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CHAPTER 1- BIODIVERSITY
-Diversity of Bacteria
. Cell shapes
. Gram stain
. Position of flagella
IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA
-Nitrogen fixation ( Rhizobium sp.)
-Symbiotic (E.coli)
-Pathogenic ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis)
-Research and technology ( Pseudomonas sp. )
-
8. Kingdom Protista
UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS
-unicellular or multicellular
-autotrophic or heterotrophic
-reproduce sexually or asexually
-Advance than K.Monera because ehave nucleus/ membrane-bound organelle.
Phylum Euglenophyta
-locomotion: flagella
-e.g: Euglena sp.
Phylum Rhizopoda
-locomotion: Pseudopodia
-e.g: Amoeba sp.
Phylum Ciliophora
-locomotion: cilia
-e.g: Paramecium sp.
Phylum Apicomplexa
-e.g: Plasmodium sp.
Importance of Protista
1.Roles in biosphere ( CO2 fixation )
-algae and phytoplankton carry out photosynthesis
-zooplankton obtain the carbon source by feeding on the phytoplankton
2.Food source
-as dietry supplements
-spiruline sp. And chlorella sp. promote growth and repair body tissues
3.Eutrophication
-a process by which nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) become highly concentrated in the water
bodies
-leading to algal bloom (increased growth of photosynthetic organisms such as algae and
cyanobacteria)
4.Red tide
-caused by dinoflagellates which colour the coastal water red
-toxins contained in some dinoflagellates ae concentrated in the shellfish that feed on them and can
cause fatal poisoning in humans who eat the shellfish
5.Human health
-Plasmodium sp. is an apicomplexan that cause malaria; lives in two hosts, mosquitoes and humans
-human suffer from malaria through the bite of infected female Anopheles mosquito
9. Kingdom Fungi
Unique characteristics
-multicellular
-eukaryotes
-chitinous cell wall
-body structure consists of a network of hyphae
-stores carbohydrate as glycogen
-reproduction via spores
Phylum Zygomycota
-spore-bearing structure: Zygosporangium
-e.g: Rhizopus sp.
Phylum Ascomycota
-spore-bearing structure: Ascus
-e.g: Penicillium sp. and Saccharomyces sp.
Phylum Basidiomycota
-spore-bearing sturcture: Basidium
-e.g: Agaricus sp.
-Fungi are not classified as plants because fungi are not autotrophic/ photosynthetic
Importance of Fungi
1.Decomposers
-saprophytic fungi
-secrete hydrolytic enzymes to degrade/ break down complex polysaccharide and proteins
2.Symbionts
-Lichen: a mutualistic association between fungi and a photosynthetic partner (algae or
cyanobacteria)
-mycorrhizae: a mutualistic association between plant roots and fungi
3.Pathogens
-parasitic fungi
-cause diseases in humans and plants
e.g: ringworm, athlete's foot, corn smut
5.Pharmaceutical
-Penicillium sp. in the production of antibiotics (penicillin)
Unique characteristics
-multicellular
-eukaryotes
-cellulose cell wall
-Autotrophs
-food storage in starch
-Have waxy cuticle layer to prevent water loss
-Show alternation of generations in life cycle
Groups
1.Bryophytes
Unique characteristic
-absence of vascular tissues
-absence of true roots,stems, and leaves// habe thalius with rhizoids
-absence of lignified tissues
-seedless
-homosporous
-gametophyte generation is dominant
-sporophyte is nutritionally dependent on the gametophyte
Terrestrial adaptions
-Has waxy cuticle to reduce water loss in transpiration
-Has stomata for gaseous exchange
-Gametopyte has a jacket of sterile cells to protect gametes// archegonia has a jacket of sterile cells
to protect embryo
Phylum
1.Phylum Bryophyta
-e.g: Polytrichum sp.
2.Phylum Hepatophyta
-e.g: Marchantia sp.
3.Phylum Anthocerophyta
-e.g: Anthoceros sp.
2.Pteridophytes
Unique characteristics
-presence of simple vascular tissues
-presence of true roots, stems, and leaves
-presence of lignified tissues
-seedless
-mostly homosporous, some heterosporous
-sporophyte generation is dominant
-gametophyte and sporophyte are nutritionally independent from each other
-dependent on water for fertilization
Pylum
-Phylum Lycopodiophyta (e.g: Lycopodium sp. and selaginella sp.)
-Phylum Pteridophyte (e.g: Dryopteris sp.)
3.Gymnosperms
Unique characteristics
-Presence of complex vascular tissues
-Presence of true roots, stems and leaves
-Presence of lignified tissues
-Naked seeds
-Heterosporous
-Sporophyte generation is dominant
-Gametopyte is nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte
-Not dependent on water for fertilization
Phylum
Phylum Coniferophyta (e.g: Pinus sp.)
Phylum Cycadophyta (e.g: Cycas sp.)
Phylum Ginkgophyta (e.g: Ginkgo sp.)
Phylum Gnetophyta ( e.g: Gnetum sp.)
4.Angiosperms
Unique characteristics
-Presence of complex vascular tissues
-Presence of true roots, stems, and leaves
-Presence of lignified tissues
-Protected seeds
-Heterosporous
-Sporophyte generation is dominant
-Gametophyte is nutritionally dependent on the sporophyte
-Not dependent on water for fertilization
-Produce flowers and fruits
-Undergo double fertilization
Conifers Angiosperms
Reproductive organ is cone/ strobilus Reproductive organ is flower
Do not undergo double fertilization Undergo double fertilization
Seed does not possess endosperm Seed possess endosperm
Seeds are unprotected/ naked Seeds are protected/ enclosed (by the fruit wall/
pericarp)
Vessel elements absent in xylem tissues Vessels element present in xylem tissues
Companion cells absent in phloem tissues Companion cells present in phloem tissues
Cone parts are arranged in spirals Flowerparts are arranged in whorts
Pollination by wind Pollination by several agents
Unique characteristics
-multicellular
-eukoryotes
-cells are specialized to perform specific functions
-have diverse body plans
-capable of locomotion/ movement
-have nervous system and muscular system
-reproduce sexually
-undergo a period of embryonic development
Ectoderm Ectoderm
Endoderm Endoderm
Mesoderm
Diploblastic Triploblastic
e.g:Phylum Cnidaria e.g: Phylum: Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca,
Echinodermata, Chordata
* Porifera show neither diploblastic or triploblastic because lack of true tissue
a)Phylum Porifera
Unique characteristics
-lack true tissues
-asymmetry
-body wall perforated by numerous pores
-possess choanocytes/ collar cells that generate water current
e.g: Sponges( Leucosolenia sp.) - suspension feeder because traps/ phagocytizes food particles in
the water that passes/ circulates through its body.
