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Study Notes on Set Theory for GATE

Set Theory is undoubtedly one of the easiest and highly scoring topics in GATE. Attaining
a certain degree of proficiency in this unit can immensely help you to boost your score
in GATE.

This is a unit in which maximum output can be achieved by putting in minimal efforts.

With a view to make your preparation more effective for GATE, we have brought
forward this post which will provide insights into all aspects associated with Set Theory.

Set Theory - Introduction

The concept of Sets was introduced by a German Mathematician named G. Cantor.

I. Set – Definition
A Set is referred to as an unordered collection of objects which are called the
members or elements of a set.

An element ‘p’ belonging to a set ‘A’ can be represented as:

p є A

II. Representation of a Set

There are 3 common methods used for representing a set:

a. Statement Form
b. Roaster or Tabular Form
c. Set Builder Notation

• Statement Form:

In this type of representation, well-defined description of the elements of
the set is provided.

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For Instance:

The set of all odd numbers less than 16

A set of all union territories of India

o Roaster or Tabular Form

In this type of representation, elements are listed within the braces {} and
are separated by commas.

For Instance:

o Let N be the set of odd numbers less than 12
Then, In Roaster Form, N will be represented as: N = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11}

o Let P be the set of all prime numbers less than 20
The, Roaster Form representation will be: P = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}


o Set Builder Notation
In this type of representation, the set is described by specifying a property
which the elements of the set have in common.

For Instance:

§ Let P be defined by the set {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}

It can be represented in Set Builder Form as
P = {x: x is a prime number less than 20}

III. Subset of a Set
A set P is referred to as a subset of another set Q if and only if every element of P is
also a part of set Q. Subset is denoted by the symbol ‘⊆‘.

P ⊆ Q denotes that P is a subset of Q

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IV. Cardinality of a Set

The Cardinality of a Set defines the number of elements present in the set.

Cardinality of a Set will be ∞ in case the set contains an infinite number of

elements.

V. Types of Sets

Sets can be classified into different types. This includes:

• Finite Set: It is a set containing definite or countable number of elements
• Infinite Set: It is a set containing an infinite number of elements
• Universal Set: It is referred to as a collection of all elements in a specific context
or application. It is denoted by ‘U’
• Null Set or Empty Set: It is a set containing no elements. It is denoted by ∅
• Equal Sets: Two sets are called as equal in case they both contain same
elements.
• Disjoint Sets: Two sets are said to be disjoint in case they have no element
in common

• Power Set:

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A Power Set of the set S is referred to as the set of all possible subsets of
n
the set S. Cardinality of a Power Set is 2 where n denotes the number of
elements in the set.
VI. Operations on Sets

A. Union of Sets

The Union of two sets, A and B is a set containing all the elements in either
A or B or both. Union is denoted by A ∪ B

This is a Venn diagram representing A υ B

For Instance:
Set A = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} Set B = {6,7, 8, 9}

A ∪ B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

B. Intersection of Sets

Intersection of two sets, A and B is a set containing elements common to
both A and B. Intersection of sets is denoted by A ∩ B.
Intersection of sets is represented by:

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For Instance:

Set A = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) Set B = {7, 9, 10, 11, 12}

A ∩ B = {7, 9}

C. Set Difference

Difference between two sets A and B is denoted by ‘A – B’.

A – B is a set containing all elements which are present in set A but not in
Set B.

Set Difference is represented by:

For Instance:

A = {6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20} B = {13, 20}

A – B = {6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17}

D. Complement of a Set

Complement of a set A is a set containing all elements except for set A.

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Complement of a set A is denoted by AC and is represented by U – A
Pictorially, complement is represented as

E. Cartesian Product
Cartesian product of two sets P and Q is denoted by P X Q

Cartesian product of two sets P and Q is the set of all ordered pairs (p, q)
where p belongs to set P and q belongs to set Q.

Introduction to Relations
I. Relation – Definition

A Relation R of two non-empty P and Q implies a subset of their Cartesian
product P x Q

II. Domain and Range of a Relation

Let R denotes a relation from set A to set B

a. Domain of a Relation
Domain of a Relation R refers to the set of all first components of the
ordered pairs belonging to R

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Therefore, Domain(R) = {p є A: (p, q) є R for some q є B}

Domain(R) = {p: (p, q) є R}

b. Range of a Relation

Range of a relation R refers to the set of all second components of the
ordered pairs belonging to R.

