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Iraq-Ramadi
Basic Concepts
Soil is a collection of particles that do not form a totally solid substance
The relationship between this combination defines much of what any particular soil can do to support foundations
Phase Diagram
Assumptions and Definitions:
Weight of air = 0
Dry Soil: Water weight and volume = 0
“Volume of voids” include all non-soil volume, both
air and water
Saturated Soil
Saturated Soil: Air volume = 0
Only water and solids appear in completely saturated soil
Basic Formulas
V total=V air+V water+V soil
Wtotal=Wwater+Wsoil or Mtotal=Mwater+M soil
W x = x×V x or M x = x×V x
W x=Gx w×V x
M x=Gx w×V x
In most cases, calculations in soil mechanics are done on a weight basis. Exceptions include wave propagation problems
(earthquakes, pile dynamics,……. etc.)
Important Variables
1. Void ratio, e
Vv
e Expressed as decimal Sands (0.4 – 1.0) Clays (0.3 – 1.5)
Vs
2. Porosity , n
Vv
n x100% Expressed as percentage (0-100%)
Vt
e n
Prove that n or e
1 e 1 n
3. Degree of saturation, S
Vw
S x100% S = 0 % Dry Soil, S = 100 % Saturated soil
Vv
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 41
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
4. Air Content, Ac
Va
Ac x100%
V
5. Water Content,
Ww
x100% can be equal to zero in dry soil and may be reached 500% in some marine and organic soils.
Ws
6. Unit weight,
Wt Ws Ww
Total unit weight, t
Vt Vt
Ws
Solid unit weight, s s range (25.4 kN/m3 - 28.5 kN/m3)
Vs
Ww
Water unit weight, w
Vw
There are three other useful densities in soils engineering; they are
Ws
- Dry Unit weight, d
Vt
Ws Ww Wt
- Saturated Unit Weight, sat (Va = 0, S = 100 % )
Vt Vt
/
- Submerged Unit Weight, = sat – w
If we replaced the weight in these relationships by mass we could find basic definitions for density ( ) instead of unit weight ( ).
7. Specific gravity
G apparent
w
s
Gs Solid
w
Example 1
Given:
Total Volume = 1 cu. ft.
Total Weight = 140 lb.
Dry Weight = 125 lb.
Find
Water Content
Wet Unit Weight
Dry Unit Weight
By Definition:
Dry Unit Weight = Dry Weight = 125 lb/ft3
Wet Unit Weight = Total Weight = 140 lb/ft3
Solve for Weight of Water
W T = Ws + Ww
140 = 125+Ww
Ww = 15 lb/ft3
Solve for Water Content
w = Ww/Ws = Ww/125 = 15/125 = 0.12 = 12%
Example 2
Given:
Total Mass = 18.18 kg
Total Volume = 0.009 m3
Dry Mass = 16.13 kg
Specific Gravity of Solids = 2.7
Find
Wet Density
Dry Unit Weight
Void Ratio
Water Content
Compute Volumes
Volume of Water
Vw = M w / w
Vw = 2.05/1000 = 0.00205 m3
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 46
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Volume of Solids
Vs = Ms s = Ms/(Gs w)
Vs = 16.13/((1000)(2.7)) = 0.00597 m3
Volume of Air
Va = Vt – Vw – Vs
Va = 0.009-0.00205-0.00597 = .00098 m3
Example 3
Given
Saturated Soil
Void Ratio = 0.45
Specific Gravity of Solids = 2.65
Find
Wet Unit Weight
Water Content
Assumptions
Va = 0
Vt = 1
Vs + Vw = 1
3
w water = 62.4 lb/ft
Solve for Volumes
for saturated soil Vv = Vw
e = Vw/Vs = 0.45
Vw = 0.31 ft3
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 47
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Vs = 0.69 ft3
Compute Wet Unit Weight
Weight of Soils = wVsGs = (62.4)(0.69)(2.7) = 114 lb
Weight of Water = wVw = (62.4)(0.31) = 19.4 lb
Total Weight = 114 + 19.4 = 133.4 lb
Since volume is unity, total weight is also net unit
weight = 133.4 pcf
Compute Water Content
= Ww/Ws = 19.4/114 = 0.17 = 17%
Example 4
Given
Well Graded Sand
Specific Gravity of Solids = 2.65
Void Ratio = 0.57
Porosity = 36.5%
Find
Degree of Saturation
Wet and Dry Unit Weight of Soil
Solution
Set sample volume = 1 m3
Total Volume = 1= Vw + Va + Vs
Void ratio e = 0.57 = Vv/Vs
Vt = 1 = 2.754 (Vw + Va) ……………………………………… (1)
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 48
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
They are water contents at certain limiting or critical stages in soil behavior (especially, fine- grained soils). They, along with the
natural water content ( n) are the most important items in the description of fine- grained soils and they are correlate with the
engineering properties & behavior of fine- grained soils.
They are-
= P.L
Liquid Limit
Definition
Atterberg defined the liquid limit as a water content at which the soil becomes a viscous liquid.
