LOCALIZING THE SUPPLY CHAIN: CROSS-CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR

FACILITATING HOLISTICALLY SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN DEVELOPING

NATIONS

Zainab Viqar
University of Texas at Dallas

Abstract

Purpose: This study aims to provide tangible measures for facilitating sustainable development
within the industry of tourism with respect to the nation of Pakistan – utilizing Thailand and Iran
as case studies. The research in this paper was consolidated through various peer reviewed
journals, and cross-cultural models such as Hofstede’s Dimensions, and Inglehart's World Value
Survey in order to foster a more in-depth understanding of the various cultural and ethical
relativities that both cultivate and inhibit economic growth in developing nations. By analyzing
and comparing a multitude of nuances within the various cultures, values, economies, and
politics of Pakistan, Thailand and Iran, we are able to more proficiently draw areas in which
there exists a capacity for improvement, and subsequently, implement proposals for changes. In
today’s increasingly global and complex climate, there are opportunities continuously arising,
and as such, a growing need for pluralistic knowledge to capitalize on such prospects. The
conclusions drawn from this research provides value by comparing individual nations to pinpoint
strategic similarities and areas for growth as well as recommendations for further academic
research.
Design/Methodology/Approach: The data for this paper was collected from Hofstede’s Cultural
Dimensions Model, and Inglehart’s World Value Survey, as well as various peer-reviewed
articles, and academic papers.
Findings: This research asserted a number of factors to be taken into consideration when
discussing possibilities for developing sustainable tourism within Pakistan utilizing Hofstede and
Inglehart's distinctive frameworks to establish that culture has no bearing on advancement within
tourism, and that a multitude of factors – extended to political environments and public policy –
must be analyzed when thinking about the implementation of sustainable systems. For Pakistan
in particular, efforts should be focused towards 1) decentralization of policy; 2) further
involvement of and a general increase in movement towards civil society organizations and
associated initiatives; and 3) investment in renewable energy systems to build an emerging
platform for ecotourism endeavors.
Originality/Value: This research pinpoints impediments towards tourism development, and
subsequent areas for improvement by analyzing cultural and sociopolitical similarities across
Asia and the Middle East. The findings in this paper aim to direct business professionals and
organizations in making well thought-out and informed decisions in respect to the future of
sustainable tourism in the east.
Keywords: Sustainable Tourism, Sustainable Systems, Ecotourism Development, Iran, Pakistan,
Thailand, Hofstede, Inglehart, Culture, Politics, Policy, Decentralization, Terrorism
Paper Type: Literature Review
Introduction

What is Sustainable Tourism?

Over the course of the last several years, a large number of developing nations have seen
substantial growth in international tourism with specific development or for some communities,
lack thereof, in the subsection of sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism, or ecotourism, is
defined as a form of tourism that facilitates industry development and economic growth without
compromising the integrity of the environment or marginalized and/or local populations.
Essentially, it can be described as business in which future priorities must include the notion of
preservation to ensure responsible development globally. For the purpose of this paper, this
definition will be adhered to. Tourism, as it has existed, is an inherently consuming industry –
the very act of creating and investing in tourism within an area consists of commercial
development, and subsequent depletion of natural sources. This, in and of itself, renders
sustainable planning, implementation and management incredibly complex processes that are
subject not only to global markets and fluctuating demand, but various sociopolitical factors such
as international relations, policy, culture, ethics, and religion. In this sense, it’s also of paramount
important to consider that the industry is defined in many more ways than one. Attitudes towards
sustainable tourism differ depending on any unique combination of the aforementioned factors,
and as such, the concept is perceived differently by different groups of individuals (Hardy &
Pearson, 2016).

