Phys 1225 spring 2017, week 3

Last time we calculated the field of

continuously distributed line of charge of

length, L and total charge Q. By breaking it

y into an infinite number of slices we showed

that the field along the x axis can be written,

L x θ

! kQ

E = E x x̂ = 2 2 1/2
x̂

x(x + (L / 2) )

Very close to centre we have x << L. Pulling

the factor of L out of the above expression

gives,

! kQ

E = E x x̂ = 2 2 1/2
x̂ , since x/L << 1/2 we may

xL((x / L) + (1 / 2) )

neglect when we are this close to the centre so we are left with

the expression,

! 2k(Q / L) 2k λ
E = E x x̂ = x̂ = x̂
x , λ = Q/L is referred to as the

linear charge density. (λ is constant along the length of the line

for continuously distributed charge.)

So when we are at a distance from

the line comparable to its size we

will notice how the field varies

from the centre towards its ends.

But when we are very close to its

centre we only see a field,

perpendicular to its length that

falls off inversely as the distance

from the line.

! 2k λ

E= x̂

RECALL that we also worked out that far far away from the

charge, the field at a distance R >> L, just becomes that of a

point charge

! kQ

E = 2 R̂

We also considered the electric field of a

uniformly charged ring of radius R, along

its symmetry axis (z in this case).

Since all slices are at the same distance,

r = (x2 + R2)1/2, and all components

perpendicular to the z axis cancel, the field

along the symmetry axis is just that of a

point charge a distance r away, times the

cosine, z/r,

! kQ z kQz

E = 2 ẑ = 2 ẑ

r r (z + R 2 )3/2

Notice that when z changes sign, so does the direction of the

field!

Field of a uniformly charged disk, along its axis of symmetry

ADDING RINGS TO FORM A DISK

Each ring
! is the source of a tiny (infinitesmal) field along the symmetry

axis, dE , as shown below.

Each ring contributes a field,

2kdQz

dE z = 3/2
€

(z 2 + a 2 )

Adding up all the tiny ring

fields, to get the net field, is a

job for integration. The

radius of the rings varies

continuously between b and

zero.

We need to know the amount of charge in each of the rings. For this we

use the fact the charge is uniformly distributed over the whole disk,

which means that,

ring charge ring area dQ 2πa da
= =
total charge total area ,as symbols, Q πb 2 , or,

2Qπa da

dQ = 2
= 2σπada

πb €

where “sigma”, σ = Q/πb2, is the constant charge per unit area of the

disk. As shown in the text (p. 736) the result of the integration is,

% 1 (

1
E z = 2πkzσ ' 2 − 2 *

2 .

& z z +b )

CHECK EXTREME LIMITS

1) VERY FAR AWAY, z >> b. This requires use of the binomial

approximation.

(NOTE: I will NOT ask you to do this sort of thing on a test!!)

You can check out the text for the details, the result is of course is

the field of a point charge,

kQ

Ez = 2

z

2) REALLY CLOSE, z << b. This limit is easier to understand. The

expression between parentheses just approaches 1/z, since the

second term is so much smaller.
€

% 1 (

1

So, E z = 2πkzσ ' 2 − 2 2 * , becomes just, E z = 2πkσ .

& z z +b )

The most striking thing is that this result does not depend of z!?!?!?!

€
€

One way to understand this

is to realize that, as long as

z << b is true, it is as though

the disk appears to have a

constant radius of, b =

infinity.

As a graph we have. The

component Ez changes sign

since the field always points

away from positive charge.

How to make a uniform electric field

DRAW FIELD LINES FOR EACH INFINITE PLANE BELOW, say 6 from each

plane

(just imagine the vertical lines are the side view of infinite planes that extend

higher and lower on the page than shown….)

1) constant positive charge density, σ

2) constant negative charge density, −σ

Now we place one parallel to the other. Discuss what happens with your

neighbours and draw field lines now.

(Another way to obtain the same result is to use our expression for

the line charge and integrate it, much as we did the ring charge.)

Phys 1225 spring 2017

Gauss’s law

The total electric flux

through an imaginary

closed surface is equal to

the net electric charge

inside of that surface.

This is the first of 4 laws that will allow us to understand how cell

phones work!! (They emit/receive electromagnetic waves…..)

The BASIC IDEA of Gauss’s law

COUNT the number of lines that cut through the imaginary green surfaces

shown below in the 2 pictures (Q is equivalent to 12 lines in this drawing)

Number on lines Number on lines

out of surface, Nout into surface, Nin

NET number of lines = Nout - Nin

Net charge

(Q is equivalent to 8 lines in this drawing)

Number on lines Number on lines

out of surface, into surface, Nin

Nout

NET number of lines = Nout - Nin

Net charge

CONCLUDE THAT

“The net charge inside an imaginary closed surface is equal to the net number

of lines leaving that surface.”

