Petroleum Plays Main contribution of the TST:
• Accumulation of source-seal rocks
• TST shallow-marine shales, form regionally extensive covers across continental shelves, which can be used as reference for stratigraphic correlation • Can be easily identified on 2D seismic lines, based on their transparent seismic facies.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Seismic Facies Calibrated with a GR Log. -Regionally extensive transgressive shale can be mapped on seismic line as a transparent facies. -Can form a stratigraphic marker, to be used for regional correlation and is bounded by a FS at the base and by a MFS at the top which itself is overlain by regressive (HST) deposits. Coal Resources TST is the best option for Coal Exploration Time of end-of-shoreline transgression marks the peak for peat accumulation & subsequent coal development because the water table is at its highest level during Transgression.
• The condition, accommodation > sedimentation is a
fundamental prerequisite for significant accumulations of peat deposits.
*Condition is necessary but not sufficient, as vegetation
growth depends on climatic conditions also.
www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2
Coal Resources • Assuming all favorable conditions are fulfilled, the best developed coal seams are expected to overlap MFS.
• Timing of MFS is also relatively late in the
stage of BL rise, (means that denudated source areas now supply less sediment than in the earlier stages of BL rise). www.bui.edu.pk By: Raheela@cpgco2