Prioritizing Sustainability: An International Concern

The process of globalization is one that has evoked idyllic prospects of a borderless world. With
its progression, the world has become smaller; progressively more interrelated through the
movement of ideas, technology, and capital. Tourism has been developing in tandem with
globalization, with the very real possibility that it may well become the largest sector of world
trade within the next several decades (Colin, 1997). As such, the possible ramifications – both
negative and positive are substantial on an incredibly interconnected and global wavelength.
For developing nations in particular who are increasingly faced with barriers in industries
like agriculture – smallholder famers in sub-saharan Africa struggling against structural
inequalities in international policy (Joonkoo, Gereffi, Beauvais, 2012) – and manufacturing –
least developed countries (LDCs) facing excessive taxation and regulation (Sanjaya, 1991) –,
tourism provides a unique opportunity for alternative growth. In line with factor endowment
theory, it makes most sense that “development [within these nations] should focus on a
systematic examination of the resource-based attributes that, in turn, present a unique
comparative advantage” (Salah, 2000). Although this train of thought is sensible, the issue with
the way this process is currently implemented is that it lacks sustainability. In this sense, it
almost becomes a paradoxical course of action as countries gradually deplete the very assets that
allow them a competitive benefit in the first place.
Moving towards a more preservative form of business allows the capacity for 1)
conservation of wildlife and biodiversity; 2) a more inclusive environment for native and/or
marginalized populations; 3) collection of funds that may be re-invested back into local
communities to foster growth; 4) improvement of political or economic conditions within the
host country; 5) safeguarding of respective cultures; and 6) increased awareness of and respect
for universal human rights.

Focusing on the Eastern World

Moving into the twentieth century, modernization, for a time, was largely seen as an exclusively
Western process “that non-Western societies could only follow insofar as they abandoned their
traditional cultures and assimilated technologically and morally superior Western ways”
(Inglehart & Baker, 2000). During the second half of the century, however, non-Western
societies began obtaining increasing amounts of economic and political clout. In today’s
business climate, Asia’s economic growth continues to rise amongst global markets. What
remains an area of interest as well as a point for improvement is alongside Eastern nations
boasting world-class system are countries with similar resources and capacities for opportunities
lying on the opposite end of the spectrum in respect to economic growth and influence. From one
viewpoint, it should be acknowledged that power is indeed finite, but in the same sense, one
should also recognize that such an amalgamation of economies provides an extensive platform
through which research may be consolidated from one place, and applied strategically in another
to stimulate growth.
According to Huntington (1993, 1996), the world is essentially divided into eight major
cultural zones: Western Christianity, Orthodox, Islamic, Japanese, Hindu, African, Latin
American, and Sinic – Buddhist and Confucian – zones. These clusters are based off of centuries
of cultural practices, ideals and thought patterns – many of which, despite modernization, are
still deeply entrenched in the way business is conducted and relationships are formed in the
twenty first century. Thailand, as a tourism leader in the Sinic zone and Iran, as an emerging
player in the Islamic world will serve as extensive case studies for Pakistan, and the Philippines.

Analysis

Cross-Cultural Examinations

In order to execute a logical comparison, it’s compulsory to understand the various nuances and
micro-details at work within the backgrounds of two respective countries. Various sets of values
– religious, cultural, traditional – are pervasive within the institutions and unsaid rules of a
society. Cross-cultural analysis proves itself mandatory as different societies often follow
different trajectories due to such variances even when they are subjected to the same forces of
economic development (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). Utilizing Hofstede’s Six Dimensional Model
provides a more in-depth understanding of the base attitudes and values governing each society
and subsequently, how these societies then interact with one another or serve as models for
future growth.

Figure 1. Hofstede’s Dimensions (Hofstede, 2013)

Dimension Description
 The degree to which the less powerful
members of institutions and organizations
Power distance
within a country expect and accept that power
is distributed unequally

The degree of interdependence a society

Individualism
maintains among its members

The degree of preference in society for

achievement, heroism, assertiveness and
Masculinity material rewards for success as opposed to
preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for
the weak and quality of life.

The degree to which the members of a society

Uncertainty Avoidance feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and
ambiguity.

The degree of preference in a society for

preservation of tradition and long-standing
Long Term Orientation
norms as opposed to preference for societal
change and adaption