Definition of the electric flux, Φ

When the electric field is constant over a flat surface, the electric flux is equal to

the component of the electric field normal (or perpendicular to) that surface, En,

times its area, A.

Φ = En A

Below is the simple case of a uniform electric field that is normal to the surface.

In this case, En = E and so,

Φ = EA .

SI Unit of flux

The Weber (Wb)

1 Wb = 1N/C m2

When the electric field is not perpendicular to a surface, you must calculate the

normal component, En. As can be seen below, En.= E cos θ, where θ is the angle

between E and a normal to the surface,

Angle θ Flux in

in units of EA

degrees

90

180

Note that the sloped surface of area

A2 is related as shown above.

IF the surface is curved and/or the electric field is not constant then you have to break the

surface into pieces that are so small that both the direction and magnitude do not change

significantly over a given piece of area, ΔAi.

Then just add all up the fluxes through

each piece to get the total flux through the

entire surface,

Φ = ∑ ΔΦi ,

i=1

where, ΔΦi = ( E n ) i ΔAi , and

( E n ) i = E i cosθ i

Very simple case; a point charge, +Q, at

€ the centre of a closed imaginary surface

€ (hereafter a Gaussian Surface or GS), a

sphere of radius r. By convention the

normal to the surface, nˆ (pronounced “n

hat”) is always taken to be outwards from a GS.

€
In this case the electric field is everywhere normal to the surface

! kQ

and equal to E = 2 rˆ . So if we imagine breaking the surface

r

of the sphere up into very tiny squares of area, , ΔAi, the net

flux, is just the sum of the flux through all the squares, as

Q considered above.

The tiny squares on the surface would look like a disco ball!!

By taking the continuum limit of the number of such squares

approaching infinity, the finite sum above becomes an integral over the closed GS.

Φnet = ∫E n dA

The circle over the integral sign refers to the fact that the GS,

labeled S, is a closed surface with distinct inside and outside

regions. (egs. A balloon, a closed bag, a soap bubble,….)

However since the field is constant over our spherical GS in this case and E is normal to the surface (or E =

En in this case) En can be pulled out of the sum/integral and so the net flux becomes in this case,

kQ

Φnet = ∫ E dA =
n
r2
∫ dA = A sphere
S S

The area of a sphere of radius r is, 4πr2, so

have,

kQ Q

Φnet = 2
4 πr 2 = 4 πkQ = inside .
r ε0

(NOTE: The last step uses the fact that

Coulomb’s constant is related to the
€
permittivity of free space by the

relation, k = 1 4 πε )
0

€ So Gauss’s law relates the net charge inside an imaginary closed surface to the net electric flux through

that surface,

Qinside

GAUSS’S LAW
Φ net = ∫ E dA =
n
ε0

S

For the case of the point charge, since the symmetry of the charge (point or spherical symmetry) is the same

as the chosen GS, En is independent of location on the surface and so can be pulled out of the integral which

then is just equal to the area as shown above.

€

Gauss’s law says that the net flux only depends on the net charge inside, Qinside, so it does not matter how

that charge is distributed inside the GS.

For example, for the point charge considered above,

as long as Q is inside the GS, the result would be the

same.

Q outside GS

Q inside GS

Q Q

Phys 1225

More Gauss’s law

Gauss’s law relates the net charge inside an imaginary closed surface (the

Gaussian Surface or GS) to the net electric flux through that surface,

It allows us to determine,

WITHOUT INTEGRATION, the Qinside

electric field in situations that are

SYMMETRIC ENOUGH.
Φ net = ∫ En dA =
ε0
S

Q/ How do I do it?

A/ You attack the above equation in 3 steps

1) LHS (Left Hand Side) Given the symmetry and the charge distribution

and the location(s) you want to know the electric field at you make the

appropriate choice(s) for a GS

2) RHS (Right Hand Side) calculate Qinside. !

3) Equate LHS and RHS and solve for the appropriate component of E

(SEE BELOW FOR DETAILS)

Starting with the LHS (Left Hand Side) (the “integral”) There are 3 basic symmetries considered in this

course as shown below: THE GOAL IS TO CHOOSE A GS SO THAT THE E FIELD DIRECTION IS

EITHER

1) perpendicular to all or part of the surface, in which case this part of the LHS is just EA

OR

2) parallel to part of the GS, in which case this part of the LHS is zero

SPHERICAL (GS is a sphere of radius r, where r is the the

distance from the centre that you want know E at.)