Therefore, Range(R) = {q є B: (p, q) є R for some p є A}
Range(R) = {q: (p, q) є R}


III. Types of Relations

A. Reflexive Relation

A relation R on Set A is said to be Reflexive if for every p є A,
(p, p) є R holds

B. Symmetric Relation

A relation R on set A is said to be Symmetric if (p, q) є R implies (q, p) є R

C. Transitive Relation

A relation R on set A is said to be Transitive if (p, q) є R and (q, r) є R
implies (p, r) є R.

D. Equivalence Relation

A relation R on set A is referred to as equivalence relation in case it is
Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive

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Introduction to Functions
I. Functions – Definition

A function or a mapping denoted by f: X→Y implies a relationship from elements
of one set X to elements of another set Y where X and Y are non-empty sets.
X is referred to as the Domain and Y is called the Co-domain of function ‘f’.

A function associates an input with an output.

II. Types of Functions

A. Injective/One-to-One Function

A function is said to be injective or one-to-one if

‘For every q in the co-domain B, there exists at most one p in the
domain’

The figure below illustrates an Injective Function

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B. Surjective/Onto Function

A function is said to be Surjective if

‘For every q in the co-domain B, there exists at least one p in the
domain’.

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C. Bijective Function (One-to-one)
A function is said to be Bijective if

‘For every q in the co-domain, there exists exactly one p in the

domain’.

The figure below illustrates a Bijective Function:

SOLVED EXAMPLES From GATE

Q1:

Compute the minimum number of ordered pairs of non-negative numbers which

must be chosen to ensure that the two pairs (p, q) and (s, t) in the chosen set such
that

“p ≡ s mod 3″ and “q ≡ t mod 5″

I. 4
II. 6
III. 16
IV. 24

Solution: Option (III) is correct

Explanation:

p ≡ s mod 3 (given)

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Therefore, p can be any one of the values: 0, 1, 2

q ≡ t mod 5 (given)

Therefore, q can be any one of the values: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4

Therefore, Ordered Pairs for (p, q) are

(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (0, 4), (1, 0), (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 0), (2, 1),
(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)

Therefore, Ordered Pair (p, q) has 15 combinations and ordered pair (s, t)
has 1 combination

Therefore, Total Combinations = 15 + 1 = 16

Q2:

For the set N of Natural numbers and a Binary operation defined as f: N x N → N,

an element z ∊ N is known as the identity for f in case the following condition
holds:

f(a, z) = a = f(z, a), for all a ∊ N

Among the following alternatives, which binary operations have an identity?

1. f(x, y) = x + y – 3

2. f(x, y) = max(x, y)

3. f(x, y) = xy

A. I and II only
B. II and III only

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C. I and III only
D. None of these

Solution: The correct option is (A)

Explanation:

1. f(x, y) = x+y-3

x= y+x-3
ð y=3

Therefore, the identity elements is 3

2. f(x, y) = max(x, y)

x=max(y, x)

=> y=1

Therefore, the identity elements is 1

3. f(x, y) = x ^ y is not same as f(y, x) = y ^ x

Therefore, no identity element

Q3.

Compute the number of onto functions (Surjective functions) from

Set P = {1, 2, 3, 4} to Set Q = {a, b, c}

A. 36
B. 64
C. 81
D. 72

Solution: The correct option is (A)

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Explanation:

A function f from P to Q is referred to as onto in case for all ‘q’ in Q there is an ‘p’
in P such that f(p) = q.

All elements in Q are used in Onto Functions.

Every Onto function sends two elements of {1, 2, 3, 4} to the same element of {a,
b, c}

There are 4C2 = 6 such pairs of elements

The pairs include {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {1, 4}, {2, 3}, {2, 4}, {3, 4}

For a given pair {i, j} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4},

3! onto functions are there such that f(i) = f(j).

Therefore, the total number of Onto functions = 6 * 6 = 36

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Q4.

Let P denote a set of elements. Compute the number of ordered pairs in the
largest and the smallest equivalence relations on P?

A. n and n
B. n2 and n
C. n2 and 0
D. n and 1

Solution: The correct option is (B)

Explanation:

Assume an example set P = {1, 2, 3}

Equivalence relations must be Reflexive, Symmetric and Transitive

Largest ordered set = p x p

{(1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3)} = 9 = n2

Smallest Ordered Set

{(1, 1) (2, 2) (3, 3)} = 3= n

We are sure that this post will definitely familiarize you with all concepts
associated with Set Theory and will surely prove effective in your preparation.