The degree to which basic desires and impulses

Indulgence
are controlled

Thailand

Influenced heavily by both religion and regional cultures, Thai society carries diverse undertones
of Chinese, Indian, Lao and Cambodian cultures along with its own respective philosophies.
Scoring 20 as a highly collectivist society and 32 as one favoring normative orientation, the
culture of Thailand places high value on convention, community relations and pays deference to
elders and ancestors on a spiritual, professional, as well as societal level. Remaining attentive of
broader cultural trends, this degree of respect for preservation of tradition and community ties is
not uncommon across the majority of South and East Asian cultures. Relationship-building takes
on a much more intimate face, and carries deep implications with concepts to be mindful of such
as guanxi (關係), and maum. In the most concise definition, guanxi is a Chinese concept used to
define the fundamental dynamic that exists in the social relationships and personalized networks
of an individual. Cultural codes of relating people within a circle of guanxi create brotherhood
and reciprocity (Su, Mitchell, & Sirgy, 2007). Maum, similarly, is Korean vernacular referring to
a form of interpersonal trust, more specifically regarded as the “genuineness of a caring mind
[and heart]” (Gyuseog & Choi, 2011). Such concepts lie at the basis of relationship-building
throughout Asia and allow insight into both strengths and issues that exist as a result.
 Where Thai culture differentiates itself from other dominant Asian cultures is in regards
to its degree of femininity in which it scores a 34. A lower masculinity score allows the inference
that Thai society is less aggressive and competitive than other more dominant Asian countries
such as Japan and China where society is substantially more success-driven at the expense of
indulgence and leisure. A score of 64 for uncertainty avoidance and 64 for power distance further
affirms Thailand’s need for specific behavioral codes and structured order both socially as well
as in respect to corporate dealings. In terms of indulgence, Thailand has no specific preference
towards either a culture of restraint or gratification.
Foreign tourism stands as Thailand’s single largest export industry with “sales of tourism
goods and services to foreign visitors, averaged US$ 10.2 billion (bn) (12% 55 of total exports)
in 1998–2005 on more than 10 million annual visitor arrivals” (Wattanakuljarus & Coxhead,
2008). Over the course of the last decade, tourism in Thailand has reached an international peak
surpassing a high number of both Asian, Pacific, American, and European countries. In respect
to sustainability, the Designated Area for Sustainable Tourism Administration also referred to as
DASTA is an organization committed to the protection of six heritage sites as a part of the Royal
Thai Government’s national tourism development plan for 2016-2017 (UNWTO 2013).

Iran

Given its volatile history and geopolitical relations, Iran’s growth over the last few years has
been incredibly remarkable with an unprecedented increase in tourist demand after the lifting of
its sanctions. Similar to Thailand, Iran, with respective scores of 41 and 43, is considered to be
both a collectivist and feminine society. At the same time, Iran holds a score of 58 for power
distance, implying a conservative culture that values order and a strict social code. While
combining high power distance and orthodox religious values within a feminine society can
seem paradoxical, some insight can be shed on this by understanding the disconnect between
Iran’s culture, and its politics. After the establishment of the Islamic Republic during the onset of
the 1979 revolution, Iran faced a turning point in its culture as a nation, materializing into a
theocratic state governed by Islamic principles and Shariah law (Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012).
Prior to the revolution, Iranian society was highly liberal on a wavelength that at one point was
comparable to the western world in respect to modernization within culture, finer arts, and
lifestyle. The wave of change that rose in the wake of events in 1979 had significant impact in
Iran’s social environment, creating a culture bordering on restraint with a score of 40.
Within the Middle East, Iran has seen a relatively high level of growth in tourism with
specific growth in inbound tourism averaging 5% annually (Farahani & Henderson, 2010). Due
to Iran’s rich Persian history, opportunity lies primarily in culture and nature-based tours at sites
such as the Silk Road trade route, Eram Garden, and various renowned historical sites. As can be
seen below, Iran and Thailand have considerable cultural overlap.
 Figure 2: Thailand in Comparison with Iran (Hofstede, 2013)

Culture as a Measure of Growth

When taking into consideration growth on a holistic platform, it’s important to extend analysis
on a broader level in order to pick up on larger trends and patterns. In the following graph,
Hofstede’s Six Dimensional Model is used to compare Thailand and Iran to France, a long-
standing leader of international tourism in the western world.
 Figure 3: France in Comparison with Thailand and Iran (Hofstede)