Unique characteristics
-radial symmetry
-diploblastics
-gastrovascular cavity has single opening which serves as both mouth and anus
-dimorphism/ polymorphism// polyp and medusa
-tentacles with cnidocytes that discharge nematocysts.
Classification
-Class Hydrozoa ( Hydra sp. and Obelia sp.)
-Class Scyphozoa (Jellyfish)\
-Class Anthozoa ( sea anemone)
c)Phylum Platyhelminthes
Unique characteristic
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Acoelomate
-Unsegmented
-Dorsoventrally flattened body
-hermaphrodite
-incomplete digestive tract with mouth but no anus
-nephridia/ dlame cells for osmoregulation/ excretion
-no circulatory system
-exhibit cephalization
Classification
-Class Cestoda (Tape worm -Taenia sp.)
-Class Trematoda ( Flukes- Fasciola sp.)
-Class Turbellaria (Planaria sp.)
-Class Monogenea (Dactylogyrus sp.)
d)Phylum Nematoda
Unique characteristics
-Bilateral Symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Pseudocoelomate
-Unsegmented
-Body with tapered/ pointed ends
-Dioecious
-Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
-No circulatory system
-Have longitudinal muscles only
-Body covered with a tough/ thick cuticle
e)Phylum Annelida
Unique Characteristics
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Segmentation/ metamerism
-Body with blunt ends
-hermaphrodite and dioecious
-complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
-nephridia for osmoregulation/ excretion
-closed circulatory system
-have longitudinal and circular muscles
-have setae/ chaetae for locomotion ( except leeches/ Hirudinae )
Classification
Class Oligochaeta ( Earthworm- Pheretima sp.)
Class Polychaeta ( Ragworm- Nereis sp.)
Class Hirudinea ( Leech- Hirudo sp.)
Platyhelminthes Nematoda
Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate
Dorsoventrally flattened body Body with tapered/ pointed ends
Hermaphrodite Dioecious
With nephridium Without nephridium
Incomplete digestive tract with mouth but no Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
anus
Platyhelminthes Annelida
Acoelomate Coelomate
Unsegmented body (Metameric) Segmented body
Dorsoventrally flattened body Body with blunt ends
Hermaphrodite Hermaphrodite and dioecious
Incomplete digestive tract with mouth and no Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
anus
No circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Without setae/ chaetae With setae/ chaetae except leeches/Hirudinae
Nematoda Annelida
Pseudocoelomate Coelomate
Unsegmented body (Metameric) Segmented body
Body with tapered/ pointed ends Body with blunt ends
Dioecious Hermaphrodite and dioecious
Without nephridium With nephridium
No circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Have longitudinal muscles only Have longitudinal and circular muscles
Without setae/ chaetae With setae/ chaetae except leeches/ Hirudinae
f)Phylum Arthropoda
Unique Characteristics
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Segmentation/ metamerism
-Segments are fused to form tagmata
-Dioecious
-Chitinous exoskeleton
-Jointed appendages
-Open circulatory system
-Variety of respiratory organs
-Highly developed sensory organs
-Exhibit cephalization
-Undergo metamorphosis
-Undergo ecdysis/ moulting
Classification
-Class Crutacea ( Macrobrachium sp.)
-Class Chilopoda ( Scolopendra sp.)
-Class Diplopoda ( Iulus sp.)
-Class Insecta ( Valanga sp.)
-Class Arachnida ( Nephila sp.)
-Class Merostomata ( Tachypleus sp.)
g)Phylum Mollusca
Unique Characteristics
-Bilateral symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Soft body covered by a shell ( except Cephalopoda )
-Muscular foot for locomotion
-Visceral mass containing internal organs
-Mantle drapes over the visceral mass and secretes a shell
-Radula for feeding ( except Bivalvia )
-Open circulatory system ( except Cephalopoda )
Classification
-Class Gastropoda ( Achatina sp.)
-Class Cephalopoda ( Sepia sp.)
-Class Bivalvia ( Anadara sp.)
h)Phylum Echinodermata
Unique characteristics
-Larvae: Bilateral symmetry
Adult: Pentaradial symmetry
-Triploblastic
-Coelomate
-Dioecious
-Calcareous endoskeleton
-Water vascular system branching into tube feet for locomotion, feeding and gaseous exchange
-Simple nervous system without brain
Classification
-Class Asterodea ( Starfish )
-Class Holothuroidea ( Sea cucumber )
-Class Crinoidea ( Feather star )
-Class Echinoidea ( Sea urchin )
-Class Ophiuroidea ( Brittle star )
i)Phylum Chordata
Unique characteristics
present in certain stages of their life cycle
-Presence of notochord
.a flexible rod dorsal to the gut/ primitive gut
.give rises to the vertebral column
-Presence of myotomes
.Muscle organized into segments
Sub-Phyla
-Urochordata ( Sea squirt )
-Hemichordata ( Acorn worm )
-Cephalochordata ( Lancelet )
Classification
-Class Chondrichthyes ( ray- Raja sp. )
-Class Osteichthyes ( Ikan selar- Selar sp. )
-Class Amphibia ( Frog- Rana sp. )
-Class Reptilia ( Crocodile- Crocodilus sp. )
-Class Aves ( Pigeon- Columba sp. )
-Class Mammalia ( Rat- Rattus sp. )
Population: All the organism of the same species that live in the same area
Community: All the populations of differrent species that live and interact in the same area
Ecosystem: A community of organisms iinteractiong with the abiotic factors in the environment
Biome: A large, relatively distinct terrestrial region that has similar climate, soil, plants and animals
Biosphere: The entire portion of earth that is inhabited by all living organism
-Energy transfer along a food chain in a one-way direction. Energy loss as it is transferred from one
organism to another. Therefore, energy cannot be rcycled.
a)Light penetration
Zone Description Biotic components
Photic Light penetration sufficient for Phytoplanktons(e.g. Algae)
photosynthesis Zooplankton(e.g. Protozoa)
Fishes
Profundal Insufficient light for Decomposers(e.g. bacteria)
photosynthesis
-as energy is transferred along a food chain, large losses of each energy transfer both within and
between organisms
-each trophc level therefore receives less energy than trophic level below it.
