ALLOY STEEL

Steel is a metal alloy consisting mostly of iron, in addition to small amounts of carbon, depending
on the grade and quality of the steel. Alloy steel is any type of steel to which one or more
elements besides carbon have been intentionally added, to produce a desired physical property
or characteristic. Common elements that are added to make alloy steel are
molybdenum,manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium, and vanadium.

Alloy steel is often subdivided into two groups: high alloy steels and low alloy steels. The
difference between the two is defined somewhat arbitrarily. However, most agree that
any steel that is alloyed with more than eight percent of its weight being other elements
beside iron and carbon, is high alloy steel. Low alloy steels are slightly more common.
The physical properties of these steels are modified by the other elements, to give them
greater hardness, durability, corrosion resistance, or toughness as compared to carbon
steel. To achieve such properties, these alloys often require heat treatment.
If the carbon level in a low alloy steel is in the medium to high range, it can be difficult to
weld. If the carbon content is lowered to a range of 0.1% to 0.3%, and some of the
alloying elements are reduced, the steel can achieve a greater weldability and formability
while maintaining the strength that steel is known for. Such metals are classified as high
strength, low alloy steels.
Perhaps the most well-known alloy steel is stainless steel. This is a steel alloy with a
minimum of 10% chromium content. Stainless steel is more resistant to stains, corrosion,
and rust than ordinary steel. It was discovered in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield,
England, but the discovery was not announced to the world until 1915. Stainless steel is
commonly used in table cutlery, jewelry, watch bands, surgical instruments, as well as in
the aviation industry. Its familiar luster has also been appropriated for many famous
architectural designs, such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, and the pinnacle
of the Chrysler Building in New York City.
In all types of alloy steel, the alloying elements tend to either form carbides or
compounds, rather than simply being uniformly mixed in with the iron and carbon.
Nickel, aluminum, and silicon are examples of the elements that form compounds in the
steel. Tungstenand vanadium will form carbides, both of which increase the hardness and
stability of the finished product.

alloy steel - steel who characteristics are determined by the addition of other elements in
addition to carbon
steel - an alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon; widely used in construction;
mechanical properties can be varied over a wide range
chromium steel, stainless, stainless steel - steel containing chromium that makes it
resistant to corrosion
chrome-nickel steel, Elinvar - Elinvar is a trademark for a kind of steel used for watch
springs because its elasticity is constant over a wide range of temperatures
chrome-tungsten steel - a steel alloy made with chromium and tungsten
austenitic manganese steel, manganese steel - a steel with a relatively large component
(10-14%) of manganese; highly resistant to wear and shock
molybdenum steel - steel containing 10-15% molybdenum; properties are similar to
tungsten steel
nickel steel - an alloy steel containing nickel
tool steel - alloy steel that is suitable for making tools; is hard and tough and can retain a
cutting edge
tungsten steel, wolfram steel - a very hard heat-resistant steel containing tungsten
vanadium steel - steel alloyed with vanadium for greater strength and high-temperature
stability

Alloy steel is steel alloyed with a variety of elements in amounts of between 1 and 50%
by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two
groups:low alloy steels and high alloy steels. The differentiation between the two is
somewhat arbitrary; Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4%, while Degarmo, et
al., define it at 8%.[1][2] However, most commonly alloy steel refers to low alloy steel.
These steels have greater strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear resistance, hardenability,
ortoughness compared to carbon steel. However, they may require heat treatment to
achieve such properties. Common alloying elements
are molybdenum, manganese, nickel, chromium,vanadium, silicon and boron

Low alloy steel

Low alloy steels are usually used to achieve better hardenability, which in turn improves
its other mechanical properties. They are also used to increase corrosion resistance in
certain environmental conditions.[3]
With medium to high carbon levels, low alloy steel is difficult to weld. Lowering the
carbon content to the range of 0.10% to 0.30%, along with some reduction in alloying
elements, increases the weldability and formability of the steel while maintaining its
strength. Such a metal is classed as a high-strength low-alloy steel.
