Subgrade Soil

SUBGRADE SOIL
1
SUBGRADE SOILS
 Soil is the most important foundation and
construction material for pavement structures.
◦ Foundation material for all pavements as undisturbed in
situ sub grade material or transported and reworked
embankment material.
◦ Construction material for pavement structures either in
its natural form (sand and gravel) or in a processed
form as stabilized layer.
 Soil investigation is, thus, an integral part of the

location, design and constructionHIGHWAY
of IIhighways.
- Subgrade Soil 2
SUBGRADE SOILS
 The sub-grade is the undermost layer of a
pavement.
 And as such is one of the main concerns
of a pavement design.
HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 3

 Many pavement failures could be traced to insufficient
consideration given to the natural sub-grade material,
especially in the case of problematic soils,
 The identification of which is of
paramount importance and half the solution
towards the mitigation measures.

 Subgrades usually consist of fine grained.
cohesive or non cohesive soils.
 All these materials exhibit a stress

dependent behavior implying that both the
stiffness and the shear strength increase
with increasing confinement.

Soil Surveys and Investigations
 Along with traffic and economic criteria, the

design of a road and of a road’s pavement in
particular, is based on the surface and sub
soils conditions, and the characteristics and
quality of construction materials used.
 Soil survey for highway purposes involve the

exploration of the soils along the highway
routes and the identification of suitable soils
for use as sub base and fill materials.

 The results of soil investigation provide pertinent
information about soil and rock for a decision on
one or more of the following subjects.
◦ Selection of roadway alignment

◦ Decision of the need for sub grade or embankment
foundation treatment
◦ Investigation of slope stability in cuts and
embankments
◦ Location and design of ditches and culverts
◦ Selection and design of the roadway pavement
◦ Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and
construction materials, and
◦ Design of foundations for bridges HIGHWAY
and other structures
II - Subgrade Soil 12
 Before a field investigation is carried out at
the site, preliminary information regarding
soil condition can often be obtained from the
following sources
i. Geological and agricultural soil maps. These
often indicate the types of soil or geological
formation that cover the area being
investigated.
ii. Aerial photographs. Terrain information visible
on air photos can be used for identification of
most of the common bedrock types associated
residual soils, transported soils, and organic
soils. HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 13
iii. Satellite images. Satellite images are employed as a
supplemental to air photos or as a substitute for air
photos for geological studies and soil investigations.
iv. Area reconnaissance. Reconnaissance survey aids in

securing broad understanding of soil conditions and
associated engineering problems that may be
encountered. The visual examination of vegetation
cover, roadway cuts, and valleys in the area can give
clue. The depth of water level in adjacent wells may
indicate the elevation of the groundwater table.

 Field investigations and sample collection
for laboratory tests are commonly carried
out by the following four methods.
 Geophysical methods (seismic or electrical).The
seismic refraction method relies on the principle
that the velocity of sound in soils and rocks is
differentfor different materials.Itis particularly
useful in predicting the depth to bedrock.
HIGHWAY II - Subgradl 19
The electrical resistivity mainly depends on the content of
clay minerals, moisture content, and type and concentration
of electrolyte in the soil-water. An increasing content of
clay, water or electrolyte causes decreasing the resistivity
of soils.
◦ Test pits or trenches: suitable for shallow depths only to

sample soils and rocks and register soil profiles.
◦ Hand augers: suitable for shallow depths only to obtain

disturbed or mixed samples of soils.
◦ Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs: the principal
method for detailed soils investigations.
Metal Rods
Blade

Depth of investigations
 The design depth is defined as the depth from the
finished road level to the depth that the load bearing
strength of the soil no longer has an effect on the
pavement’s performance in relation to traffic loading.
 Properties of soil below the design depth may indirectly

affect pavement performance, but are generally
unrelated to traffic loading.

 The depth of test pits and borings should in no
case be less than 1.5m below the proposed sub
grade level unless rock material is encountered.
 A preliminary vertical alignment may be required
at the time of the soil survey in order to ensure
that soil samples are actually taken at levels that
fall within the design depth of the road.

Depth of investigations
 For ordinary work, it is quite sufficient to go to a depth of

about 3m below the proposed foundation level in areas of cut
and 3m below the existing ground in areas of fill
investigations in cuttings deeper than 3m could be impractical
and special equipment may have to be required.
 If possible, postponement of sampling until the time of
construction should be considered under such conditions.
 Evaluation of sub grade strength in embankment areas should
be based on the best possible information about likely sources
of fill materials for use within the design depth.
SAMPLING AND FREQUENCY
 As a standard guideline, at least one representative soil
sample should be collected per kilometer of the proposed
roadway alignment, with more frequent samples where
there are significant changes in soil type.
 Significant changes are those which affect the general
classification of the soils as well as their bearing
strength (CBR).
 The sampling location may be alternatively on the left
and right edge of the proposed roadway.