In comparing France, Thailand and Iran, a natural question arises – are certain cultural
dimensions enablers of growth and success within the tourism industry? At first glance, it
appears that this may be evident. Analyzing Figure 3, it can be seen that all three countries share
very close scores in 3 out of 6 possible dimensions: 1) power distance; 2) masculinity; and 3)
indulgence. It’s also clear that all three countries differ quite greatly in respect to individualism,
and long term orientation. Assuming a more Eurocentric view, we can make an inference and
assert that perhaps the areas in which France differs from Thailand and Iran may be points of
improvement for eastern countries to possibly take note of.
In respect to individualism, France stands as a polar opposite of Iran, and maintains a
considerable difference even with Thailand despite Thailand’s score in individualism being twice
as high as Iran’s. With Iran holding a low score in individualism and also the least growth in
tourism when relatively comparing the three, we are pushed to question certain hindrances that
collectivist cultures may impose. Although these societies may be able to foster stronger
relationships, it can be said that innovation may prove to be more difficult in relationship-
oriented cultures due to this very fact – innovation drives change, and change tends to disrupt
long-lasting interpersonal bonds and for this reason, may be resisted (Chandler, D., Graham,
2010).
Taking a look at long-term orientation, we once again are able to see large gaps between
the three countries in the same order: France at 63, Thailand at 32 and Iran at 14. Long-term
orientation may be seen, more than other cultural dimensions, as one integral to economic
success as higher scores within this dimension suggest a society with a more pragmatic
orientation. This essentially means that norms are adapted to changing conditions alongside a
strong propensity to invest and save resources to work towards achieving long-term results
(Hofstede, 2013). With today’s business environment as dynamic and interconnected as it is, the
ability to maintain fluidity to adjust to perpetually changing circumstances remains a quality that
seems to weed the fittest from the weakest. Unlike the cultural dimension of individualism,
however, reaching a more accurate hypothesis about long-term orientation is more muddied
given the fact that Iran actually has quite a long history of tourism planning. Since 1978, the
country has set series of five-year socio-cultural and economic development plans into operation
in order to achieve a variety of goals including, but not limited to increasing local commerce,
and re-constructing a more favorable image of the country on a global level (Richter, 1999).
This point reminds us once again of the complexity behind certain cultural dimensions and how
even a model as extensive as Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions can fall short in capturing all
intricacies.
Analyzing all six cultural dimensions on a more macro-level amongst tourism leaders
worldwide, we are able to consolidate the following results:

Figure 4: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, Top Global Tourism Leaders (Hofstede)

Countries Power Individualism Masculinity Uncertainty Long-Term Indulgence

Distance Avoidance Orientation
Singapore 74 20 48 8 72 46
China 80 20 66 30 87 24
United 40 91 62 46 26 68
States
Italy 50 76 70 75 61 30
United 35 89 66 35 51 69
Kingdom
Turkey 66 37 45 85 46 49

As can be seen, from several of the world’s leading countries in tourism, there is no definitive
cultural dimension or combination of cultural dimensions that allow for increased success.
Instead, to capitalize on opportunities for growth, a more holistic viewpoint must be adopted that
takes into consideration culture as it relates to political and regional circumstances to create case
by case recommendations. For example, although France is an international model for successful
tourism, its paradigm cannot be applied to Iran simply because the cultural values, as
exemplified by Hofstede’s Dimensions, are stark opposites when differing and when similar, still
convoluted by various factors.

Inglehart’s World Values Survey

Along with Hofstede’s theory, we will be analyzing Inglehart’s theory which was formulated
using the World Values Survey (WVS) which is categorized as, to date, “the largest investigation
conducted of attitudes, values, and beliefs around the world (Inglehart & Baker, 2000). The
WVS originated out of the European Values Survey (EVS), and was conducted in sixty five
countries in six waves from 1981-1982, 1990-1991, 1995-1998, 1999-2000, 2001-2009, and
2010-2014.
As stipulated in Inglehart’s theory, there are two major dimensions of cross cultural
variation: 1) traditional vs. secular values; and 2) survival vs. self-expression values. Societies
ranking high in traditional values regard place high importance on familial obligations, national
pride, and religious beliefs. Conversely, societies with deep secular values are more concerned
with reasoning, logic, and more bureaucratic values. As such, it can loosely be stated that
traditional values are oft more reflective of the values seen in agrarian societies while secular-
rational values are more accurate of the culture existing within urban societies (Shearman, 2008).
Survival values naturally place stronger emphasis on economic and physical security. Societies
closer to this end of spectrum are less tolerant of deviance from the norm, usually have an
emotional need for structure and are typically suspicious of change. In contrast, societies with
high self-expression values are generally more fulfilled with their economic standing, and have
the privileges in place to be able to focus their concerns on higher self-actualization needs such
as environmental protection, or gender equality.
With Inglehart and Welzel’s cultural map provided below, participant countries are
categorized into one of eight cultural groups based off of faith and historical development and
then placed on a global two dimensional map indicative of their respective value systems. The
eight cultural groups are as follows: English Speaking, Protestant Europe, Catholic Europe, Ex-
Communist, Confucian, South Asia, Latin America, and Africa.