LHS is always equal to Er4πr2

RHS is equal to the net charge inside the sphere of radius r.

USEFUL to know that the volume of a sphere is

4 3
Vsphere = πr

CYLINDRICAL (GS is a cylinder of radius R and

length L, where R is the the distance from the axis

that you want know E at.)

LHS is always equal to ER2πrL

since only the curved surface has flux through it!

RHS is equal to the net charge inside the sphere of

radius r.

USEFUL to know that the volume of a cylinder is

Vcylinder = LπR 2

PLANAR (GS is a cylinder whose ends are of equal

area A and height 2z, where z is distance from the

plane z = 0 that you want know E at.)

LHS is always equal to 2EzA

since only the 2 ends have flux through them!

Eg. Starting with SPHERICAL, solve for Er everywhere inside and outside of a charged thin spherical shell

of radius R and charge Q.

Eg. A neutral metal spherical shell with a point charge Q at its centre (shaded region is metal). Gauss’s law

can give us the field in all 3 regions, i.e. for any r. CHOOSE spherical GS so LHS = Er4πr2

The shell breaks space into 3 regions:

1) r < R or in the empty region below the shell

2) R < r < 2R or inside the metal of the shell itself

3) R > 2R or anywhere outside of the

shell Er

2R

R 2R

SAME as above but now the net charge on the shell is -2Q.
Er
Use Gauss’s law to determine Er in
all 3 regions.

2R

R 2R r
Another SPHERICAL distribution: solve for Er everywhere inside and outside of a uniformly charged
sphere of radius R.
A CYLINDRICAL distribution of charge: an infinitely long uniformly charge line
of linear charge density, λ = Q/L. Find ER for all R.
A PLANAR distribution of charge: an infinitely big uniformly charged planar “slab” of thickness 2a.
Find ER for all R, both inside (|z| < a ) and outside ((|z| > a) the slab.
 A UNIFORMLY CHARGED SHELL OF INSULATING MATERIAL(e.g. plastic), of total charge Q.

Again we have 3 regions ( inside of, in and outside of the shell)

Inside, nothing has changed, see above for details.

In the shell, the calculation of Qinside is more interesting….

The shell has a volume, V and a charge Q that is uniformly distributed
R over its volume. Inside the GS of radius r shown in the figure (besides
r Q at the centre in this case), is a fraction of the total charge of the shell,
Q Qinside , that is proportional to the fraction of the total volume of the
shell that is inside of that surface, Vinside. In symbols,
2R
Qshell,inside Vshell,inside
=
Qshell Vshell

The volume of a spherical shell is just equal to the volume of a sphere

of the outer shell radius minus the volume of a sphere of the inner shell radius, Vshell = Vouter – Vinner.,
€
4π 3 4π 3 4π 3
Vshell =
3
router −
3
rinner =
3
( 3
router − rinner ).
For example, in the present case, rinner = R and router = 2R, so the volume of the shell is,
€ 4π 3 4π 4π
Vshell = (2R) − R 3 = (8R 3 − R 3 )
3 3 3

The volume of the shell inside the GS is just,

€ 4π 3 4 π 3 4π 3 3
Vshell,inside =
3
r −
3
rinner =
3
(r − rinner ) ,
which in the present case gives,
€ 4π 3 4 π 3 4π 3
Vshell,inside =
3
r −
3
R =
3
( r − R3 ) .

So we have, in general,
€ 4π 3 3
Qshell,inside Vshell,inside (r − rinner )
= = 3
Qshell Vshell 4π 3
3
( 3
router − rinner )
Calculate Qshell,inside for the present case, (, rinner = R and router = 2R)

€
GRAPH of Er versus r

Er

R 2R r
Phys 1225 spring 2017

Coaxial cable
2 conductors that share the same SYMMETRY axis
1) a central rod of radius a
2) a surrounding metal shell of inner radius
R1 and outer radius R2.

GIVEN that there is a charge per unit length

λ = Q/L on the rod,

WHAT must the charge/length be on the

shell to ensure that ER = 0 inside it?

Find ER everywhere (all 4 regions) and make a plot of it on the graph provided below.
ER

a R1 R2 R
What if charge is not uniformly charged in some region?

Eg. Problem 42 from your text

Insulating spherical ball that has a volume charge
density that varies as, ρ(r) = Ar. dr
R
The amount of charge in each thin (!!) spherical r
shell of thickness dr, is given by, dQ = ρ(r)
dV,where dV is the volume of the shell.
The volume of a spherical shell is just its area times
its thickness,

dV = 4πr2 dr, so we have,

dQ = ρ(r) dV = Ar 4πr2 dr.

Er

R r