Casagrande- defined the liquid limit as a water content at which a standard groove cut in the remolded soil sample by a grooving
tool will close over a distance of 13 mm (1/2”) at 25 blows of the L.L cup falling 10 mm on a hard rubber base. (See the figure
below)
In practice, it is difficult to mix the soil so that the groove closure occurs at exactly 25 blows, so Casagrande did the following:
,%
Flow curve
L.L ( l)
Slope = tan
N (No. of blows)
25
Log. Scale
Sometimes one – point liquid limit test can be used because, for soils of similar geologic origin, the slopes of the flow curves are
similar.
n tan
L.L( L) n( ) Where tan = slope of flow curve = 0.121 not equal for all soils
25
Plastic Limit
Atterberg defined the plastic limit as water content at which soil becomes in plastic state . Casagrande defined the plastic limit as
water at which a thread of soil just crumbles when it is carefully rolled out to a diameter of 3 mm(1/8”). It should break up into
segments about 3 – 10 mm (1/8 – 3/8 inch) long. If the thread crumbles at diameter smaller than 3 mm, the soil is too wet. If the
thread crumbles at diameter grater than 3 mm, the soil past the P.L
Shrinkage Limit
It defines as a water content at which no further volume change occurs with continuous loss of moisture.
Volume of soil
Vi
Vf
Porcelain dish
VI soil volume
44.4 mm dia. Vf soil volume
m1 soil mass
12.7 mmheight m2 soil mass
Oven dried
Before drying After drying
However
m1 m2
i (%) x100%
m2
also
(Vi V f )
(%) x w x100%
m2
S .L i
We can also estimate the magnitude of S.L using the plasticity chart, as we will described in lab.
2 1
- Flow index, F .I
log N 2 log N1 N2
log 1 for one cycle
N1
P .I
- Toughness index, T .I express the soil consistency in the plastic State.
F .I
L.L n L.L n
- Consistency index, C.I
L.L P.L P.I
n P.L
- Liquidity index, L.I
P.I
L.I < 0 --- the soil is in Brittle state
L.I (0 –1) – the soil is in plastic state
L.I >1 --- the soil is in viscous liquid state
Montmorillonite
Illite Plasticity increase
Kaolinite
4. Type of ions.
The type of absorbed ions will effect the plasticity characteristics such
as Na , Mg will give high plasticity while Ca will give low plasticity.
5. Content of organic matter.
As the organic matter content increase the plasticity characteristics
Increase.
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 58
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Activity
Skempton (1953) observed the following relationship. He defined a quantity called “Activity” which the slope of the line
correlating P.I & % finer than 2 m.
P.I
A
%ofclay sizefraction, byweight
P.I
Soil 1
A1 Soil 2
A2
This term used for identifying the swelling potential of clay soils and for certain classification properties.
A Soil classification
< 0.75 Non Active
0.75 – 1.25 Normally Active
1.25 – 2.0 Active
Example
The following data were obtained from the liquid & plastic limits tests for a soil with n = 15 %
a- Draw the flow curve & find the liquid limit. 44.00
Moisture Content %
b- Find the plasticity index of the soil
c- Find L.I, C.I, F.I, T.I
Solution
40.00
L.L = 39.5 %
36.00
10.00 100.00
No. of blows (N)
The soil is heavily preconsolidated, since n is smaller than P.L & lower than L.L.
Plasticity Chart
Casagrande (1932)
2. Interparticle forces which may act between the particles or minerals grains. They probably have two main causes :
Orientation of the adsorbed water and Cementation
The structures generally encountered in cohesionless soils can be divided into two major categories:-
1. Single – grained structure
2. Honeycombed structure
Single – grained structure
Soil
Voids
Loose Dense
A useful way to characterize the density of a natural granular soil is with relative density Dr as described before.
Honeycombed structure
In this structure, relatively fine sand and silt form small arches with chains of particles as shown in the figure below. Soils
exhibiting honeycombed structure have large void ratios and they can carry ordinary static load.
However, under heavy load or when subjected to shock loading, the structure breaks down, resulting in large settlement.
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 65
University of Anbar
College of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department
Iraq-Ramadi
Soil solid
Void
1. Dispersed structure
2. Flocculated structure
Thixotropy
Thixotropy is the ability of certain substances to liquefy when agitated and to return to a gel form when at rest. The term
thixotropy is derived from the Greek words thixis, meaning "the act of handling," and trope, meaning "change." Thixotropic
substances are colloidal gels when solid and sols when liquefied. Examples of thixotropic substances include catsup, some
hand creams, certain paints and printer's inks, and suspensions of clay in water. The reversibility and essentially isothermal
nature of the of the gel-sol-gel transformation distinguish thixotropic materials from those that liquefy upon heating--for
example gelatin.
Thixotropic systems are quite diverse. Therefore, it is unlikely that a single descriptive theory can include them all. However,
in general, the phenomenon is found only in colloidal suspensions.
Various mechanisms can cause thixotropic behavior. For a gel system, agitation disrupts the three-dimensional structure that
binds the system into a gel. Agitation might also introduce order into the system. In a system containing long polymeric
molecules, these molecules can be disordered in the gel. When the gel is agitated, the molecules can align in the direction of
flow, reducing the resistance to flow.
Some substances possess a property which is nearly the opposite of thixotropy. This property is called dilatancy. A dilatant
substance is one that develops increasing resistance to flow as the rate of shear increases. A household example of a dilatant
material is a thick dispersion of cornstarch in water. This appears to be a free-flowing liquid when poured, but when it is
stirred, it becomes very firm. Another familiar example of dilatancy is the phenomenon of wet sand appearing to dry and
become firm when it is walked on.
Asst. Prof. Khalid R. Mahmood (PhD.) 67