Figure 5: Cultural Map: WVS Wave 6, 2010-2014 (Inglehart-Welzel)

Interestingly, Inglehart’s model allows us a point of analysis that takes into consideration not
only cultural relativities, but also religion and economic standing. As such, it is evident that
countries with secular rational values in conjunction with a tendency towards self-expression
tend to boast stronger economies with self-expression being responsible for that distinction. This
truly shows us the depth in impact that political and economic stability can have in shaping a
country’s culture and how then, that culture travels back to affect future political and economic
conditions.

Analyzing Pakistan

Areas for Introducing Tourism

Boasting a number of historical, religious and cultural sites as well as areas of incredible natural
beauty, Pakistan is a prime candidate for sustainable tourism at large, and ecotourism in
particular. The country’s northern half is home to various colonial towns and lush valleys nestled
around the base of some of the highest mountain peaks in the Karakoram mountain range and by
extension, the world.
Areas located in Azad Kshmir region such as Neelum Valley, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
such as Swat Valley and Chitral are both physically beautiful and naturally abundant areas
capable of providing a major source of revenue for local communities (Baloch, 2007) while also
offering a distinctive experience with Pakistan’s unique geography. The northern mountain
ranges provide the country with a hard advantage in respect to adventure tourism which is
defined as a type of tourism that entails travel to a naturally exotic location to participate in
rigorous and challenging outdoor activities; adventure tourism is, moving into the twenty first
century, a rapidly growing subset of tourism (Beedie & Hudson, 2003). In fact, mountaineering
holidays are becoming more and more prominent amongst tourists. Due to the fact that most
people in the developed world “live their lives in an urban frame insulated from less desirable
elements of the real world by warm houses, hot water, electricity, beds, hygienic food, and other
comforts… part of their expressive self reacts against this through an attraction to the perceived
adventure of activities [in extreme environments]” (Beedie & Hudson, 2003). Moving forward,
this could potentially be a very large market for Pakistan to capitalize on.
Outside of natural sites, there are pockets of highly modernized cities within Pakistan
with major cities Islamabad and Lahore attracting substantial domestic and regional tourism due
to their architectural sites, gardens, and commercial shopping.

Facilitating Ecotourism as a Starting Point

It is a well-established concept that renewable energy sources are not only environmentally
strategic sources that improve a country’s overall energy security, but are also, despite their
initial investment costs, more cost effective in the long run. The cost of environmental clean-up,
as has been seen in both developed and developing nations alike, runs several margins higher
than the cost of preservation (Flynn, 2007). Ecotourism, in this capacity, becomes a system that
at once is able to both conserve the wildlife and biodiversity of a region, as well as promote
economic efficiency.
For areas that already are experiencing some form of tourism in a system that is currently
unsustainable, internalizing the cost of environmental degradation that the current system in
place may produce becomes an important objective. This methodology is seen being
implemented through the usage of green taxes as exemplified by regions such as the Galápagos
Islands and Barbados (Roper, 2005). Essentially, a green tax is a form of active control that seeks
to offset the negative impacts of non-green services and functions within the tourism industry.
As noted by the set-up in the Galápagos Islands, the green-tax system 1) restricts access to
environmentally vulnerable sites; 2) provides a source of revenue that may be secured as
additional funds for conservation efforts; and 3) increases environmental awareness amongst
citizens and tourists alike.
Further renewable energy systems are built into surrounding geographies by taking
advantage of hydroelectric and solar energy initiatives – both of which may be applied in
Pakistan to mitigate widespread environmental concerns including but not limited to soil erosion,
deforestation, desertification, and air pollution. Such green technologies hold the capacity to
alleviate pressure on Pakistan’s northern mountainous and forest regions which have been under
pressure due to increasing growth in and demands of neighboring villages as well as hotels.
Hydropower in particular holds remarkable potential, costing half as much as coal-based plants
to produce power, and sitting at one-third of the costs of oil-based plants in respect to generating
electricity (Ministry of Water & Power). The very system of hydropower functions by
capitalizing upon the movement of water which, at the pinnacle of efficiency, is to be originating
downwards from a hill, or a mountain. The energy of such moving water can be substantial in
and of itself; with the Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindukush mountain ranges meeting in
Pakistan, the possibility for large-scale success is almost incontestable.
Besides national efforts towards ecotourism, further collaboration is highly encouraged
between UNESCO and UNEP subsidiaries to develop processes for increased energy efficiency
and to promote the development of renewable energies through expansion of research facilities
already in place such as the International Renewable Energy Agency as well as conferences to
assist dialogue in respect to sustainable consumption and production (SCP), corporate
environmental and social responsibility (CESR) and how then to incentivize such ideologies for
businesses.