-after the 4th and 5th level only a small amount the energy is left.
LAWS
-The First Law of Thermodynamis states that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be
converted from one form to another
-The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that when energy is converted from one form to
another, some energy is lost as heat
Types of ecological pyramid
Pyramid of numbers- total no. of organisms at each trophic level
Biogeochemical cycle: cycling of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic components in the
biosphere.
Sustainable forestry- aims to maintain and enhance our forest systems for the benefit of the
present and future generations of living organisms (e.g. Reforestration and cutting limit)
Sustainable agriculture- integrates all elements of agriculture management for the benefit of the
present and future generations of living organisms (e.g. control the use of pesticides and biological
control)
sustainable fishery- the wise management of fisheries for the benefit of the present and future
generations of living organisms. (e.g. aquaculture)
Biotic potential(r)-The ability of the individuals in a population to reproduce at the maximum rate
under optimal environmental conditions
Environmental resistance-The biotic and abiotic factors that oppose the achievement of biotic
potential by a population
Carrying capacity(K)-The maximum population size that can be supported by the environmental
resoures
Natality(N) Immigration(l)
Population
Mortality(M) Emigration(E)
Z
Carrying capacity(Y)
800 Environmental
Exponential resistance
growth curve (X)
(P) Logistic growth curve(Q)
Population
size (N)
0 Time (t)
The relationship between natality rate and mortality rate of the population Q at region Z:
The natality rate is equal to the mortality rate
Population Q phases:
1.Lag phase: rate of population growth is minimal and population adapt to new environment
3.deceleration phase: environmental resistance starts to take effect as population approaching the
carrying capacity and due to limited space, food, competition and etc.
4.Stable equilibrium phase: population size remains constant/ stabilised/ in equilibrium// zero
population growth, population achieve the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, environmental
resistance limits further population growth, and birth rate = death rate
iv) Overcrowding
-occur at high population densities
-cause excessive stress leading to abnormal behaviour
-some populations shows a decline in health/ survivorship/ natality
-hormonal changes may occur which cause inferlity/ parental neglect
v) Parasitism disease
-Parasitic infections/ desease spreads more easily in a high density populations
-increase mortality
vi) Accumulation of toxic waste
-as population grows, waste products from metabolic reactions accumulate
-and become toxic to the members of the population
b) density-dependent factors: are environmental factors that affect the density/ size of a population
but is not influences by changes in population density.
i)climate
-Temperature: All organisms live within a specific temperature tolerance range
-Light intesity: The energy source. Light intensity controls the entire ecosystem through its effects
on the primary producers.
-Precipitation and humidity: Total rainfall determines the condition an ecosystem
-Wind: Influence the temperature and humidity of a specific area
ii)Natural disaster
-Forest fire, flood, drought, earthquake, tsunami
iii)Natural disaster
-pesticides
Enzyme: A biological catalyst that speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy.
Enzyme-catalysed are usually reversible, they can catalyse reactions in both directions.
Enzyme are required in small amount. Enzyme activities are affected by temperature, pH,
substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration.
Certain enzyme requires cofactors for them to function efficiently. The rate of enzyme-catalysed
reaction is reduced by the presence of inhibitors.
Activation energy: The minimum energy
required for a chemical reaction to take
place.
- Enzyme speeds up the rate of reaction by
lowering the activation energy.
-enzyme substrate binds to active site.
-location of organelle in the synthesis of
enzyme: ribosome
-The active site or the formation of
enzyme-substrate complex can reduce the
activation energy by bringing the substrates
together into correct orientation, close to
each other.
-To facilitate the breakage of old bonds.
After the formation of products by enzyme,the enzyme will be reused// free to catalyse the
reaction of more substrates.
If there is no enzyme,the biochemical reactions in cell would occur very slowly, thus cannot
sustain life.
The differences of lock and key model and Induced fit model is the active site of lock and
key model's enzyme is exactly complementary to the substrate while the induced fit model's
enzyme is not exactly complementary to the substrate.
Factors that affects the rate of enzymatic reaction
1.Temperature
-When temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases.
-Beyond optimum temperature, the rate of reaction decreases this is due to to the denauration of
protein structure which resulting from the breakdown of the weak ionic bonds/ hydrogen bonds/
disulphide bridges/ hdrophobic interactions/ van der Waals forces.
-Substrate can no longer fot into the altered shape of active site.
2.pH
-Optimum pH is the pH at which the maximum rate of reaction occurs.
-Different enzyme, different optimum pH.
-can be in excess H+ or OH-
-Alters the acidic and basic groups of amino acids in enzyme causing ionic bonds to be broken.
Changes the conformation of active site.
-Substraate cannot bind to active site to form enzyme-substrate complex.
-Rate of reaction decreases.
3.Substrate concentration
-Low substrate concentration, rate of enzyme reaction increases with increasing substrate
concentration.
-The active site of enzyme molecule can only bind with a certain number of substrate molecules at
given time.
-At high substrate concentration, there is a saturation of active sites and the rate of reaction reaches
the maximum.
4.Enzyme concentration
-At low enzyme concentration, the rate of reaction is directly propotional to the enzyme
concentration.
-At high enzyme concentration, The rate of reaction continues to increase if the substrate are
present in excess concentration and no other factors are limiting.
-If the substrates are present in limited concentration, the rate of reaction becomes constant after
reaching the max.rate.
ENZYME-CATALYSED REACTION
Cofactor
-A non-protein substance which is required by certain enzymes to function efficiently.
-Types of cofactor:
i)Coenzyme: Organic molecules that loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme.
(e.g. NAD+//FAD)
ii)Prosthetic groups: Organic molecules that tightly bound to the enzyme on a permanent basis.
(e.g. haem)
iii)Metal ions: Inorganic ions that loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme in order to change
the enyme into a shape tht allows an enzyme-substrate complex to form easily.
(e.g. Mg2+//Zn2+)
Inhibitors
-A substance which decreases the rate of enzyme-catalysed reaction.