 Table 4-1 gives a recommended sampling frequency and the
corresponding tests which may be altered depending on the
variations in soil types along the alignment.
 Spacing in specific locales may be increased where the

subgrade exhibits a fair degree of homogeneity, and
conversely be decreased where variations become evident,
or when problem soils or design problems are encountered.
 Table 4-1 Design depth (Tanzania pavement Design manual, 1999)

 The recommended approximate quantity (mass) of sample

required may be determined by verifying the tests
required and referring to Table 4-2 below.
 It is simpler, and generally preferable, to retrieve in

the field each sample large enough to conduct all
required tests in the laboratory.

 Table 4-2: Minimum Mass of Sample Required (Soils and Gravels)

RECOMMENDED TESTS ON SOIL SAMPLES
 For new road alignments, the following

tests shall normally be conducted, as a
minimum, on the collected soil samples:
◦ Grain Size Analysis (AASHTO T88)

◦ Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89, T90)
◦ Moisture Content (AASHTO T265)
◦ Compaction Test (AASHTO T180)
◦ CBR and Swell (AASHTO T193)
◦ Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T 307 -99 (2003)
Sieve Analysis HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 32
Grain Size Distribution Curve

100
80
A
% F i ne r
60
D
B C
40
20
E
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
P article size (mm)
Typical grading curves
Some typical grading curves are shown on
the figure.
The following descriptions are applied to
these curves
D Well graded material
C Uniform material
E Poorly graded material
B Well graded with some clay
A Well graded with an excess of fines

ASTM Soil Hydrometers
Mechanical Analysis Stirrer

Atterberg Limits
 The physical and mechanical behavior of

fine-grained soils is linked to four
distinct states:
solid,
semisolid,
 plastic, and
 liquid in order of increasing water content.
 Let us consider a soil initially in a liquid
state that is allowed to dry uniformly.
41
Atterberg Limits
Border line water contents, separating the

different states of a fine grained soil
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid water content

limit limit limit
brittle- semi- plastic liquid

solid solid
42
Atterberg Limits
Liquid Limit (wL or LL):
Clay flows like liquid when w > LL
Plastic Limit (wP orPL):
Lowest water content where the clay is still plastic
Shrinkage Limit (wS or SL):
At w<SL, no volume reduction on drying
43
Plasticity Index (PI)
 Range of water content over which the soil remains
plastic
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit
water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit
plastic 44
Classifying Fines
Purely based on LL and PI
Intermediate plasticity
60 Low High
plasticity plasticity
Plasticity index
40
Clays
20 Silts
0
0 20 35 50 100
Liquid Limit
45
46
Determination of Liquid Limit
47
48
49
50
51
Cone Penetrometer Hand-Operated Liquid Limit Devices
52
Compaction tests
Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, Mixing pan,
Trowel, #4 sieve, Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.

CBR Test (AASHTO T193)

swell plate with stem
surcharge weights
mold with soil
water perforated base

 The compaction test requires preparation of
at least four (preferably five) molds for
compaction and at least one mold for CBR.
 The CBR shall normally be measured after

four days of soaking, except in arid areas
(annual rainfall less than 500 mm).
 In arid areas, the CBR may be measured at

OMC (optimum moisture content) or after a
reduced soaking period, depending on the
equilibrium moisture content predicted under
the pavement in the area (see ERA Pavement
Design Manual - 2002). HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 62
 The compaction tests shall be conducted on
samples compacted to 95% of the MDD achieved
by AASHTO Test Method T180.
 The CBR tests shall be conducted at three levels

(normally 90%, 95%, and 100%) of compaction,
and at each level, two conditions of moisture.
 This procedure is to determine design CBR and to

know the effect of the relative compaction and
moisture.
The CBR is then determined by reading off from the
curve the load that causes a penetration of 2.54 mm and
dividing this value by the standard load (6.9 Mpa)
required producing the same penetration in the standard
crushed stone as
Unit load for 2.54 mm penetration in test specimen

CBR   100
Unit load for 2.54 mm penetration in sandard crushed roack

• Similarly, the CBR at 5.08 mm penetration is obtained by
dividing the load causing a penetration of 5.08 mm with the
load of 10.34 MPa required to produce the same
penetration in standard crushed stone.
• The two values are then compared and if the 2.54 mm
value is greater than the 5.08 value, it is the CBR of the
material and used for design purposes.
• If on the other hand the 5.08 mm value is larger, the
test is entirely repeated on a fresh specimen. If the new
percentage valve at 5.08 mm penetration is still greater,
then this is taken as the CBR value. HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 66
Resilient Modulus test

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBGRADE
SOILS
 The results from the above testing,

combined with the relevant field
observations, will enable a classification
of the subgrade soils to be made.
 A category of soil should include the
soils of the same type having fairly
consistent geotechnical characteristics
(Grading, Atterberg Limits, Compaction
and particularly CBR).
SOILS
 A soil map should be prepared indicating

the area limits of each soil type.
 Usually, the number of soil categories will

not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project.
 It is advisable to avoid introducing short

sections along the alignment with numerous
changes in the soil categories as this can
make the construction operations overly
complicated.