Some common low alloy steels are:
 D6AC
 300M
 256A
Material science
Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. As a guideline,
alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or
hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve special properties, such as
corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability.[2]
Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are added during the steelmaking process to remove
dissolved oxygen from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are added to
increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium, vanadium,
molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides. Nickel
and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist
embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the
shape of inclusions. Manganese sulfide, lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase
machinability.[5]
The alloying elements tend to either form compounds or carbides. Nickel is very soluble
in ferrite, therefore it forms compounds, usually Ni3Al. Aluminium dissolves in the ferrite
and forms the compounds Al2O3 and AlN. Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms
the compound SiO2•MxOy. Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds
MnS, MnO•SiO2, but will also form carbides in the form of (Fe,Mn)3C. Chromium forms
partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel, forming (Fe,Cr3)C, Cr7C3, and
Cr23C6. The type of carbide that chromium forms depends on the amount of carbon and
other types of alloying elements present. Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if
there is enough carbon and an absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e. titanium
& niobium), they form the carbides Mo2C and W2C, respectively. Vanadium, titanium,
and niobium are strong carbide forming elements, forming vanadium carbide, titanium
carbide, and niobium carbide, respectively.[6]
Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel.
Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as austenite
stabilizing elements. With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be
obtained at room temperature. Carbide forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature;
these elements are known as ferrite stabilizing elements.[7]
Principal effects of major alloying elements for steel[8]
Element Percentage Primary function
Aluminium 0.95–1.30 Alloying element in nitriding steels
Bismuth - Improves machinability
Boron 0.001–0.003 Powerful hardenability agent
0.5–2 Increases hardenability
Chromium
4–18 Corrosion resistance
Copper 0.1–0.4 Corrosion resistance
Lead - Improves machinability
0.25–0.40 Combines with sulfur to prevent brittleness
Manganese Increases hardenability by lowering transformation points
>1
and causing transformations to be sluggish
Molybdenum 0.2–5 Stable carbides; inhibits grain growth
2–5 Toughener
Nickel
12–20 Corrosion resistance
0.2–0.7 Increases strength
2 Spring steels
Silicon
Higher
Improves magnetic properties
percentages
Sulfur 0.08–0.15 Free-machining properties
Fixes carbon in inert particles; reduces martensitic hardness
Titanium -
in chromium steels
Tungsten - Hardness at high temperatures
Stable carbides; increases strength while retaining ductility;
Vanadium 0.15
promotes fine grain structure
Alloy and Stainless Steels
1. Introduction:
Plain carbon steels are relatively cheap, but have a number of Property limitations. These
include:
(i) Cannot be strengthened above about 690 MN/m2 without loss of ductility and impact
resistance.
(ii) Not very hardenable i.e. the depth of hardening is limited.
(iii) Low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
(iv) Must be quenched very rapidly to obtain a fully martensitic structure, leading to the
possibility of quench distortion and cracking.
(v) Have poor impact resistance at low temperatures.
Alloy steels containing a number of alloying elements have been developed to overcome
these deficiencies, albeit at extra cost.
Plain carbon steels contain only iron and carbon and less than 0.5% Mn and less than
0.5% Si.
Low carbon steels contain less than 0.25% carbon, medium carbon between 0.25% and
0.6% carbon.
High carbon steels between 0.6% to 1.4% carbon.
Small additions of other alloying elements give high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels
and some tool steels, while higher additions produce tool steels, heat resisting steels and
stainless steels.
The principal alloying elements used are: manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr),
molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), vanadium (V), cobalt (Co), silicon (Si), boron (B),
copper (Cu), aluminium (Al), titanium (Ti) and niobium (Nb).
2. General Effects of Alloying Elements:
1. Increase hardness in solid solution (in ferrite) without decreasing the ductility as much
as carbon does.
2. Reduce the critical cooling velocity (except Co) by making the transformation to the
equilibrium phase slower. Alloy steels may therefore be hardened by an oil or even air
quench, reducing the risk of cracking or distortion that can result from a rapid water
quench. Most elements also lower the Ms and Mf temperatures to below room
temperature, leading to some 'retained austenite' in the quenched structure.
Carbon content % Alloy content % Critical cooling velocity Deg C per sec
0.42 0.55 Mn 550
0.40 1.60 Mn 50
0.42 1.12 Ni 450
0.40 4.80 Ni 85
0.38 2.64 Cr 10
3. Either increase or decrease the a to y transition temperature. Elements are either ferrite
stabilising e.g. Cr (BCC), W (BCC), V (BCC), Mo (BCC), Al (FCC), Si (diamond cubic)
or austenite stabilising e.g. Ni (FCC), Mn (diamond cubic), Co (HCP/FCC>690K), Cu
(FCC) and also carbon.