-2 types of inhibitors:
Reversible Inhibitor Irreversible Inhibitor
Loosely and temporarily bound to the enzyme Tightly and permanently bound to the enzyme
-In the presence of competitive inhibitor, the rate of reaction decreases because the inhibitor
prevents the substrate from binding to the active site of the enzyme. While the quantity of products
is the same because the substrate continue to bind with any other enzymes that are unaffected by the
inhibitor.
How to determine whether an inhibitor is
competitive or non-competitive?
-By increases the substrate concentration
-If the rate of reaction increases, it is a
competitive inhibitor and vice versa
-Irreversible inhibitor can cause permanent damage to enzymes. The binding of inhibitor at the
active site, induces conformational change of the active site, and substrate can no longer bind to the
enzyme.
-for example; Cyanide
-Living organism need energy to carry out life processes such as anabolism, movement, active
transport, cell division and bioluminescence.
-Location of energy stored when ATP molecule is formed is the Phosphate bond.
-ATP molecule releases its stored energy by hydrolysis of ATP, when the phosphate bonds are
broken, energy will be released.
-Cells uses the ATP molecule as an energy currency during cell metabolism for:
i)Hydrolysis of ATP is rapid thus energy can be provided instantaneously
ii)ATP released only a small amount of energy when required thus reduce wastage of energy.
iii)Only one enzyme ATPase is required to hydrolysis ATP.
-Aerobic respiration: The complete oxidation of glucose into carbon dioxide and water in the
presene of oxygen.
-Anaerobic respiration: The incomplete oxidation of glucose into ethanol or lactate in the absence
of glucose.
Aerobic respiration
Oxidative decarboxylation
-Occurs in mitochondrial matrix
-byproduct: CO2 and NAD+ (+H+)
Krebs cycle
phosphoenolpyruvate 2 0
pyruvate
Link reaction Pyruvate acetyl CoA 2 NADH 0 6 6
Krebs cycle isocitrate 2 NADH 0 6 24
α-ketoglutarate
α-ketoglutarate
succinyl CoA
2 NADH 6
succinyl CoA
succinate.
succinate fumarate 2 FADH2 4
malate oxaloaetate 2 FADH 6
-Fermentation: the incomplete oxidation of glucose into ethanol (in plant cells) or lactate (in animal
cells) in the absence of oxygen.
-condition to occur: in the absence/ lack of oxygen
-location: cytoplasm
-ATP produced: 2
-examples: baking bread and making/manufacturing fermented food/beverages such as
tapai/dadih/soy sauce
-role of NADH in glycolysis: acts as a reducing agent
-process that produces ethanol in plant cell: alcoholic fermentation
-process that produce lactate in animal cell: lactate fermentation
-examplein lactate fermentation: muscle cell, occurs during strenuous exercise when there is lack of
oxygen supply in muscle cells.
-2 significances of process in lactate fementation in animal cells:
i)to continue the production of energy/ ATP molecules even in the absence of oxygen
ii)to regenerate NAD+ from NADH to ensure glycolysis can continue to occur
-changes taking place in the muscle cells for the following when a person carries out strenuous
exercise:
i)glycogen level:decrease
ii)lactate level:increase
iii)pH level:decrease
Fermentation pathways under anaerobic condition that occurs in plant and animal cells.
-In anaerobic condition, plant cells undergo alcoholc fermentation.
-Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde ethanal with the release of carbon dioxide.
-The acetaldehyde/ ethanal is reduced by NADH to produce ethanol.
-NADH is oxidised to NAD+ .
-overall equation for photosynthesis by indicating only the net consumption of water:
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy chlorophyll C6H12O6 + 6O2
-Photosynthesis is a redox reaction because it involves both the reduction of CO2 to glucose and
the oxidation of water to oxygen
-Photosynthetic pigments- The pigments that absorb light energy for photosynthesis
-Role of light in the process of light dependent reaction: To excite the electrons from PS l/ P700
and PS ll/ P680 to a higher energy level
-The reduced coenzyme and its role: NADPH which act as a reducing agent
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
-Light energy/ photon is absorbed by a accessory/ antenna pigments of PS ll.
-The energy is then transferred to the reaction centre P680.
-P680 becomes photoactivated and the electrons in P680 are excited to a higher energy level and
ejected.
- This creates an electron deficiency in PS ll.
-Photolysis of water occur whereby a manganese-containing enzyme called Z protein helps to split
up water molecule and electrons are released to replace the electrons ejected from PS ll.
-One molecule of oxygen will be released after 4e- have been removed from every 2 molecules of
water.
-The P680 in PS ll returns to its reduced/ stabilized state.
-The electrons ejected from PS ll are accepted by primary electron acceptor ( phaeophytin) and
passed along the ETC (plastoquinone cytochrome complex plastocyanin) and then to
PS l.
-The energy released is used in chemiosmosis to produce ATP.
-When PS l absorbs light energy/ photon, the high energy electrons in P700 are ejected and accepted
by primary electron acceptor and passed along the ETC through ferredoxin.
-Ferredoxin then transfers the electrons to NADP+ in the presence of the enzyme NADP+
reductase.
-NADP+ receives protons/ 2H+ from photoysis of water to form NADPH (+H+), which is then
released into the stroma.
-The products of non-cyclic photophosphorylation are NADPH, ATP, and O2
Cyclic photophosphorylation
-Light energy/photon is absorbed by a accessory/ antenna pigments of PS l.
-The energy is then transferred to the reaction centre P700. P700 becomes photoactivated and the
electrons in P700 are excited to a higher energy level and ejected.
-The electrons ejected from PS l are accepted by primary electron acceptor and passed along the
ETC (ferredoxin cytochrome complex plastocyanin) and then back to PS l.
-The energy released isused in chemiosmosis to produce ATP.
-The product of cyclic photophosphorylation is ATP only.
Products from light dependent reation that will be used in Calvin cycle: NADPH and ATP
Calvin cycle
Poison that ceases the cycle will also inhibits the light dependent reaction because the light
dependent reaction requires Al and NADP+ which would not be formed regenerated if the Calvin
cycle ceased.
In most plants, CO2 reacts with RuBP in the Calvin cycle to produce sugar molecules. The
process is catalysed by the enzyme Rubisco. When their stomata close on hot, dry days, these
plants undergo photorespiration.