Inclusive Tourism: Localizing the Supply Chain

Building up tourism can prove to be sustainable not only for the environment, but for Pakistani
society, much of which lives a more agrarian lifestyle in its northern regions. Another point to be
mindful of is the abundance of Afghani refugees situated throughout parts of the country. When
attempting to construct, or re-construct systems of tourism, it’s important to take into
consideration local as well as marginalized populations within the area to truly work towards
holistic inclusiveness.
Hawraman, a mountainous region in Kurdistan, Iran, can serve as an example of
sustainable tourism that may be extended to Pakistan. The area is beset with snow-capped
mountains which are surrounded by clustered villages. Life is largely rural in Hawraman and true
to Kurdish traditions and customs demonstrated by “the wedding ceremony of Pire-Shaliar which
entices hundreds of observers every year in February and April” (Ghaderi & Henderson, 2012).
Major attractions of the region include heritage buildings, folklore, natural beauty and
architecture. The Rural Council along with the Kurdistan Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and
Tourism Organization play a critical role in supporting tourism within Hawraman that functions
in a manner entirely sustainable to the local community and environment. Along with being
provided the opportunity to re-invest resources back into the region and facilitate growth,
sustainable tourism further allowed the women within the region a new voice (24). This type of
female involvement in rural tourism is incredibly valuable, and especially within more
religiously fundamentalist societies such as Pakistan, carries incredible capacity to reconstruct
gender roles and norms within communities.
It should be considered that perhaps decentralization is a better option for countries like
Pakistan in that it helps to empower the poor by increasing local participation on various levels,
and in a very real sense, renders regional and local officials more accountable to local citizens
(Grindle, 2004). This type of participation is intrinsic to formulating systems that are both
relevant and beneficial to citizens at the local level – after all, it makes sense to assert that those
who are affected by policies firsthand should be directly involved in working on them (Fisun,
Bramwell, and Yüksel, 2005). Given Pakistan’s large and diverse territories, decentralizing
management may help to strengthen institutional mechanisms to increase service and workflow
in a manner that is accountable at the lowest level. However, in order for this to prove successful,
two further courses of action must take place: 1) central authorities must be willing to concede
power; 2) local powers must have the resources in place to effectively address concerns; and 3)
the political environment(s) in pace must be receptive towards decentralizing public
administration specifically, and change generally.
With a well-known shortcoming for Pakistan being its lack of availability of funds and
general means to promote change at the local level, delegating authority to outside organizations
such as international and national nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) is another viable
option. Increasingly common in developing countries, civil society organizations have been
taken on larger roles in addressing particular needs at lower geographical and cultural tiers
(Fisun, Bramwell, and Yüksel, 2005). This helps to break the cycle of apathy and disassociation
amongst local populations that occurs as a result of municipalities either failing to communicate
affectively, or failing to be productive by and large. Again, decentralization rests as the central
link here as it allows the space not only for NGOs to step in and help manage resources, but also
helps to solidify the legitimacy of such grass-roots initiatives.

The Role of Politics and Terrorism

For Pakistan, geopolitical barriers have been the country’s primary impediment to expanding
tourism. Less than a century old, Pakistan has seen considerable friction within the country in the
forms of ethnic tension, political corruption, poverty, and war. Even in periods where domestic
conditions were relatively calm, “friction with border nations [and] the Soviet invasion of
Afghanistan [gave] the region a negative image” (Richter, 1999) and as such, depressed tourism
rates considerably. Pakistan’s vehement identification as an Islamic country did little to aid the
situation. Perhaps most notably, the country’s turbulent relationship with the United States has
worked strongly against its favor. Over the course of the last two decades, U.S.-Pakistani
relations have been tumultuous with both nations acting jointly on certain issues, and as
antagonists in respect to others. Post 9-11, Pakistan and U.S. relations continued to be
convoluted by increasingly overwhelming political tensions in respect to regional terrorism and
religious fundamentalism as well as an escalating environment of distrust and suspicion between
both countries (Riedel, 2008).
Similarly, Iran has held an equally disorderly history with the U.S. – having a ten year
trade embargo lifted only two years ago after years of exigent negotiations over nuclear
capabilities and rights. Due to the cultural and political overlap both nations share, Iran is in a
position to be used in comparison with Pakistan. With both countries sharing 3 out of 6 of
Hostede’s cultural dimensions and falling into the same cluster located midway between both of
Inglehart’s cross-cultural variations, it’s more than reasonable to assert that Pakistan may well be
able to follow the same pathway Iran took and continues to take in rebuilding its global image,
and restoring tourism. Both societies, on a macro-level, carry conservative Islamic cultures with
a large part of Pakistani culture stemming from Persian influence relative to literature,
architecture, food and even certain religious practices. Following this train of thought, one
powerful take away from this research is that terrorism in general, and Islam, in particular, is not
an immobile obstruction to fostering a positive international presence and encouraging
facilitation of tourism.