4. Some form hard, stable carbides. E.g. Cr, W, V, Mo, Ti, Nb, and others such as Mn
help stabilise carbides. The carbides may be of the type Cr7C3, W2C, Mo2C and VC or
more complex like Fe4W2C etc.
5. Some cause graphitisation of iron carbide (cementite) e.g. silicon, Ni, Co, Al. For this
reason these elements are not added to high carbon steels unless counteracted by a strong
carbide former.
6.They confer the characteristic property of the alloying element on the steel. E.g.
chromium confers corrosion resistance when more than about 12% is added to a steel,
rendering it a stainless steel.
7. They affect the rate of grain growth at high temperature. Cr speeds up grain growth
rate, so it is important not to overheat high chromium steels as coarse grains can give
brittle properties. Elements like V, Ti, Nb, Al and Ni slow down grain growth rates and
so are used in case hardening steels.
8. They alter the eutectoid composition and temperature.
9. They improve mechanical properties such as tensile strength. Hardness is improved
due to carbides present. Strength increased by elements dissolved in ferrite and toughness
improved by finer grain structures. Walters devised approximate multiplication factors
for the effect on ferrite with a basic strength of 250 MN/m2
3. Types of Alloy Steels: Alloy steels are generally classified as low-alloy steels or high-
alloy steels. Low-alloy steels have similar microstructures and heat treatment
requirements to plain carbon steels and contain up to 3 or 4 % of alloying additions in
order to increase strength, toughness or hardenability. High-alloy steels have structures
and heat treatments that differ considerably from plain carbon steels. A surumary of a
few selected alloy steels is given below.
3.1 Low alloy constructional steels: As well as carbon, these contain additions of Mn,
Ni, Cr, Mo etc. Nickel strengthens ferrite in solution but also causes graphitisation of
carbides. For this reason it is usually accompanied by strong carbide stabilisers such as
chromium, which also strengthens ferrite and increases hardenability. The Ni is usually in
the majority, with maximum amounts 4.25% Ni and 1.25%Cr, often resulting in air
hardenable steels. Tempering in the range 250oC -4000C can result in 'temper brittleness',
but this can be minimised by additions of 0.3% Mo giving 'nickel-chrome-moly' steels,
used in axles, shafts, gears, con-rods etc. Some Mn can be substituted for more expensive
Ni. (See Table for more details).
3.2 Alloy tool and die steels: (B5970 and B54659). These acquire hardness and wear
resistance by incorporating carbides that are harder than cementite, while retaining
strength and some toughness. They also have high hardenability and the ability to resist
the tempering effects of use in hot working dies and from frictional heating in high speed
machining operations. Alloying additions include Cr, W, Mo and V, which are strong
carbide formers and also stabilise ferrite and martensite.
A typical composition is 18%W, 4%Cr, 1%V, 0.8%C. Quenching from high temperatures
(13000C) is necessary, in order to dissolve as much W and C in austenite, for maximum
hardness and heat resistance, followed by heating to 3000C - 4000C to transform any
retained austenite to martensite then to 5500C to relieve internal stresses and produce
carbide particles in a toughened martensite matrix. This martensite is then temper
resistant up to 7000C.
3.3 Stainless steels: The addition of more than about 12% Cr renders a steel 'stainless' or
corrosion resistant because of a passive layer of chromium oxide Cr2O3 on the surface.
Steels containing large amounts of Cr are ferritic, as Cr is a ferrite stabiliser. Stainless
steels can be classified into three main types.
3.3.1 Ferritic stainless steels: These contain 12% to 25% Cr and less than 0.1% carbon.
They are ferritic up to the melting point, i.e. austenite never forms, and therefore cannot
be quench hardened to give martensite. They can be work hardened but are oniy ductile
above the ductile- brittle transition temperature found in BCC metals. Prolonged
overheating can cause precipitation of an embrittling sigma phase.
3.3.2 Martensitic stainless steels: These contain 12% to 25% Cr and 0.1% to 1.5%C.
The higher carbon content restores the alpha to gamma transition temperature by making
the gamma loop larger. This means that the steel can be heated into the austenite region
and quenched to give a martensitic structure. Hardenability is generally high enough that
hardening can be achieved by air-cooling. Uses include knives, cutting tools, dies etc.