-Type of plants that fix CO2 into organic acids at night and carry out light dependent reaction
during the day:CAM plants
-Cactus plants need to be store the substance C in the vacuole at night to prevent the decrease
in pH of the cytoplasm.
C3 Plants C4 plants
CO2 fixation occurs once, only in mesophyll CO2 fixation occurs twice, first in mesophyll
cells cells and then in bundle sheath cells
Carbon dioxide acceptor: ribulose bisphosphate/ Carbon dioxide acceptor:
RuBP phosphoenolpyruvate/PEP abd ribulose
bisphosphate/ RuBP
Enzyme involved: RuBP carboxylase/Rubisco Enzyme involved: PEP carboxylase and RuBP
carboxylase/ Rubisco
First product formed: 3- Firt product formed: oxaloacetate/ OAA
phospholycerate/PGA/glycerate-3-phospate
Less efficient photosynthesis// Yields usually More efficient photosynthesis// Yields usually
lower higher
Photorespiration occurs at low CO2 Photorespiration is inhibited by hugh CO2
concentration concentration
One type/ form of chloroplast Two types/ forms of chloroplast
Krantz anatomy absent Krantz anatomy present
-CAM plant is the most suitable plants which can grow well in hot and dry conditions because
fix CO2 at night when the stoma is open and the stoma is closed during daytime to reduce water loss
through transpiration
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CHAPTER 7: GASEOUS EXCHANGE AND ITS CONTROL
-Haemoglobin is a globular protein with quaternary structure.
-Consist of four subunits: 2 α-chains and 2 β-chains.
-Haemoglobin is a conjugated protein.
-Each polypeptide chain contains a prosthetic group, the haem group with an iron atom at its centre.
-The hydrophobic groups facing inwards/ towards the centre of haemoglobin.
-Haem group is located at the hydrophobic region of each popypeptide chain.
-The hydrophilic groups facing outwards to increase its solubility in water.
-Each haemoglobin can bind loosely and reversibly to 4 O2 molecules to form oxyhaemoglobin.
-haemoglobin has a high affinity towards O2 at high partial pressure of O2 as in the lungs.
-Haemoglobin has a low affinity towards O2 at low partial pressure of O2 as in the respiring
tissues.
-Haemoglobin shows cooperativity in O2 binding.
-When the first O2 molecule binds to a haem group, it causes a slight change in the shape of the
haemoglobin such that the affinity of the other haem group towards O2 increases.
-Haemoglobin can carry O2 and CO2 at the same time because O2 binds to haem group and CO2
binds to amino group of haemoglobin.
-Adaptation of erythrocyte:
a) Has biconcave shape to increase the surface area for effective gaseous exchange
b) No nucleus to provide more space for haemoglobin storage
c) Has extra membrane to change the shape easily/ease the movement in blood capillary
d) Generates ATP by anaerobic mechanism// lack of mitochondria to prevent the transported O2
to be consumed.
-Process of chloride shift. The movement of chloride ions from plasma into the erythrocyte due to
the movement of bicarbonate ions in the opposite direction.
Significance: to maintain the electrochemical neutrality.
-Significance of haemoglobinic acid: To prevent a decrease in blood pH// To prevent the blood from
becoming acidic.
-Carbon dioxide diffuse into or out of the capillary is determined by the differences in partial
pressure of Carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide diffuse from a region of a higher partial pressure to a
region of lower partial pressure.
-Carbon dioxide from respiring tissues diffuses into the blood plasma and then into erythrocyte.
-The carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid.
-The reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
-The hydrogen ion combines with haemoglobin to form haemoglobonic acid, thus preventing a
decrease in blood pH.
-The bicarbonate ion diffuses out of the erythrocyte into the blood plasma and to be transported to
lungs.
-As bicarbonate ion diffuses out of erythrocyte, chloride ion diffuses into the erythrocyte to
maintain the electrochemical neutrality.
-The process is known as chloride shift.
-In lungs, bicarbonate ion diffuses from blood plasma into the erythrocytes, combines with
hydrogen ion released from haemoglobin to form carbonic acid.
-Carbonic acid is then converted back to carbon dioxide and water.
-The reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
-The carbon dioxide formed diffuses from erythrocytes into the plasma.
-Carbon dioxide concentration in the alveolar space is lower than that of plasma.
-Carbon dioxide diffuses from plasma into the alveolar space down its concentrated gradient, from
which it is expelled during exhalation.
Oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin
-Bohr effect-The reduction of affinity of haemoglobin towards oxygen due to an increase in carbon
dioxide concentration and a decrease in pH of the blood.
-Bohr effect help deliver oxygen to metabolically active tissues by causing the haemoglobin to
releases more oxygen at lower pH, which normally occurs in metabolically active tissues with high
rates of respiration a carbon dioxide release.
A woman who is heavy smoker become pregnant. She need to quit smoking because:
-carbon monoxide in the smoke acts as competitive inhibitor with oxygen to binf with haem
iron// carbon monoxide binds with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin.
-Less haemoglobin available to bind with oxygen// oxygen carrying capacity of haemoglobin
reduced
The effects of partial pressure of carbon dioxide towards oxygen dissociation curve of
haempglobin:
-When the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases,carbon dioxide reacts with water and
forming carbonic acid.
-The concentration of hydrogen ion produced from the dissociation of carbonic acid increases,
which causes the blood pH to decreases.
-Oxyhaemoglobin dissociates to release haemoglobin, which then binds with the hydrogen ion to
form haemoglobinic acid (Hhb).
-Thus, increase in partial pressure of carbon dioxide reduces the affinity of haemoglobin towards
oxygen, which results in the phenomenon called the Bohr effect.
-The Bohr effect shifts the oxygen dissociation curve haemoglobin to the right.
The oxygen dissociation curves of haemoglobin and myoglobin.
-Haemoglobin has a high affinity towards O2.
-The higher the partial pressure of oxygen, the higher it its percentage of saturation with O2.
-At higher partial pressure of oxygen, more ham groups bind to O2 by cooperativity// cooperative
binding.
-At very high partial pressure of oxygen, haemoglobin is highly saturated with O2 as all the haem
groups bind with O2.
-At low partial pressure of O2, the oxyhaemoglobin easily dissociates and O2 is released.
-As the lungs expand, stretch receptors in the alveoli walls are stimulated.