Recommendations for Future Research

With the world becoming more and more interconnected, the need for building and maintaining
sustainable systems will grow as resources continue to be consumed, and world population
continues to rise. As an industry playing in trillions of dollars annually, tourism stands as a major
international driver of commerce, functioning as a primary source of income for several
developing nations. The World Travel and Tourism Council states that tourisms total
contribution outpaced the global economy for the sixth consecutive year in 2016 at an incredible
10.2% of the world’s total GDP. Further, due to the fact that tourism is inherently related to
development, it is and will continue to be a key driver of socioeconomic progress (UNWTO,
2013).
In terms of future research, at least three four issues are worth pursuing and can be
recommended following this paper. The first is a more in-depth analysis behind the spillover
effect specifically in regards to political violence. It would be beneficial for future research to
follow why this effect takes place, what can be done from a preventative point of view and
possible practices to be implemented to mitigate its effects in the events where it does occur.
Attention should be specifically given to religious violence most particularly in countries where
tourism is in an infant phase, and can easily be upset by neighboring conflicts or vilification
through media.
Narrowing in on the aforementioned point, a more specific route that can be pursued is
analysis of ethnic and regional violence within the state of Pakistan itself, and how this can
possibly be alleviated to establish a more sound society in which economic and social
development may take firmer hold. Although this train of thought ventures into application of
disciplines that may very well be completely unrelated to the topic of tourism, solutions for this
ongoing state of affairs will no doubt trickle down and affect expansion within Pakistan’s
tourism industry. This example may also be used as a template for various other developing
nations with similar circumstances.
Another avenue for future research is to investigate the long-term effects of sustainable
tourism in developing nations. There are a number of articles and schools of thought advocating
for the implementation of sustainable practices, and their potential implication, but there seems
to be a lack of follow-up in research regarding the actual long-running effects of sustainable
systems on a local level. Areas to be explored may include unique advantages individual to
sustainable systems, possible gaps between theory and execution, and/or the impact of different
cultures on the systems themselves. It would be especially beneficial to conduct a multi-factor
analysis comparing states of efficiency, ROI, poverty levels and other factors before and after
implementation. The notion of sustainable tourism may even be criticized as a whole in
questioning whether or not ecotourism is counterproductive as it encourages increased use of and
access to sensitive environments (Narelle, 2001). Not only is this a highly interesting avenue for
discussion, but also one of paramount importance with tourism growing as an industry year after
year.
The last concern worth probing is related to larger trends within the economy such as
pilgrimage and immigration and the effects that these patterns may or may not have on tourism
within developing nations. This type of research can be used across disciplines to more
accurately understand the movement of people, capital, and ideas. More generally, any kind of
ethical or cultural-based research will provide value on the topic of promoting sustainable
tourism given how multi-faceted the subject matter already is. As local and national economies
grow increasingly connected into the global system, economic growth will become a common
aim, and as such, will need to be approached with both tact, and pluralistic insight (Bramwell &
Bernard, 1993). It is highly recommended that research of this nature be actively pursued to
better our understanding of the changing world around us, and our place within it as agents of
change, and betterment.
References