3.3.3: Austenitic stainless steels: These contain both Cr and Ni, and since Ni has a
greater effect on the a to 7 transition temperature this can be reduced to below room
temperature, and the austenitic FCC phase is retained. This gives a stainless non-
magnetic steel that, being FCC, is more ductile and can be worked to produce deep
shapes used in chemical plant, kitchenware and architectural work. Nickel assists the
ductility by resisting the grain growth promoted by Cr, although severe cold work can
produce martensite from the austenite. Fast cooling depresses the alpha to gamma
transition temperature, giving austenite for as low as 7% Ni, while fast heating raises it,
(thermal hysteresis).
A common alloy is 18% Cr, 8% Ni. Depending on the presence of other ferrite stabili
sing and austenite stabili sing elements and cooling rates, a variety of microstructures can
result. Schaeffler diagrams were introduced to help predict the structure around a weld in
stainless steel, but can be used to predict structure in an alloy subjected to similar thermal
treatment such as air cooling.
The welding of stainless steels can lead to the problem of 'weld decay' unless the steel is
'stabilised' by additions of about 1% Nb or Ti. In the heat affected zone (HAZ), where the
steel is subjected to temperatures in the range 550oC to 850oC, the carbon present can
react with the Cr to form chrome carbide Cr36C6 precipitates on the grain boundaries. This
depletes the chromium oxide Cr2O3 on the surface and in corrosive conditions the area
around the grain boundaries become anodic and corrodes. This problem can be alleviated
in one of three ways:
• (i) Resolutionise the precipitates by heating above 930oC and cool quickly
through the critical range 5500C to 850oC to allow insufficient time for the
transformation to the carbide to start.
• (ii) Only use very low carbon stainless steel (e.g. 304L, 316L), since the time to
transformation is much longer, or
• (iii) Use stabilised steels containing 1% to 2% Nb or Ti, both of which are
stronger carbide formers than Cr, thus leaving the Cr in solution and as Cr2O3 on
the surface.
3.4: Marageing Steels: These are iron-nickel alloys, a typical example being 18%Ni,
8%Co, 4%Mo and up to 0.8%Ti, with less than 0.05% carbon. Heat treatment involves
solution treatment at 8000C - 8500C followed by quenching of the austenite to give a BCC
martensitic structure. This is less brittle than the BCT martensite found in plain carbon
steels because of the low carbon. Ageing at 4500C - 5000C for 2 hours produces finely
dispersed precipitates of complex intermetallics such as TiNi3 resulting in tensile
strengths around 2000 MN/m2. Alter solutionising, they are soft enough to machine
cheaply, before ageing, which can compensate for higher materials cost. They are
relatively tough, with good corrosion resistance and good weldability since they do not
air harden so rapidly as some steels. Uses include aircraft undercarriage components,
dies, tools, engine parts etc.
3.5: Hadfields manganese steel: This is a high alloy steel that contains 12%-14% Mn
and 1% C. It is austenitic at all temperatures and therefore non-magnetic. It has a unique
property in that when the surface is abraded or deformed, it greatly increases surface
hardness while retaining a tough core. For this reason it is used in pneumatic drill bits,
excavator bucket teeth, rock crusher jaws, ball mill linlngs and railway points and
switches. Water quenched from 10500C to retain carbon in solution, the soft core has a
strength of 849 MN/m2, ductility of 40% and a Brinell hardness of 200, but after abrasion
this rises to 550 BHN. The reason for the rapid rise in surface hardening is uncertain,
though martensite formation or, more likely, work hardening have been proposed.
Alloy Steel
Steels that contain specified amounts of alloying elements -- other than carbon and the
commonly accepted amounts of manganese, copper, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus -- are
known as alloy steels. Alloying elements are added to change mechanical or physical
properties. A steel is considered to be an alloy when the maximum of the range given for
the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of these limits: 1.65% Mn, 0.60%
Si, or 0.60% Cu; or when a definite range or minimum amount of any of the following
elements is specified or required within the limits recognized for constructional alloy
steels: aluminum, chromium (to 3.99%), cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium or other element added to obtain an alloying
effect.
Technically, then, tool and stainless steels are alloy steels. In this chapter, however, the
term alloy steel is reserved for those steels that contain a modest amount of alloying
elements and that usually depend on thermal treatment to develop specific properties.