-Impulses pass along the vagus nerves to the expiratory centre in medulla and inhibit the inspiratory
centre.
-The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax.
-Expiration takes place.
-The lungs are no longer stretched and strech receptors no longer stimulated.
-The expiratory centre becomes inactive and inspiration begins again.
-The function of guard cells:to regulate the opening and closing of the stroma.
-importance of stroma: the regulate/ allow gaseous exchange and to regulate transpiration/water
loss
-adaptations of guard cells to perform its function: has a large number of chloroplasts to undergo
photosynthesis in order to produce sugar/ glucose, large central vacuole to produce turgidity, and
thicker inner cell wall and thinner outer cell to curve at different rates.
-hypothesis that explain the regulation of stomatal opening and closing: starch-sugar hypothesis.
The regulation of the stomatal opening and closing based on starch-sugar hypothesis
-During daytime, the chloroplasts in the guard cells undergo photosynthesis.
-Sugar( glucose ) is produce.
-The sugar is soluble in water and this reduce the water potential of the guard cells.
-As a result, water potential of guard cells is lower than that of the subsidiary cells.
-Water moves from subsidiary cells to guard cells by osmosis.
-The guard cells become turgid and the stoma opens.
-At night, the chloroplasts in the guard cells do not undergo photosynthesis.
-Sugar(glucose) is converted into starch.
-The starch is insoluble in water and this increases the water potential of the guard cells.
-As a result, water potential of guard cells is higher than that of subsidiary cells.
-Water moves from guard cells to subsidiary cells by osmosis.
-The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
-Myogenic: cardiac muscle do not require impulse from the central nervous system to start
contraction.
-sinoatrial node is also known as the pacemaker because it initiates the heartbeat (by generating
electrical impulses) and controls the heartbeat.
-The wave of signals are delay at atrioventricular node/AV node to allow the atria to empty the
blood into ventricles.
-The contraction of the ventrical starts at the heart apex so that blood is pumped up and out through
the pulmonary arteries and aorta.
-The left ventricle is thicker and more muscular than the right ventricle
-Importance of:
i)Tricuspid valce:to prevent the backflow of blood into the right atrium
ii)Bicuspid valve:to prevent the backflow of blood into the left atrium
iii)Semilunar valves:to prevent the backflow of blood into the ventricles
-Chordae tendineae prevents tricuspid valve and bicuspid valve from inverting into the atria.
The record of the electrical impulses that travel through heart muscle during cardiac cycle
Cardiac cycle-The sequence of events that occur during one complete heartbeat
systole-The stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber contracts and pumps blood
diastole-The stage of the cardiac cycle in which a heart chamber relaxes and fills with blood
average heart rate of an adult human-72 beats/min
Stage Events
-atria contract and ventricles relax
-pressure in atria is higher than that of the
ventricles
-AV valves open
-semilunar valves remain closed
(0.1 sec) -blood pumped from atria to ventricles
-ventricles contract and atria relax
-pressure in ventricles is higher than that of the
atria
-AV valves close;the first heart sound 'lub' is
produced
-semilunar valves open
-blood pumped from ventricles to aorta and
(0.3 sec) pulmonary arteries
-atria and ventricles relax
-pressure in aorta; and pulmonary arteries are
higher than that of the ventricles
-semilunar valves closed; the second heart sound
'dup' is produced
-AV valves open
-blood flowed from vena cava and pulmonary
(0.4 sec) veins into atria and ventricles
i)I//A and E
-Atrioventricular valves open: atria and ventricles relax; blood fromm pulmonary veins flow into
atria and ventricle
ii)G//C
-semilunar valves open:ventricle contract; pressure in left ventricle is higher than aorta; blood is
pumped front from ventricle into aorta
iii)A and E
-ventricle fills with blood:atrium contracts; pressure in atrium is higher than ventricle; blood is
pumped from atrium into ventricle
iv)C
-ventricle empties its blood:ventricle contracts; pressure in left ventricle is higher than aorta; blood
is pumped from ventricle into aorta
v)B
-ventricular volume remain unchanged:ventricle begins to contract; pressure in left ventricle
increases but does not exceed the pressure in aorta semilunar valves remain closed.
vi)F
-heart sound 'lub' is produced:pressure in ventricle is higher than atrium; atrioventricular valves
close
vii)H
-heart sound 'dup' is produced:pressure in aorta is higher than ventricle; semilunar valves closed
-fever affects the person's heartbeat by the increases of the rate of heartbeat and due to the increase
of body temperature
-Fluid lymph is formed by the high blood pressure at the arterial end of the body capillary forces
water and small molecules out through the endothelium and into the intersitial spaces as interstitial
fluid/ interstitial fluid diffuse into the lymphatic capillaries as fluid lymph.
The significance of
i)the presence of valves along lymphatic vessels-to prevent backflow of lymph.
ii)the production of large number of lymphocytes in lymph node- to produce antibodies against the
antigens
Lymph Blood
RBC absent RBC present
Clear yellowish in colour Red in colour
Pathway by which water is transported from surrounding soil to the root vasular system.
Celll sap in the vacuole of root hair cells contains high concentration of dissolved
nutrients/sugars/minerals. Water potential in the root hair cells are lower than water potential of the
soil. Water moves from the soil into root hair cells are higher than water potential of the adjacent
cortex. Water moves from the root hair cells cortex by osmosis.
Water moves through cortex via apoplasic, symplasctic and vascuolar pathways. The apoplastic
pathway allows water to move along the cells walls and intercellular spaces betwween adjacent
cells. At the endodermis, the apoplastic pathways is hindered by the casparian strip. The water
movement from apoplastic pathway then continues via symplastic and vacuolar pathways. The
symplastic pathway allows water to move between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells through
plasmodesmata. The movement of water via symplastic and vacuolar pathways continue until
reaches the xylem vessel.
The movement water from surrounding soil to the root vascular system
-root hair cell structural adaptation: hair like extension. The function is to provide a lare surface
area for efficient water uptake. Lack of cuticle. Function so that water and mineral ions can easily
diffuse into the cell.
Casparian strip
-composition: made of suberin whichis impermeable to water.