1. Baloch, Qadar Bakhsh. "Managing Tourism in Pakistan: A Case Study of Chitral

Valley." Journal of Managerial Sciences 2 (2007): 169-190.
2. Beaumont, Narelle. "Ecotourism and the conservation ethic: Recruiting the uninitiated or
preaching to the converted?." Journal of Sustainable Tourism 9.4 (2001): 317-341.
3. Beedie, Paul, and Simon Hudson. "Emergence of mountain-based adventure
tourism." Annals of tourism research 30.3 (2003): 625-643.
4. Bramwell, Bill, and Bernard Lane. "Sustainable tourism: An evolving global
approach." Journal of sustainable tourism 1.1 (1993): 1-5.
5. Chandler, Jennifer D., and John L. Graham. "Relationship-oriented cultures, corruption,
and international marketing success." Journal of Business Ethics 92.2 (2010): 251-267.
6. "Economic Impact of Tourism." WTTC. World Travel & Tourism Council, n.d. Web. 04
May 2017.
7. Flynn, J. (2007). Productive Preservation and the Reinvention of Industrial America.
Urban Law, 1(39), 123-147.
8. Ghaderi, Zahed, and Joan C. Henderson. "Sustainable rural tourism in Iran: A perspective
from Hawraman Village." Tourism Management Perspectives 2 (2012): 47-54.
9. Grindle, Merilee S. "Good enough governance: poverty reduction and reform in
developing countries." Governance 17.4 (2004): 525-548.
10. Han, Gyuseog, and Sang-Chin Choi. "Trust working in interpersonal relationships: A
comparative cultural perspective with a focus on East Asian culture." Comparative
Sociology 10.3 (2011): 380-412.
11. Hardy, Anne, and Leonie J. Pearson. "Determining Sustainable Tourism in Regions.”
Sustainability 8.7 (2016): 660.
12. Hassan, Salah S. "Determinants of market competitiveness in an environmentally
sustainable tourism industry." Journal of travel research 38.3 (2000): 239-245.
13. Hofstede, G. (2013). Dimensions of national cultures. Retrieved from
https://saylor.longsight. com/ handle/1/10250
14. Hunter, Colin. "Sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm." Annals of tourism
research 24.4 (1997): 850-867.
15. Huntington, Samuel P. 1993. “The Clash of Civilizations?” Foreign Affairs, 72(3); 22-49
16. Inglehart, Ronald, and Wayne E. Baker. "Modernization, cultural change, and the
persistence of traditional values." American sociological review (2000): 19-51.
17. Lall, Sanjaya. "Marketing barriers facing developing country manufactured exporters: A
conceptual note." The Journal of Development Studies 27.4 (1991): 137-150.
18. Lee, Joonkoo, Gary Gereffi, and Janet Beauvais. "Global value chains and agrifood
standards: challenges and possibilities for smallholders in developing
countries." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109.31 (2012): 12326-
12331.
19. "Ministry of Water & Power." Ministry of Water & Power. Government of Pakistan, n.d.
Web. 29 May 2017.
20. Richter, Linda K. "After political turmoil: The lessons of rebuilding tourism in three
Asian countries." Journal of Travel Research 38.1 (1999): 41-45.
21. Riedel, Bruce. "Pakistan and terror: The eye of the storm." The ANNALS of the American
Academy of Political and Social Science 618.1 (2008): 31-45.
22.Roper, Tom. "Small Island States–Setting an Example on Green Energy Use." (2005).
23. Sangsnit, Nalikatibhag. Sustainable Tourism Development. Place of Publication Not
Identified: Willford Pr, 2016. Sustainable Tourism Development in Thailand. DASTA.
Web. 3 May 2017.
24. Shearman, S. M. "Culture, Values, and Cultural Variability: Reviews of Hofstede,
Inglehart, and Schwartz Universal Value Frameworks." Annual meeting of the
International Communication Association. Montreal, Quebec, Canada. 2008.
25. Su, Chenting, Ronald K. Mitchell, and M. Joseph Sirgy. "Enabling guanxi management
in China: A hierarchical stakeholder model of effective guanxi." Journal of Business
Ethics 71.3 (2007): 301-319.
26. Wattanakuljarus, Anan, and Ian Coxhead. "Is tourism-based development good for the
poor?: A general equilibrium analysis for Thailand." Journal of Policy Modeling 30.6
(2008): 929-955.
27. "World Tourism Organization UNWTO." Why Tourism? | World Tourism Organization
UNWTO. UNWTO, n.d. Web. 04 May 2017.
28. worldvaluesurvey.org. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.worldvaluesurvey.org
29. Yüksel, Fisun, Bill Bramwell, and Atila Yüksel. "CENTRALIZED AND
DECENTRALIZED TOURISM GOVERNANCE IN TURKEY." Annals of Tourism
Research 32.4 (2005): 859-886.
30. Zamani‐Farahani, Hamira, and Joan C. Henderson. "Islamic tourism and managing
tourism development in Islamic societies: the cases of Iran and Saudi
Arabia." International journal of tourism research 12.1 (2010): 79-89.