With proper heat treatment, for example, tensile strength of certain alloy steels can be
raised from about 55,000 psi to nearly 300,000 psi.
Subdivisions for most steels in this family include "through-hardenable" and
"carburizing" grades (plus several specialty grades such as nitriding steels). Through-
hardening grades -- which are heat treated by quenching and tempering -- are used when
maximum hardness and strength must extend deep within a part. Carburizing grades are
used where a tough core and relatively shallow, hard surface are needed. After a surface-
hardening treatment such as carburizing (or nitriding for nitriding alloys), these steels are
suitable for parts that must withstand wear as well as high stresses. Cast steels are
generally through hardened, not surface treated.
Carbon content and alloying elements influence the overall characteristics of both types
of alloy steels. Maximum attainable surface hardness depends primarily on carbon
content. Maximum hardness and strength in small sections increase as carbon content
increases, up to about 0.7%. However, carbon contents greater than 0.3% can increase the
possibility of cracking during quenching or welding. Alloying elements primarily
influence hardenability. They also influence other mechanical and fabrication properties
including toughness and machinability.
Lead additions (0.15 to 0.35%) substantially improve machinability of alloy steels by
high-speed tool steels. For machining with carbide tools, calcium-treated steels are
reported to double or triple tool life in addition to improving surface finish.
Few exact rules exist for selecting through-hardening or surface-hardening grades of
alloy steels. In most cases, critical parts are field tested to evaluate their performance.
Parts with large sections -- heavy forgings, for example -- are often made from alloy
steels that have been vacuum degassed. While in a molten state, these steels are exposed
to a vacuum which removes hydrogen and, to a lesser degree, oxygen and nitrogen.
Alloy steels are often specified when high strength is needed in moderate-to-large
sections. Whether tensile or yield strength is the basis of design, thermally treated alloy
steels generally offer high strength-to-weight ratios. For applications requiring maximum
ductility, alloys with low sulfur levels (<0.01%) can be supplied by producers using
ladle-refining techniques.
In general, wear resistance can be improved by increasing the hardness of an alloy, by
specifying an alloy with greater carbon content (without increasing hardness), or by both.
The surface of a flame-hardened, medium-carbon steel, for example, is likely to have
poorer wear resistance than the carbon-rich case of a carburized steel of equal hardness.
Exceptions are nitrided parts, which have better wear resistance than would be expected
from the carbon content alone.
For any combination of alloy steel and heat treatment, three factors tend to decrease
toughness: low service temperature, high loading rates, and stress concentrations or
residual stress. The general effects of these three conditions are qualitatively similar, so
low-temperature impact tests (to -50°F) are useful for many applications as toughness
indicators under various service conditions and temperatures.
Fully hardened-and-tempered, low-carbon (0.10 to 0.30% C) alloy steels have a good
combination of strength and toughness, both at room and low temperature. Care must be
taken in heat treatment of certain alloy-steel grades, however, because toughness may be
decreased substantially by temper brittleness -- a form of embrittlement developed by
slow cooling through the range of 900 to 600°F, or by holding or tempering in this range.
When liquid quenching is impractical (because of the danger of cracking or distortion, or
because of cost), various low-carbon nickel or nickel-molybdenum steels in the
normalized-and-tempered condition can be used for low-temperature service.
Wrought alloy steels (and carbon steels) are classified by a series of AISI and SAE
numbers that designate composition and alloy type. Letters, which are used in addition to
the four-digit designations, include the suffix "H," used for steel produced to specific
hardenability limits (which allows wider composition ranges for certain alloying
elements), and the prefix "E," which indicates a steel made by the basic electric-furnace
method. Other specifications, such as those issued by ASTM, specify minimum
properties for critical structural, pressure-vessel, and nuclear applications.
ASTM specifications classify cast alloy steels by relating the steel to the mechanical
properties and intended service condition. Chemical analysis is secondary. There are
ASTM specifications for general use such as A27 or A148 when mechanical properties
are critical. For low-temperature service, A352 or A757 is recommended when toughness
is important. For weldability, A216 is specified when fabrication is critical, and for
pressure service, A217 or A389 is recommended when a number of properties are
important. Still other ASTM alloy steels are available for special applications. Other
specifications such as SAE J435 are used for cast steels in automotive applications. A
summary of steel-casting specifications is available from the Steel Founders' Society of
America, Des Plaines, Ill.