-significance: to prevent the movement of water and mineral ions through the apoplastic pathway
(in endodermis)
The endodermis actively transport mineral ionsinto the xylem vessel of the root.this
lowers the water potential in the xylem vessel. Water moves from soil into the xylem vessel by
osmosis. As water enters and acumulates in the xylem vessel, it produces a hydrostatic pressure
within the xylem vessel of the root known as the root pressure, which provides a force to push the
water up the stem.
During transpiration, water evaporates from the mesophyll cells. This lower the water
potential in the mesophyll cells. Water is pulled from surrounding/ adjacent cls with a higher water
potential to replace the water lost. This continues until water is pulled from the xylem vessel of the
leaf down a water potential gradient. The removal of water lowers the hydrostatic pressure within
thexylem vessel of the leaf. The water co;umn is under tension ( or negative pressure potential) and
is pulled from the root to the leaf. The pulling force is known as the transpirational pull. Xylem
vessels are narrow and have strong, lignified walls to withstand the tension. Water molecules form a
continuous water column in the xylem vessels due to cohesion. The strong adhesion of water
molecules to the hydrophilic walls of xylem vessels help to resist the gravitional force.
The mineral ion uptake in roots
mineral ions enter the root hairs mainly by active transport, workingagainst the
concentration gradient. This precess requires energy from ATP. Mineral ions may enter the root
hairs by diffusion if their concentration is greater in the soil than in the root hairs.
In roots, the mineral ions dissolved in water are moved by apoplastic, symplastic or
vacuolar pathways. Specific transport proteins are present in cell membranes to regulate the
transport of mineral ions. In the endodermis, mineral ions are transported actively into the xylem
vessel. Once in the xylem vessels, mineral ions dissolve in water are transported to the other parts
through the fforce of transpirational pull.
-cell which act as a source and sink based on the pressure flow hypothesis:leaf cell and root cell
respectively
-adaptation of companion cell: contains large number of mitochondria. To supply energy to the
sieve tube for active transport. Contains large number of ribosome, RER, and golgi apparatus.
To synthesise carrier proteins and enzymes needed in translocation. Connected to sieve tube by
plasmodesmata. To help in loading the sucrose into the sieve tube.
- adaptation of xylem vessel: mature xylem vessels are continuous hollow dead cells and cell
wall is lignified.
Munch model ( pressure flow hypothesis)
-One-way translocation because the translocation is from leaf cell ( source ) to root cell ( sink )
the pressure flow hypothesis is used to explain how translocation occurs in the phloem.
The sucrose are synthesised in the leaf cell ( source ) are loaded by companion cell into the sieve
tube by active transport. The accumulation of sucrose lowers the water potential in the sieve tube.
Water from the xylem in the leaf diffuses into the sieve tube by osmosis. Thus, a high hydrostatic
pressure is created in the sieve tube of leaves.
In theroot cell (sink), sucroseare unloaded by companion cells into the tissues by active
transport for cellular respiration, the synthesis of cellulose cell wall or the change into starch for
storage. The water potential in the cell sap of root cell (sink) is lowered. Water is drawn from the
sieve tube with higher water potential into the surrounding/ adjacent cells by osmosis. Thus, a low
hydrostatic pressure is created in the sieve tube of roots.
The hydrostatic pressure in the leaf cell (source) is higher thn that of the root cell (sink).
A hydrostatic pressure gradient built up in the sieve tube. This results in bulk flow of water and
sucrose from the leaf cell to the root cells.
CHAPTER 9- HOMEOSTASIS
Imporatance of homeostasis
-to provide optimum conditions for enzymatic reactions and normal cell activities, thus enables
physiological processes in the body to be carried out at maximum rates.
- to ensure that organism can adjust to changes in the environment, thus able to live in different
habitats with a wider range of environmental conditions.
components descriptions
Receptor To detect stimulus
Control centre To receive and interpret information from the
receptor
effector To carry out corrective mechanism that restore
the internal environment to its normal set point
-when the value of the factor returns to its normal set point, negative mechanism will occur
Regulation of blood glucose level by the human pancrease and liver
(PFM)
glucagon
Alpha cells of the Liver stimulated to
Low blood glucose level islet of Langerhans ..... Blood glucose level
(hypoglycemia)
-when insulin is secreted, it stimulates the conversion of glucose to glycogen, stimulates the
conversion of glucose to fat, andstimulates the oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water
through cellular respiration
-when glucagon is secreted, it stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose and stimulates the
conversion of non-carbohydrate source (e.g. amino acids and glycerol) to glucose
Functions:
i)Hepatocyte-absorbs food substance and oxygen from the blood as it flows along the sinusoids;
also secretes bile into the canaliculi
ii)Kupffer cell-engulfs and destroys pathogen also involved in the breakdown of old erythrocytes
iii)Sinusoid-carries deoxygenated blood to the branch of hepatic vein
iv)Canaliculus-transport bile juice to the branch of bile duct
Kidney
ii)highly coiled glomerulus to increase surface. Can increase the efficient of ultrafiltration by large
area of for filtration.
iii)premeable to water and solutes/ impermeable to blood cells and plasma proteins (due to the
porous walls of the glomerulus and the filtration slits of the podocytes) increases efficiency of
ultrafiltration by high permeability of the glomerulus.
-the protein of small molecular mass which have been forced out of the blood in the proximal
convoluted tubule to be reabsorbed into the blood/peritubular capillaries by pinocytosis/the
formation of pinocytic vesicles.
-osmosisis the movement of water. It moves through the accumulation of reabsored substances in
blood/peritubular capillaries reduces water potential of blood thus facilitates the process of osmosis.
-water reabsorpion occurs in the descending limb ofloop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and
collecting duct.
-glucose is absent in the urine of healthy person because all the glucose is reabsorbed in the
proximal convoluted tubule into the blood/ peritubular capillaries by active transport.
-glucose is present in a diabetes mellitus person because a high concentration of glucose in the
glomerular filtrate will results in some of the glucose not being reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule by active transport, thus ending up in the urine.
-desert kangaroo rat has longer loop of Henle because longer loop of Henle create more hypertonic
medulla, more H2O can be reabsorbed into the vasa recta by osmosis, thus produce more hypertonic
urine.
-Proximal convoluted tubule secretes drugs and toxins from blood capillaries occurs
concentration of urine by countercurrent multipler mechanism
The descending limb is permeable to water but relatively impermeable to to Na+ and Cl-.