SOILS
 For pavement design, the road sections must be
defined in accordance with subgrade strength
classes, as follows
 Table 4-3: Subgrade Strength Class vs. CBRs

SOILS
 Almost all types of soil, ranging from sandy clays
through to broken rock, can be used for embankment
construction and pavement support, the main
limitation being the ease with which the material can
be handled and compacted. However, materials with
CBRs less than 2 are usually very difficult to work
and, as subgrade, would lead to uneconomical
pavement structures. Such soils, except if
unavoidable, are usually considered unsuitable. If
they must be used, they must be covered by select
subgrade materials or capping layers.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE SUBGRADE SOILS
 The ERA Pavement Design Manual - 2002

also gives guidance regarding estimated
subgrade strength classes depending on the
plasticity of soils and the depth of the
water table. This estimated correlation can
usefully be referred to as a means to
ascertain the results of the above tests.

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM

 Useful in determining the relative quality of the
soil material for use in earthwork structures,
particularly embankments, sub-grades, sub-bases
and bases.
 Soil is classified into seven major groups, A-1
through A-7.
 Soils classified under groups A-1, A-2 and A-3

are granular materials where 35% or less of the
particles pass through the No. 200 sieve
 Soils where more than 35% pass the No. 200 sieve
are classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-
7.

 To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway sub-
grade material, a number called the group index
(GI)
GI=(F-35)[0.2+0.005(LL-40)] + 0.01(F-15) (PI-10)
where, GI = group index

F = % of soil particles passing 0.075 mm
(No. 200) sieve in whole number based
on material passing 75 mm (3 in.) sieve,
LL = liquid limit expressed in whole number,
and
PI = plasticity index expressed in whole
number.
 The quality of performance of a soil as a sub-
grade material is inversely proportional to the
group index.
GI-Value Evaluation as subgrade
Material
0-1 Good
2-4 Fair
5-9 Poor
10-20 Very poor

Example
• The following data were obtained for a soil sample
• Sieve No. Percent passing

• 4 98
• 10 93
• 40 87
• 100 77
• 200 69
• Plasticity tests
• LL = 48 %, PL = 26 %
• Determine the classification of the soil and state
whether this material is suitable in its natural
state for use as a subbase material
• Refer to Table 7.1. Since the percent passing
No. 200 sieve is 69, the soil must be a Silt-Clay
material. The LL is 48%, therefore it should fall
either in A-5 or A-7 category.
• The PI = LL-PL = 22> 10, so it must be a A-7

soil. In this case, LL-30 = 18; PI>(LL-30);
Therefore the soil can be classified as a A-7-6
material.
• GI = (69 – 35)[0.2+0.005(48-40)]+0.01(69 –
15)(22-10) = 14.6 (Very Poor)
• Conclusion: Unsuitable as a subbase material in

its natural state

Subgrade Soil

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SUBGRADE SOIL

 Soil investigation is, thus, an integral part of the

 The sub-grade is the undermost layer of a

 And as such is one of the main concerns

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 3

consideration given to the natural sub-grade material,

especially in the case of problematic soils,

 The identification of which is of

paramount importance and half the solution

towards the mitigation measures.

cohesive or non cohesive soils.

 All these materials exhibit a stress

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 7

 Along with traffic and economic criteria, the

 Soil survey for highway purposes involve the

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 9

◦ Selection of roadway alignment

iv. Area reconnaissance. Reconnaissance survey aids in

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 14

clay minerals, moisture content, and type and concentration

of electrolyte in the soil-water. An increasing content of

clay, water or electrolyte causes decreasing the resistivity

◦ Test pits or trenches: suitable for shallow depths only to

◦ Hand augers: suitable for shallow depths only to obtain

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 21

 Properties of soil below the design depth may indirectly

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 22

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 23

 For ordinary work, it is quite sufficient to go to a depth of

 As a standard guideline, at least one representative soil

sample should be collected per kilometer of the proposed

roadway alignment, with more frequent samples where

there are significant changes in soil type.

 Significant changes are those which affect the general

classification of the soils as well as their bearing

 The sampling location may be alternatively on the left

and right edge of the proposed roadway.

 Spacing in specific locales may be increased where the

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 26

 The recommended approximate quantity (mass) of sample

 It is simpler, and generally preferable, to retrieve in

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 28

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 29

 For new road alignments, the following

◦ Grain Size Analysis (AASHTO T88)

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 35

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 37

Mechanical Analysis Stirrer

 The physical and mechanical behavior of

Border line water contents, separating the

0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid water content

brittle- semi- plastic liquid

At w<SL, no volume reduction on drying

Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 53

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 59

mold with soil

water perforated base

HIGHWAY II - Subgrade Soil 60

 The CBR shall normally be measured after

 In arid areas, the CBR may be measured at

 The CBR tests shall be conducted at three levels