Water diffuses out into the peritubular fluid and then into the vasa recta by osmosis. The loss of
water concentrates the filtrate in the descending limb. The filtrate concentration of is at its highest at
the bottom of the loop of Henle.
The ascending limb is impermeable to water but is relatively permeable to Na+ and Cl-.
Na+ and Cl- diffuse out from the thin segment of the ascending limb. In the thick segment of the
ascending limb, the Na+ and Cl- are actively transported into the peritubular fluid. This results in a
decrease in the filtrate concentration.
When there is low water intake of water, water content of blood is lower than normal. Causing the
blood volume to decrease. Therefore the concentration of salts dissolved in the blood becomes
higher, causing an increase in blood osmotic pressure.
Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus stimulate the posterior pitutary gland to release more ADH
ADH increase the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct towards water.
This water retention causes the blood osmotic pressure to decrease back to normal
ii)eats too much salted chips:more water is reabsorption, urine volume decreases, and urine is
more concentrated
The regulation of Na+ reabsorption by aldesterone
when there is a drop in the blood Na+ level, less water enters the blood by osmosis, causing the
blood volume to derease. This reduces the blood pressure
a group of secretory cells called the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), situated between the distal
convoluted tubule and the afferent arteriole are stimulated to release enzyme renin
renin passes into the blood and cleave a plasma protein produced by the liver called
angiotensinogen, producing angiotensin 1. angiotensin I is then converted into angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II constricts arterioles and stimulates adrenal cortex to release aldosterone into the
blood. Na+ reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules into the peritubular cappilaries
increases. Water enters the blood by osmosis.
This causes the blood volume and pressure to increase back to normal
Nervous system
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous system Nervous system
-Central nervous system: integrate information and initiate all voluntary and involuntary
responses
-Peripheral nervous system: carry out information into and out of the CNS
-Somatic nervous system: control voluntary actions by transmitting nerve impulses from the CNS
to skeletal muscles
-Autonomic nervous system: control involuntary actions by transmitting nerve impulses from the
CNS to the glands cardiac muscle (of the heart) and smooth muscles (of the internal organs).
-Roles of:
i)Sympathetic nervous system- brings about physiological responses to threatening situations, 'fight
or flight' response
ii)Parasympathetic nervous system- Maintains the normal functioning of the body in
non-threatening situation and helps keep the body in a relaxed, unstressed condition.
-The actions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are antafonistic because both
innervate the same organ but have opposing effects, usually with one activating and the other
inhibiting the actions of the organ.
- when the rate of heartbeat when someone is scared or excited, the sympathetic nerves trigger
the release of noradrenaline at SA node to increase the heart rate.
Resting potential- the difference in electrical potential that occur across a cell membrane when
there is no transmission of nerve impulse.
-Action potential: the change in electrial potential that occurs across a cell membrane during the
transmission of a nerve impulse.
-Suppose a cell's membrane potential shifts from -70mV to -55mV. The changes in cell's
permeability to K+ and Na+ could cause such a shift happens when a decrease in permeability to
K+ and an increase in permeability to Na+
The transmission of nerve impulse along an axon
At the resting potential, voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels are
closed. The inside of the axon is negative relative to the outside. The axon membrane is polarised.
At stimulus opens some voltage-gated Na+ channels. Na+ diffuse into the axon. The
voltae-gated K+ channels remain closed. The inside of the axon is positive relative to the outside.
The axon membrane is depolarised. If the depolarisation reaches the threshold level, it generates an
action potential. More voltage-gated Na+ channels open, allowing more Na+ to diffuse into the
axon and causes further depolarisation. This is and example of positive feedback.
at the peak of action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channels start to close. The voltage-
gated K+ channels open. K+ diffuse out of the axon. The inside of the axon is negative relative to
the outside. The axon membrane is repolarised.
Some voltage-gated K+ channels close slowly. Excess K+ diffuse out of the axon. The
membrane potential is more negative than the resting potential. The axon membrane is
hyperpolarised.
Boh voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltage-gated K+ channels are closed. The axon
membrane is reestablished to resting potential by the sodium-potassium pumps and facilitated
diffusion through ion channels.
Action potentials occur according to the all-or-none lwa. If the depolarisation is less than
the threshold level, no action potential is generated. If the depolarisation reaches the threshold level,
an action potential is generated. The size of the action potential is always same and is not affected
by the intensity of the stimulus.
The axon membrane experiences a short refactory period following an action potential
and unable to response to another stimulus. This ensures that the action potential is transmitted in
one direction along the axon. During the absolute refactory period, no action potential can be
genrated by stimulus, no matter how strong the stimulus is. During the relative refactory period, a
stronger-tan-usual threshold stimulus can generates an action potential.
The intensity of stimulus determines the frequency of action potntials.a weak stimulus
above the threshold level generates a low frequency of action potentials, whereas a stronger
stimulus generates a higher frequency of action potentials/
there are two factors which can influence the speed of transmission. The larger the
diameter of axon, the faster the speed of transmission of the action potential. The presence of
myelin sheath which act as an electrical impulse between any two neighbouring nodes of Ranvier
results in the action potential 'jumping' from node to node by saltatory conduction thus speeding up
the transmission of action potential along the axon.
Synapse
Synapse- the junction between two neurons or between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland)
Function of;
i)calcium ions-cause the synaptic vesicle to fuse with the presynaptic membrane to release
neurotransmitter
ii)mitochondrion-to produce ATP for the resynthesis of neurotransmitter
iii)hydrolytic enzyme found in synaptic cleft-to breakdown/ hydrolyse the neurotransmitter/
acetylcholine
-An impulse can only travel in one direction across the synapse because neurotransmitters are only
produced in the synaptic knob(of the presynaptic neuron) and receptor sites for the binding of
neurotransmitters are only found in the postsynaptic membrane
An action potential arrives at the synaptic knob. The voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in
presynaptic membrane open. Calcium ions diffuse into the synaptic knob.
The influx of Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. The
neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis.
The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptor
site of ligand-gated Na+ channels on the postsynaptic membrane. This causes the opening of the
ligand-gated Na+ channels. Na+ diffuse into the postsynaptic neuron. Depolariation of the
postsynaptic membrane occurs. The new potential generated is known as excitatory postsynaptic
potential/EPSP. When the EPSP reaches the threshold level, an action potential is generated and is
transmitted along the postsynaptic neuron.